195

A
n
n
u
.

R
e
v
.

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
.

2
0
0
9
.
6
0
:
4
5
1
-
4
7
4
.

D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o

w
w
w
.
a
n
n
u
a
l
r
e
v
!
e
w
s
.
o
r
"

#
y

R
!
c
e

$
n
!
v
e
r
s
!
%
y

o
n

1
2
&
2
0
&
1
1
.

'
o
r

(
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
)ene*%s of +ra!n!n" and
Develo(en% for ,nd!v!duals
and +eas- .r"an!/a%!ons-
and 0oc!e%y
1eran A"u!n!s
1
and 2ur% 2ra!"er
2
1
+he )us!ness 0chool- $n!vers!%y of 3olorado Denver- Denver- 3olorado 40217-55646
ea!l: 1eran.A"u!n!s7ucdenve r.edu
2
De(ar%en% of Psycholo"y- 3olorado 0%a%e $n!vers!%y- 'or% 3oll!ns- 3olorado 40525-14766
ea!l: 2ur%.2ra!"er7colos%a%e.edu
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2009. 60:451874
+he Annual Review of Psychology !s onl!ne a%
(sych.annualrev!ews.or"
+h!s ar%!cle9s do!:
10.1146&annurev.(sych.60.110707.165505
3o(yr!"h% c 2009 #y Annual Rev!ews.
All r!"h%s reserved
0066-4504&09&0110-0451:20.00
Key Words
%ra!n!n" #ene*%s- %ra!n!n" des!"n- %ra!n!n" del!very- %ra!n!n" evalua%!on
Abstract
+h!s ar%!cle (rov!des a rev!ew of %he %ra!n!n" and develo(en% l!%era%ure
s!nce %he year 2000. ;e rev!ew %he l!%era%ure focus!n" on %he #ene*%s of
%ra!n!n" and develo(en% for !nd!v!duals and %eas- or"an!/a%!ons- and
soc!e%y. ;e ado(% a ul%!d!sc!(l!nary- ul%!level- and "lo#al
(ers(ec%!ve %o deons%ra%e %ha% %ra!n!n" and develo(en% ac%!v!%!es !n
wor< or"a- n!/a%!ons can (roduce !(or%an% #ene*%s for each of %hese
s%a<eholders. ;e also rev!ew %he l!%era%ure on needs assessen% and
(re%ra!n!n" s%a%es- %ra!n!n" des!"n and del!very- %ra!n!n" evalua%!on-
and %ransfer of %ra!n- !n" %o !den%!fy %he cond!%!ons under wh!ch %he
#ene*%s of %ra!n!n" and develo(en% are a=!!/ed. '!nally- we
!den%!fy research "a(s and offer d!rec%!ons for fu%ure research.
A
n
n
u
.

R
e
v
.

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
.

2
0
0
9
.
6
0
:
4
5
1
-
4
7
4
.

D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o

w
w
w
.
a
n
n
u
a
l
r
e
v
!
e
w
s
.
o
r
"

#
y

R
!
c
e

$
n
!
v
e
r
s
!
%
y

o
n

1
2
&
2
0
&
1
1
.

'
o
r

(
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
Training: %he
sys%ea%!c a((roach %o
affec%!n" !nd!v!duals9
<nowled"e- s<!lls- and
a%%!%udes !n order %o
!(rove !nd!v!dual-
%ea- and
or"an!/a%!onal
effec%!veness
Development:
sys%ea%!c effor%s
affec%!n" !nd!v!duals9
<nowled"e or s<!lls for
(ur(oses of (ersonal
"row%h or fu%ure >o#s
and&or roles
Contents
,?+R.D$3+,.? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
.r"an!/a%!on and .verv!ew . . . . . . . . 455
)@?@',+0 .' +RA,?,?A '.R
,?D,B,D$AC0 A?D +@AD0 . . . . 455
)ene*%s Rela%ed %o Eo#
Perforance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
.%her )ene*%s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
)@?@',+0 .' +RA,?,?A
'.R .RAA?,FA+,.?0 . . . . . . . . . 457
)ene*%s Rela%ed %o
.r"an!/a%!onal Perforance . . . . . 457
.%her )ene*%s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
)@?@',+0 .' +RA,?,?A
'.R 0.3,@+G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
1.; +. DAH,D,F@ +1@
)@?@',+0 .' +RA,?,?A . . . . . . 460
?eeds Assessen% and
Pre%ra!n!n" 0%a%es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
+ra!n!n" Des!"n and +ra!n!n"
Del!very . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
+ra!n!n" @valua%!on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
+ransfer of +ra!n!n" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
3.?3C$0,.?0 A?D
0$AA@0+,.?0 '.R
'$+$R@ R@0@AR31 . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
,(l!ca%!ons for Prac%!ce . . . . . . . . . . . 466
0u""es%!ons for 'u%ure Research . . . . 466
INTRODUCTION
As or"an!/a%!ons s%r!ve %o co(e%e !n %he
"lo#al econoy- d!fferen%!a%!on on %he #as!s
of %he s<!lls- <nowled"e- and o%!va%!on of
%he!r wor<force %a<es on !ncreas!n" !(or-
%ance. Accord!n" %o a recen% !ndus%ry re(or%
#y %he Aer!can 0oc!e%y for +ra!n!n" and De-
velo(en% IA0+DJ- $.0. or"an!/a%!ons alone
s(end ore %han :126 #!ll!on annually on
e(loyee %ra!n!n" and develo(en% IParad!se
2007J. K+ra!n!n"L refers %o a sys%ea%!c a(-
(roach %o learn!n" and develo(en% %o !(rove
!nd!v!dual- %ea- and or"an!/a%!onal effec%!ve-
ness IAolds%e!n M 'ord 2002J. Al%erna%!vely-
develo(en% refers %o ac%!v!%!es lead!n" %o %he
(oses of (ersonal "row%h. 1owever- !% !s of%en
d!f*cul% %o ascer%a!n whe%her a s(ec!*c research
s%udy addresses %ra!n!n"- develo(en%- or #o%h.
,n %he rea!nder of %h!s rev!ew- we use %he
%er K%ra!n!n"L %o refer %o #o%h %ra!n!n" and
devel- o(en% effor%s.
+he !(or%ance of and scholarly !n%eres%
!n %ra!n!n" !n wor< or"an!/a%!ons !s reNec%ed
#y %he re"ular (u#l!ca%!on of %ra!n!n" rev!ews
!n %he Annual Review of Psychology s!nce 1971
I3a(#ell 1971- Aolds%e!n 1940- ;e=ley 1944-
Ca%ha 1944- +annen#au M Gu<l 1992-
0alas
M 3annon-)owers 2001J. +he (resen% rev!ew
covers %he %ra!n!n" l!%era%ure s!nce Eanuary
2000. ;e (rov!de a rev!ew %ha% !s co(rehen-
s!ve %hou"h no% e=haus%!ve. Also- !n con%ras% %o
(rev!ously (u#l!shed Annual Review of Psychol-
ogy ar%!cles- we read!ly ac<nowled"e a% %he ou%-
se% %ha% we %a<e a (o!n% of v!ew %ha% %ra!n!n"
!n wor< or"an!/a%!ons (roduces clear #ene*%s
for !nd!v!duals and %eas- or"an!/a%!ons- and
soc!e%y. ;e #el!eve %ha% %ra!n!n" !n wor< or-
"an!/a%!ons !s an area of a((l!ed (sycholo"!cal
research %ha% !s (ar%!cularly well su!%ed for a<-
!n" a clear con%r!#u%!on %o %he enhanceen% of
huan well-#e!n" and (erforance !n or"an!-
/a%!onal and wor< se%%!n"s as well as !n soc!e%y
!n "eneral. +hus- !n %h!s rev!ew we *rs% descr!#e
%he #ene*%s of %ra!n!n" for var!ous s%a<eholders
and %hen d!scuss how %ra!n!n" can #e des!"ned-
del!vered- and evalua%ed so %ha% %hese #ene*%s
are a=!!/ed.
;e ac<nowled"e %hree un!Oue charac%er!s-
%!cs of %he (resen% rev!ew %ha% also d!fferen%!a%e
!% fro (rev!ous Annual Review of Psychology ar%!-
cles on %he sae %o(!c. '!rs%- #ecause %he %ra!n-
!n" *eld has "rown e=(onen%!ally !n %he (as%
decade- we canno% rely on %he (sycholo"!cal l!%-
era%ure %o #e %he only or even a!n source of
<nowled"e %ha% has #een "enera%ed. ,n (re(ar-
!n" %o wr!%e %h!s ar%!cle- we rev!ewed a#ou%
600 ar%!cles- #oo<s- and cha(%ers (u#l!shed
!n (sycholo"y as well as !n rela%ed *elds !n-
clud!n" huan resource ana"een%- !ns%ruc-
%!onal des!"n- huan resource develo(en%-
huan fac%ors- and <nowled"e ana"een%.
;e #el!eve %h!s ul%!d!sc!(l!nary a((roach !s
acOu!s!%!on of new <nowled"e or s<!lls for (ur- needed "!ven %he !ncreas!n" fra"en%a%!on of
ww w .annual reviews.org Benefits of Training and Develo!ent
19"
A
n
n
u
.

R
e
v
.

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
.

2
0
0
9
.
6
0
:
4
5
1
-
4
7
4
.

D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o

w
w
w
.
a
n
n
u
a
l
r
e
v
!
e
w
s
.
o
r
"

#
y

R
!
c
e

$
n
!
v
e
r
s
!
%
y

o
n

1
2
&
2
0
&
1
1
.

'
o
r

(
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
<nowled"e "enera%ed #y researchers !n var!ous
%ra!n!n" su#*elds. 0econd- al%hou"h (sychol-
o"y research on %ra!n!n" has #een a %o(!c %rad!-
%!onally s%ud!ed a% %he !nd!v!dual level of
analys!s and ore recen%ly a% %he %ea level of
analys!s- %h!s rev!ew also !ncludes or"an!/a%!on
and soc!- e%y levels of analys!s. +he (resen%
ar%!cle "oes #eyond %he %rad!%!onal levels of
analys!s #ecause- as no%ed #y 2aufan M
Auerra I2001J- Kwe have en%ered a new era !n
wh!ch #o%h ach!ev- !n" useful resul%s and
(rov!n" %ha% %hey add value %o %he
or"an!/a%!on and our shared soc!- e%y are
reOu!redL I(. 519J. +h!rd- %han<s !n (ar% %o %he
ava!la#!l!%y of chea(er and fas%er ways %o send
and rece!ve !nfora%!on us!n" %he ,n- %erne%-
huan resource ana"een% !n%erven-
+he second sec%!on rev!ews research ad-
dress!n" how %o a=!!/e %he #ene*%s of %ra!n-
!n" ac%!v!%!es a% %he !nd!v!dual and %ea- or"a-
n!/a%!onal- and soc!e%al levels. '!rs%- we focus
on %he ac%!v!%!es %ha% %a<e (lace #efore %ra!n-
!n" !s !(leen%edPneeds assessen% and (re-
%ra!n!n" s%a%es. +hen- we focus on %ra!n!n" de-
s!"n and del!very- followed #y a d!scuss!on of
%ra!n!n" evalua%!on. ;e rev!ew research re"ard-
!n" %ransfer of s<!lls and <nowled"e acOu!red !n
%ra!n!n" %o wor< se%%!n"s. ,n %he %h!rd and *-
nal sec%!on- we address conclus!ons- !nclud!n"
!(l!ca%!ons for (rac%!ce- and su""es%!ons for
fu%ure research.
Hman capital: %he
collec%!ve se% of
(erforance-relevan%
<nowled"e- s<!lls- and
a%%!%udes w!%h!n a
wor<force Ia% an
or"an!/a%!onal or
soc!e%al levelJ
Training evalation:
%he sys%ea%!c
!nves%!"a%!on of
whe%her a %ra!n!n"
(ro"ra resul%ed !n
<nowled"e- s<!lls- or
affec%!ve chan"es !n
learners
%!ons and %ra!n!n" effor%s !n (ar%!cular are %a<!n"
(lace a% a "lo#al level I3asc!o M A"u!n!s 2004J.
+hus- a rev!ew of %he %ra!n!n" l!%era%ure canno%
l!!% !%self %o research conduc%ed only !n %he
$n!%ed 0%a%es. Accord!n"ly- %h!s rev!ew !ncludes
nuerous s%ud!es conduc%ed ou%s!de of ?or%h
Aer!ca. ,n shor%- we a((roached our l!%era%ure
rev!ew fro a fundaen%ally necessary ul%!-
d!sc!(l!nary- ul%!level- and "lo#al (ers(ec%!ve.
Organi!ation and Overvie"
+he (resen% rev!ew !s or"an!/ed as follows. ,n
%he *rs% sec%!on- we descr!#e #ene*%s of %ra!n-
!n" ac%!v!%!es. '!rs%- we focus on #ene*%s for !n-
d!v!duals and %eas- se(ara%!n" %hese #ene*%s
!n%o >o# (erforance and fac%ors rela%ed %o >o#
(erforance Ie.".- %ac!% s<!lls- !nnova%!on- co-
un!ca%!onJ- and o%her #ene*%s Ie.".- e(ow-
eren%- self-ef*cacyJ. 0econd- we descr!#e #en-
e*%s for or"an!/a%!ons. ;e also se(ara%e %hese
#ene*%s !n%o or"an!/a%!onal (erforance- fac-
%ors rela%ed %o or"an!/a%!onal (erforance Ie.".-
effec%!veness- (ro*%a#!l!%y- salesJ- and o%her
#ene*%s Ie.".- e(loyee and cus%oer sa%!s-
fac%!on- !(roved or"an!/a%!onal re(u%a%!onJ.
+h!rd- we descr!#e #ene*%s for soc!e%y. .verall-
a rev!ew of %h!s #ody of l!%era%ure leads %o %he
conclus!on %ha% %ra!n!n" ac%!v!%!es (rov!de #en-
e*%s for !nd!v!duals- %eas- and or"an!/a%!ons
%ha% !(rove a na%!on9s huan ca(!%al- wh!ch !n
%urn con%r!#u%es %o a na%!on9s econo!c "row%h.
#$N$%IT& O% TRAININ' %OR
INDI(IDUA)& AND T$A*&
+here !s docuen%ed ev!dence %ha% %ra!n!n" ac-
%!v!%!es have a (os!%!ve !(ac% on %he (erfor-
ance of !nd!v!duals and %eas. +ra!n!n" ac-
%!v!%!es can also #e #ene*c!al re"ard!n" o%her
ou%coes a% #o%h %he !nd!v!dual and %ea level
Ie.".- a%%!%udes- o%!va%!on- and e(oweren%J.
;e *rs% rev!ew (erforance-rela%ed #ene*%s.
#ene+its Related to ,ob -er+ormance
+ra!n!n"-rela%ed chan"es should resul% !n !-
(roved >o# (erforance and o%her (os!%!ve
chan"es Ie.".- acOu!s!%!on of new s<!lls6 1!ll
M Cen% 2006- 0a%%er*eld M 1u"hes 2007J
%ha% serve as an%eceden%s of >o# (erforance
I2ra!"er 2002J. Reassur!n"ly- Ar%hur e% al.
I2005J conduc%ed a e%a-analys!s of 1152 ef-
fec% s!/es fro 165 sources and ascer%a!ned %ha%
!n co(ar!son w!%h no-%ra!n!n" or (re%ra!n!n"
s%a%es- %ra!n!n" had an overall (os!%!ve effec% on
>o#-rela%ed #ehav!ors or (erforance Iean ef-
fec% s!/e or d Q 0.62J. 1owever- al%hou"h d!f-
ferences !n %ers of effec% s!/es were no% lar"e-
%he effec%!veness of %ra!n!n" var!ed de(end!n"
on %he %ra!n!n" del!very e%hod and %he s<!ll
or %as< #e!n" %ra!ned. 'or e=a(le- %he os%
effec%!ve %ra!n!n" (ro"ras were %hose !nclud-
!n" #o%h co"n!%!ve and !n%er(ersonal s<!lls- fol-
lowed #y %hose !nclud!n" (sychoo%or s<!lls or
%as<s. ?e=%- we descr!#e s%ud!es %o e=e(l!fy-
A
n
n
u
.

R
e
v
.

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
.

2
0
0
9
.
6
0
:
4
5
1
-
4
7
4
.

D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o

w
w
w
.
a
n
n
u
a
l
r
e
v
!
e
w
s
.
o
r
"

#
y

R
!
c
e

$
n
!
v
e
r
s
!
%
y

o
n

1
2
&
2
0
&
1
1
.

'
o
r

(
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
as well as "o #eyond- %he "eneral *nd!n"s re-
(or%ed #y Ar%hur e% al. I2005J. ;e e(has!/e
%ha% resul%s fro e%a-analy%!c rev!ews should
"enerally #e "!ven ore we!"h% %han !nd!v!d-
ual I!.e.- (r!ary-levelJ s%ud!es #ecause %hey are
ore rel!a#le IA"u!n!s e% al. 2004J.
+ra!n!n" effec%s on (erforance ay #e
su#%le I%hou"h easura#leJ. ,n a Oual!%a%!ve
s%udy !nvolv!n" echan!cs !n ?or%hern ,nd!a-
)ar#er I2004J found %ha% on-%he->o# %ra!n!n"
led %o "rea%er !nnova%!on and %ac!% s<!lls. +ac!%
s<!lls are #ehav!ors acOu!red %hrou"h !nforal
learn!n" %ha% are useful for effec%!ve (erfor-
ance. Re"ard!n" !nnova%!on- %ra!ned echan-
!cs learned %o #u!ld %wo Eee( #od!es us!n" only
a hoeade haer- ch!sel- and o=yace%ylene
welder. Re"ard!n" %ac!% s<!lls- )ar#er no%ed %ha%
%he >o# of a echan!c reOu!res KfeelL %o #e suc-
cessful. 0(ec!*cally- %ra!ned echan!cs devel-
o(ed an !n%u!%!ve feel when reov!n" den%sPa
co(le= (rocess (ar%!cularly when %he fender !s
#adly cru(led. As a resul% of !nforal
%ra!n!n"- one of %he echan!cs had a K"ood
feel!n" of how %o h!% %he e%al a% %he e=ac% s(o%
so %he wor< (ro- "resses !n a sys%ea%!c
fash!onL I)ar#er 2004- (. 154J. +h!s %y(e of
%ac!% s<!ll was (ar%!cularly useful !n %he ,nd!an
con%e=% #ecause- al%hou"h os% sho(s !n
develo(ed na%!ons would no% even a%%e(% %o
re(a!r a fender %ha% was daa"ed so #adly- %h!s
%y(e of re(a!r !s coon (rac%!ce !n %he
develo(!n" world I)ar#er 2004J.
)ene*%s of %ra!n!n" are also docuen%ed for
%echn!cal s<!lls. 'or e=a(le- Dav!s M G!
I2004J conduc%ed %wo e=(er!en%s w!%h nearly
500 (ar%!c!(an%s us!n" #ehav!or-odel!n"
%ra!n!n" and were a#le %o !(rove co(u%er
s<!lls su#- s%an%!ally. Al%hou"h #ehav!or-
odel!n" %ra!n- !n" has a r!ch h!s%ory of
success Ie.".- Dec<er M ?a%han 1945-
Ro#er%son 1990J- a un!Oue as(ec% of %h!s
research was %ha% %ra!n!n" was found %o affec%
chan"es !n wor<er s<!lls %hrou"h a chan"e !n
%ra!nees9 <nowled"e s%ruc%ures or en%al
odels Isee also Dar<s e% al. 2002 for an e=-
a!na%!on of en%al odels a% %he %ea levelJ.
0(ec!*cally- en%ally rehears!n" %as<s allowed
%ra!nees %o !ncrease declara%!ve <nowled"e and
%as< (erforance- each easured 10 days af-
%er %he %ra!n!n" was co(le%ed.
Dore recen%ly-
+aylor e% al. I2005J conduc%ed a e%a-analys!s !nclud!n"
117 #ehav!or-odel!n" %ra!n!n" s%ud!es. +hey ascer%a!ned
%ha% %he lar"es% ef- fec%s were for declara%!ve and (rocedural
<nowl- ed"e Ids around 1.0 resul%!n" fro co(ar!n"
%ra!n!n" versus a no-%ra!n!n" or (re%es% con- d!%!onJ.
Declara%!ve <nowled"e !s <nowled"e a#ou% Kwha%L Ie.".-
fac%s- ean!n" of %ersJ- whereas (rocedural <nowled"e
!s <nowled"e a#ou% KhowL I!.e.- how %o (erfor s<!lled
#ehav- !orJ Isee A"u!n!s 2009- 2ra!"er e% al. 1995J. +he
overall ean effec% on chan"es !n >o# #ehav!or was d Q 0.27.
1owever- +aylor e% al. I2005J re- (or%ed su#s%an%!al
var!ance !n %he d!s%r!#u%!on of effec% s!/es- !nd!ca%!n" %he
need %o !nves- %!"a%e odera%ors of %he rela%!onsh!(
#e%ween #ehav!or-odel!n" %ra!n!n" and ou%coes. ;e
address %he !ssue of odera%ors #elow !n %he 0u""es%!ons
for 'u%ure Research sec%!on.
+ra!n!n" no% only ay affec% declara%!ve <nowled"e or
(rocedural <nowled"e- #u% also ay enhance s%ra%e"!c
<nowled"e- de*ned as <now!n" when %o a((ly a s(ec!*c
<nowled"e or s<!ll I2o/lows<! e% al. 2001- 2ra!"er e% al.
1995J. 0!%h e% al. I1997J refer %o %h!s as %ra!n!n" for
ada(%!ve e=(er%!se Isee also 'ord
M 0ch!d% 2000J. ,n add!%!on- %ra!n!n" ay ena#le
cons!s%ency !n (erforance across cond!%!ons. 'or e=a(le-
Dr!s<ell e% al. I2001J conduc%ed a s%udy !nclud!n" 79 $.0.
?avy %echn!cal school %ra!nees who (erfored a co(u%er-
#ased %as<. +ra!nees (ar%!c!(a%ed !n a s%ress-e=(osure
%ra!n!n" sess!on. +h!s %ra!n!n" e=(oses %ra!nees %o
!nfora%!on re"ard!n" s%ressors Ie.".- no!se- %!e ur"encyJ-
%o %he s%ressors- and how %hese s%ressors are l!<ely %o
affec% (erforance. Resul%s showed %ha% %ra!n!n" was
#ene*c!al !n %ha% %ra!nees (er- fored well under a novel
s%ressor and when (erfor!n" a novel %as<. +hus- s%ress
%ra!n!n" hel(s a!n%a!n (erforance cons!s%ency.
Perforance cons!s%ency ay also resul% fro enhanc!n"
%ra!nees9 self-ef*cacy or self- ana"een% s<!lls. 'rayne M
Aer!n"er I2000J conduc%ed a *eld e=(er!en% !n wh!ch
%hey ad!n!s%ered self-ana"een% %ra!n!n" Ilec- %ures-
"rou( d!scuss!ons- and case s%ud!esJ %o
50 sales(eo(le !n %he l!fe !nsurance !ndus%ry.
A
n
n
u
.

R
e
v
.

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
.

2
0
0
9
.
6
0
:
4
5
1
-
4
7
4
.

D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o

w
w
w
.
a
n
n
u
a
l
r
e
v
!
e
w
s
.
o
r
"

#
y

R
!
c
e

$
n
!
v
e
r
s
!
%
y

o
n

1
2
&
2
0
&
1
1
.

'
o
r

(
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
Resul%s showed %ha% sales(eo(le who (ar%!c!-
(a%ed !n %he %ra!n!n" (ro"ra deons%ra%ed
h!"her self-ef*cacy- ou%coe e=(ec%ancy Ie.".-
K, w!ll !ncrease y sense of acco(l!shen%LJ-
and o#>ec%!ve ou%coes Ie.".- nu#er of new
(ol!c!es soldJ as well as su#>ec%!ve >o# (erfor-
ance I!.e.- sales ana"ers9 ra%!n"s of each
sales(erson9s (erforanceJ. +ra!n!n"-rela%ed
(erforance !(roveen% was sus%a!ned over
a 12-on%h (er!od af%er %ra!n!n" ended.
+here are also docuen%ed #ene*%s of
%ra!n- !n" for ana"ers and leaders. 3oll!ns M
1ol%on I2004J conduc%ed a e%a-analys!s of
%he #ene- *%s of ana"er!al leadersh!(
develo(en% (ro- "ras !nclud!n" 45 s%ud!es
(u#l!shed #e%ween
1942 and 2001 Isee also 3ullen M +urn#ull
2005J. +hey found %ha% ean ds Ico(ar!n"
%ra!n!n" w!%h no %ra!n!n"J ran"ed fro 0.96
%o 1.57 for <nowled"e ou%coes and fro
0.55 %o 1.01 for e=(er%!se&#ehav!oral ou%coes.
2nowled"e was de*ned as (r!nc!(les- fac%s- a%-
%!%udes- and s<!lls easured us!n" #o%h su#>ec-
%!ve Ie.".- self-re(or%sJ and o#>ec%!ve Ie.".- s%an-
dard!/ed %es%sJ easures. @=(er%!se&#ehav!oral
ou%coes were de*ned as chan"es !n on-%he-
>o# #ehav!or and were also assessed us!n" #o%h
su#>ec%!ve Ie.".- (eer ra%!n"sJ and o#>ec%!ve Ie.".-
#ehav!oralJ easures.
A *nal !llus%ra%!on of %ra!n!n" #ene*%s re-
la%ed %o (erforance !s cross-cul%ural %ra!n!n"-
!n wh!ch e(loyees are %ra!ned %o (erfor %he!r
>o#s !n a d!fferen% cul%ure and&or ad>us% (sy-
cholo"!cally %o l!v!n" !n %ha% cul%ure I)hawu<
M )r!sl!n 2000- C!evens e% al. 2005J. Dorr!s M
Ro#!e I2001J conduc%ed a e%a-analys!s of %he
effec%s of cross-cul%ural %ra!n!n" on e=(a%r!a%e
(erforance and ad>us%en%. +he!r e%a-
analys!s !ncluded 16 s%ud!es %ha% !nves%!"a%ed
ad>us%en% and 25 s%ud!es %ha% !nves%!"a%ed >o#
(erforance as %he focal de(enden% var!a#le.
+he ean correla%!on for %he rela%!onsh!(
#e%ween %ra!n!n" and ad>us%en% was 0.12 I
#
0.05J- and %he correla%!on for %he rela%!onsh!(
#e%ween %ra!n!n" and (erforance was 0.25
I # 0.05J. 1owever- %here was su#s%an%!al
var!a#!l!%y !n %he d!s%r!#u%!on of effec% s!/es-
su""es%!n" %ha% (o%en%!al odera%ors e=!s%ed
Ia"a!n- we d!scuss %he !ssue of odera%ors
!n
%he 0u""es%!ons for
'u%ure Research
sec%!onJ. Dore
recen%ly- C!%%rell e%
al. I2006J conduc%ed
a Oual!%a%!ve rev!ew
of 25 years I19408
2005J of research
address!n" %he
effec%!veness of
cross-cul%ural
%ra!n!n" !n (re(ar!n"
ana"ers for an
!n%erna%!onal
ass!"nen%. C!%%rell
e% al. I2006J
e=a!ned 29 (r!or
conce(%ual rev!ews
and 16 e(!r!cal
s%ud!es. .verall-
%hey con- cluded
%ha% cross-cul%ural
%ra!n!n" !s effec%!ve
a% enhanc!n" %he
e=(a%r!a%e9s success
on overseas
ass!"nen%s. +hey
also !den%!*ed any
var!- a#les %ha%
odera%e %he
effec%s of %ra!n!n"
on e=(a%r!a%e
(erforance-
!nclud!n" %he
%!!n" of %he
%ra!n!n" Ie.".-
(rede(ar%ure- wh!le
on ass!"nen%- and
(os%ass!"nen%J-
fa!ly !ssues Ie.".-
s(ouse9s
ad>us%en%J-
a%%r!#u%es of %he >o#
Ie.".- >o#
d!scre%!onJ- and
cul%ural d!fferences
#e%ween %he hoe
coun%ry and %he
ass!"nen% coun%ry.
Ot.er #ene+its
.%her research deons%ra%es %he !(ac% of
%ra!n!n" on ou%coes o%her %han >o# (erfor-
ance or on var!a#les %ha% serve as an%eceden%s
%o >o# (erforance. 1owever- we e(has!/e
%ha% %hese add!%!onal #ene*%s of %ra!n!n" are
no% necessar!ly unrela%ed %o >o# (erforance.
,n fac%- !n any cases %hey are !nd!rec%ly re-
la%ed %o (erforance and- !n o%hers- %hey ay #e
rela%ed %o !nd!v!dual and %ea well-#e!n"- var!-
a#les ar"ua#ly also !nd!rec%ly rela%ed %o >o# (er-
forance. 'or e=a(le- %here !s a renewed !n-
%eres% !n leadersh!( %ra!n!n" I3oll!ns M 1ol%on
2004- Day 2000J. Dv!r e% al. I2002J !(le-
en%ed a lon"!%ud!nal rando!/ed *eld e=-
(er!en%- us!n" cade%s !n %he ,srael Defense
'orces- !n wh!ch e=(er!en%al "rou( leaders
rece!ved %ransfora%!onal leadersh!( %ra!n!n".
+ransfora%!onal leaders e=h!#!% char!sa%!c
#ehav!ors- are a#le %o o%!va%e and (rov!de
!n%ellec%ual s%!ula%!on aon" followers- and
%rea% followers w!%h !nd!v!dual cons!dera%!on.
Resul%s showed %ha% %ransfora%!onal leader-
sh!( %ra!n!n" enhanced followers9 o%!va%!on
I!.e.- self-ac%ual!/a%!on needs and w!ll!n"ness %o
e=er% e=%ra effor%J- oral!%y I!.e.- !n%erna%!onal-
!/a%!on of %he!r or"an!/a%!on9s oral valuesJ- and
Cross/cltral training: %ra!n!n" conduc%ed for
!(rov!n" !nd!v!dual effec%!veness and&or
ad>us%en% wh!le on ass!"nen% !n a new cul%ure
A
n
n
u
.

R
e
v
.

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
.

2
0
0
9
.
6
0
:
4
5
1
-
4
7
4
.

D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o

w
w
w
.
a
n
n
u
a
l
r
e
v
!
e
w
s
.
o
r
"

#
y

R
!
c
e

$
n
!
v
e
r
s
!
%
y

o
n

1
2
&
2
0
&
1
1
.

'
o
r

(
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
e(oweren% I!.e.- cr!%!cal-!nde(enden% a(-
(roach- ac%!ve en"a"een% !n %he %as<- and s(e-
c!*c self-ef*cacyJ. +owler I2005J (rov!ded 41
#us!ness s%uden%s w!%h IaJ no %ra!n!n"- I$J (re-
sen%a%!on s<!lls %ra!n!n"- or IcJ char!sa%!c !n-
Nuence %ra!n!n". 3har!sa%!c !nNuence %ra!n-
!n" !ncluded ar%!cula%!n" a v!s!on- a((eal!n"
%o followers9 values- and us!n" au%o#!o"ra(hy-
e%a(hors- analo"!es- s%or!es- and self-ef*cacy
lan"ua"e. A sa(le of 102 under"radua%es fro
a d!fferen% un!vers!%y wa%ched v!deo%a(ed (re-
sen%a%!ons #y %he 41 #us!ness s%uden%s. 0!!lar
%o resul%s of Dv!r e% al. I2002J- +owler I2005J
found soe ev!dence !n su((or% of %he effec-
%!veness of char!sa%!c !nNuence %ra!n!n" on %he
(erforance and a%%!%udes of %he (ar%!c!(an%s
who wa%ched %he v!deo%a(es.
Ano%her area %ha% has rece!ved cons!s%en% a%-
%en%!on !s av!a%!on huan fac%ors %ra!n!n". +h!s
!s an !(or%an% area of research #ecause hu-
an error has #een cons!s%en%ly !den%!*ed as
one of %he a!n causes of a!r crashes s!nce %he
la%e 1970s I@d<!ns 2002J. @d<!ns I2002J con-
duc%ed a Oual!%a%!ve rev!ew of %he av!a%!on hu-
an fac%or %ra!n!n" l!%era%ure and concluded
%ha% ou%coes of safe%y and %ea-#ased %ra!n-
!n" (ro"ras !nclude IaJ safe%y-rela%ed #ene-
*%s- !nclud!n" a reduc%!on !n los% %!e rela%ed %o
!n>ur!es- and I$J %eawor<-rela%ed #ene*%s !n-
clud!n" !(roved %ea (erforance. )ecause
safe%y-rela%ed errors !n *elds such as av!a%!on
and ed!cal care are of%en %he resul% of %ea co-
ord!na%!on !ssues Ie.".- Dorey e% al. 2002- 0alas
e% al. 2001J- %ea %ra!n!n" eer"es as an !(or-
%an% !n%erven%!on. @ll!s e% al. I2005J conduc%ed
an e=(er!en% !nclud!n" 65 four-(erson %eas.
,nd!v!duals (ar%!c!(a%ed !n a dyna!c coand
and con%rol s!ula%!on !n wh!ch (ar%!c!(an%s
on!%or ac%!v!%y !n a s(ec!*c "eo"ra(h!c re-
"!on and defend !% a"a!ns% !nvas!on #y "round
or a!r. +ra!n!n" !(roved declara%!ve <nowl-
ed"e w!%h!n %he %ea and- !n co(ar!son w!%h
un%ra!ned %eas- %ra!ned %eas deons%ra%ed
#e%%er (lann!n" and %as< coord!na%!on- colla#o-
ra%!ve (ro#le solv!n"- and coun!ca%!on !n
novel %ea and %as< env!ronen%s.
+he os% coon %ra!n!n" !n%erven%!on
for !(rov!n" %ea coun!ca%!on and %ea
effec%!veness !s crew resource ana"een%
I3RDJ %ra!n!n". +he overall "oal of 3RD
%ra!n!n" !s %o sha(e coc<(!% crew a%%!%udes and
#ehav!or %o enhance av!a%!on safe%y. +h!s %y(e
of %ra!n!n" !s usually conduc%ed us!n" so(h!s%!-
ca%ed N!"h% s!ula%ors- and !% addresses co-
un!ca%!on- %eawor<- dec!s!on-a<!n"- and
awareness w!%h res(ec% %o acc!den%s and !n-
c!den%s and %he role (layed #y huan error.
Aoe%ers I2002J del!vered 3RD %ra!n!n" %o a!r-
crews fro an eas%ern @uro(ean a!rl!ne. Af%er
(ar%!c!(a%!n" !n %ra!n!n"- a!rcrews su#s%an%!ally
!(roved non%echn!cal s<!lls Ie.".- %ea #u!ld-
!n"J as well as s!%ua%!on awareness and
dec!s!on- a<!n"- each of wh!ch con%r!#u%e %o
a!r safe%y. +here are %wo Oual!%a%!ve l!%era%ure
rev!ews of s%ud!es address!n" 3RD %ra!n!n":
.93onnor e% al. I2002J rev!ewed 44 s%ud!es- and
0alas e% al. I2001J rev!ewed 54 s%ud!es. A!ven
%ha% %hey !n- cluded overla((!n" se%s of
(r!ary s%ud!es- !% !s no% sur(r!s!n" %ha% %he
conclus!ons of %hese l!%era%ure rev!ews
conver"ed and de%er!ned %ha% os% s%ud!es
focused on %he #ene*%s re- "ard!n" a%%!%udes
and <nowled"e a% %he !nd!- v!dual and %ea
levels of analys!s. Docuen%ed #ene*%s !nclude
(os!%!ve reac%!ons %o %ra!n!n"- <nowled"e of
%eawor< (r!nc!(les- and a!rcrew
coun!ca%!on and (erforance. A ore re-
cen% Oual!%a%!ve rev!ew #y 0alas e% al. I2006J
e=a!ned 24 s%ud!es (u#l!shed s!nce %he 0alas
e% al. I2001J rev!ew and !ncluded 3RD s%ud!es
no% only !n coc<(!%s #u% also !n o%her con%e=%s
such as a!rcraf% a!n%enance and heal%h care.
0alas e% al. I2006J re(or%ed (os!%!ve effec%s of
3RD %ra!n!n" on %ra!nee reac%!ons- #u% resul%s
were !=ed !n %ers of %ra!nee learn!n" and on-
%he->o# #ehav!ors. 'or e=a(le- Eaco#sen e% al.
I2001J found %ha% %ra!nees had h!"h s!%ua%!onal
awareness and coun!ca%ed freOuen%ly6 how-
ever- %ra!nees had d!f*cul%!es d!a"nos!n" ed!-
cal (ro#les- and no %ea e#er assued %he
lead or dele"a%ed %as<s. ,n "eneral- 3RD %ra!n-
!n" was ore effec%!ve !n av!a%!on se%%!n"s %han
!n heal%h care se%%!n"s- where !%s a((l!ca%!on !s
ore recen%.
,n suary- a cons!dera#le nu#er of !n-
d!v!dual s%ud!es and e%a-analy%!c rev!ews (ro-
v!de su((or% for %he any #ene*%s of %ra!n!n"
A
n
n
u
.

R
e
v
.

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
.

2
0
0
9
.
6
0
:
4
5
1
-
4
7
4
.

D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o

w
w
w
.
a
n
n
u
a
l
r
e
v
!
e
w
s
.
o
r
"

#
y

R
!
c
e

$
n
!
v
e
r
s
!
%
y

o
n

1
2
&
2
0
&
1
1
.

'
o
r

(
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
for !nd!v!duals and %eas. +hese #ene*%s !n-
clude (erforance as well as var!a#les %ha%
rela%e %o (erforance d!rec%ly Ie.".- !nnova-
%!on and %ac!% s<!lls- ada(%!ve e=(er%!se- %echn!-
cal s<!lls- self-ana"een% s<!lls- cross-
cul%ural ad>us%en%J or !nd!rec%ly Ie.".-
e(oweren%6 coun!ca%!on- (lann!n"- and
%as< coord!na- %!on !n %easJ. ,n %he follow!n"
sec%!on- we re- v!ew ev!dence re"ard!n"
#ene*%s (roduced #y %ra!n!n" ac%!v!%!es a% %he
or"an!/a%!onal level.
#$N$%IT& O% TRAININ'
%OR OR'ANI0ATION&
'ewer %han 5R of all %ra!n!n" (ro"ras are
assessed !n %ers of %he!r *nanc!al #ene*%s
%o %he or"an!/a%!on I0wanson 2001J. +he (!c-
%ure chan"es aon" co(an!es reco"n!/ed
for %he!r co!%en% %o %ra!n!n". 0(ec!*cally-
%he a>or!%y of or"an!/a%!ons reco"n!/ed #y
A0+D for !nnova%!ve %ra!n!n" (ro"ras ea-
sure %ra!n!n" !(ac% a% soe level of or"a-
n!/a%!onal effec%!veness IParad!se 2007- R!vera
M Parad!se 2006J. +y(!cal or"an!/a%!onal (er-
forance easures !n %h!s la%%er sa(le !n-
clude (roduc%!v!%y !(roveen%- sales or rev-
enue- and overall (ro*%a#!l!%y. .verall- re-
search re"ard!n" or"an!/a%!onal-level #ene*%s
!s no% nearly as a#undan% as %he l!%era%ure on
!nd!v!dual- and %ea-level #ene*%s. ?o% only
have %here #een rela%!vely few e(!r!cal s%ud!es
show!n" or"an!/a%!onal-level !(ac%- #u% %hose
s%ud!es %ha% have #een done %y(!cally use self-
re(or% da%a and unclear causal l!n< #ac< %o %ra!n-
!n" ac%!v!%!es I+harenou e% al. 2007J. ?ever%he-
less- we rev!ew %h!s l!%era%ure or"an!/ed !n%o
%wo areas: #ene*%s rela%ed %o or"an!/a%!onal
(erfor- ance and o%her #ene*%s.
#ene+its Related to
Organi!ational -er+ormance
0everal s%ud!es conduc%ed !n @uro(ean coun-
%r!es have docuen%ed %he !(ac% of %ra!n!n" on
or"an!/a%!onal (erforance. Ara"oS n-0aS
nche/ e% al. I2005J !nves%!"a%ed %he
rela%!onsh!( #e- %ween %ra!n!n" and
or"an!/a%!onal (erforance #y d!s%r!#u%!n" a
survey %o 457 sall and ed!u-s!/e
#us!nesses !n %he $n!%ed 2!n"-
do- %he ?e%herlands- Por%u"al-
'!nland- and 0(a!n.
.r"an!/a%!onal (erforance was
o(er- a%!onal!/ed as IaJ
effec%!veness I!.e.- e(loyee
!nvolveen%- huan resource
!nd!ca%ors- and Oual!%yJ- and I$J
(ro*%a#!l!%y I!.e.- sales vol- ue-
#ene*%s #efore !n%eres% and
%a=es- and a ra%!o of #ene*%
#efore %a=es&salesJ. Resul%s
!nd!ca%ed %ha% soe %y(es of
%ra!n!n" ac%!v!- %!es- !nclud!n" on-
%he->o# %ra!n!n" and %ra!n!n"
!ns!de %he or"an!/a%!on us!n" !n-
house %ra!n- ers- were (os!%!vely
rela%ed %o os% d!en- s!ons of
effec%!veness and (ro*%a#!l!%y.
$#eda AarcTa I2005J conduc%ed
a s%udy !nclud!n" 74
0(an!sh *rs w!%h ore %han
100 e(loy- ees. +h!s s%udy
rela%ed or"an!/a%!ons9 %ra!n- !n"
(ol!c!es Ie.".- func%!ons assued
#y %he %ra!n!n" un!%- "oals of %he
%ra!n!n" un!%- na- %ure of %ra!n!n"-
and how %ra!n!n" !s evalua%edJ
w!%h four %y(es of
or"an!/a%!onal-level #ene- *%s:
e(loyee sa%!sfac%!on- cus%oer
sa%!sfac- %!on- owner&shareholder
sa%!sfac%!on- and wor<- force
(roduc%!v!%y I!.e.- sales (er
e(loyeeJ. Resul%s su""es%ed %ha%
%ra!n!n" (ro"ras or!- en%ed
%oward huan ca(!%al
develo(en% were d!rec%ly rela%ed
%o e(loyee- cus%oer- and
owner&shareholder sa%!sfac%!on as
well as an o#- >ec%!ve easure of
#us!ness (erforance I!.e.- sales
(er e(loyeeJ. Auerrero M
)arraud- D!d!er I2004J
ad!n!s%ered a Oues%!onna!re %o
1550 huan resource d!rec%ors
wor<!n" !n lar"e co(an!es !n
'rance and collec%ed *nanc!al !n-
fora%!on fro %he co(an!es9
*nanc!al d!rec- %ors or %hrou"h
da%a#ases a((ro=!a%ely one year la%er. '!ve
Oues%!ons !n %he survey ad- dressed %he e=%en%
%o wh!ch %he co(any !- (leen%ed %ra!n!n"
(rac%!ces. +he survey also !ncluded Oues%!ons
a#ou% soc!al and or"an!- /a%!onal (erforance
!nclud!n" wor< cl!a%e- e(loyee a%%endance-
Oual!%y of (roduc%s and serv!ces- and e(loyee
(roduc%!v!%y. Resul%s showed %ha% 4.6R of %he
var!ance !n *nanc!al (erforance was
e=(la!ned #y %ra!n!n" Iv!a %he ed!a%!n" role of
soc!al and or"an!/a%!onal (er- foranceJ.
'!nally- Da#ey M Ra!re/ I2005J conduc%ed
a s%udy !nclud!n" 179 *rs !n %he $n!%ed
2!n"do- Denar<- 'rance- Aerany-
?orway- and 0(a!n. 1uan resource ana"ers
or eOu!valen% and l!ne ana"ers co(le%ed a
A
n
n
u
.

R
e
v
.

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
.

2
0
0
9
.
6
0
:
4
5
1
-
4
7
4
.

D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o

w
w
w
.
a
n
n
u
a
l
r
e
v
!
e
w
s
.
o
r
"

#
y

R
!
c
e

$
n
!
v
e
r
s
!
%
y

o
n

1
2
&
2
0
&
1
1
.

'
o
r

(
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
survey on %ra!n!n" (rac%!ces. '!nanc!al da%a were
"a%hered fro %he Aadeus da%a#ase6 a %wo-
fac%or easure of *nanc!al (erforance was
co(u%ed #ased on IaJ o(era%!n" revenue (er
e(loyee and I$J cos% of e(loyees as a
(ercen%- a"e of o(era%!n" revenues. Resul%s
!nd!ca%ed %ha% %he anner !n wh!ch
ana"een% devel- o(en% was !(leen%ed
accoun%ed for su#- s%an%!ve var!ance !n %he
*nanc!al (erforance easure. 0(ec!*cally-
*rs w!%h l!ne ana"ers re(or%!n" %ha%
ana"een% develo(en% (ro- "ras are
valued were ore l!<ely %o have a (os!%!ve
rela%!onsh!( #e%ween ana"een% de-
velo(en% and *nanc!al (erforance.
)ecause of %he (auc!%y of (r!ary-level s%ud-
!es e=a!n!n" %he #ene*%s of %ra!n!n" a% %he
or"an!/a%!onal level- %he e%a-analy%!c rev!ews
(u#l!shed %o da%e !nclude only a sall nu-
#er of s%ud!es. ,n %he e%a-analys!s #y Ar%hur
e% al. I2005J- %he researchers also e=a!ned %he
!(ac% of %ra!n!n" on or"an!/a%!onal-level re-
sul%s. .nly 26 s%ud!es I% Q 1744J e=a!ned
%he #ene*%s of %ra!n!n" a% %he or"an!/a%!onal
level. Resul%s showed %ha% %he #ene*%s of %ra!n-
!n" vary de(end!n" on %he %y(e of %ra!n!n" de-
l!very e%hod- %he s<!ll or %as< #e!n" %ra!ned-
and %he easure used %o assess effec%!veness.
1owever- %he ean d for or"an!/a%!onal resul%s
was 0.62- (rec!sely %he sae effec% s!/e found
for %he !(ac% of %ra!n!n" on >o#-rela%ed #ehav-
!ors and (erforance a% %he !nd!v!dual level of
analys!s. 0!!larly- %he 3oll!ns M 1ol%on
I2004J e%a-analys!s of ana"er!al leadersh!(
devel- o(en% (ro"ras !ncluded only seven
s%ud!es Iof 45J %ha% !ncluded !nfora%!on
re"ard!n" %he rela%!onsh!( #e%ween %ra!n!n"
and %an"!- #le or"an!/a%!onal-level #ene*%s
Ie.".- reduced cos%s- !(roved Oual!%y and
Ouan%!%yJ. +he %o%al sa(le s!/e !n %hese seven
s%ud!es was 414 and %he overall ean d was
0.59- favor!n" %ra!n!n" co(ared %o con%rol
"rou(s.
Ot.er #ene+its
)ene*%s of %ra!n!n" have #een docuen%ed
for var!a#les o%her %han or"an!/a%!onal (erfor-
ance. A"a!n- any of %hese add!%!onal ou%-
coes are rela%ed %o
(erforance !nd!rec%ly.
'or e=a(le- 0!r!ann! M 'rey I2001J evalua%ed %he
effec%!veness of a n!ne-on%h leadersh!( de- velo(en%
(ro"ra a% a *nanc!al serv!ces co- (any w!%h (resence !n
3anada- @uro(e- Ca%!n Aer!ca- and As!a. Par%!c!(an%s
!ncluded 29 ser- v!ce and o(era%!ons ar<e% ana"ers-
d!s%r!c% ana"ers- and a re"!onal (res!den%. +he 15
%ra!n!n" odules Ie.".- ana"!n" conN!c%- o- %!va%!n"
o%hers- (r!or!%y se%%!n"J were del!vered !n %hree-hour
sess!ons every %wo wee<s. Dea- sures of (ro"ra
effec%!veness !ncluded ra%!n"s offered #y (ar%!c!(an%s as well
as o%her o#>ec- %!ve easures !nclud!n" re"!onal scorecard
re- sul%s- wh!ch were collec%ed on a on%hly #as!s and used
%o de%er!ne serv!ce Oual!%y. Da%a col- lec%ed a((ro=!a%ely
a% %he #e"!nn!n" and end of %he %ra!n!n" (ro"ra su""es%ed
%ha%- a% a re- "!onal level- %here were !(roveen%s on s!= of
%he seven scorecard co(onen%s: overall %eller errors- %eller
ou% of #alance- nu#er of de(os!% sl!(s lef% !n envelo(es-
#us!ness re%en%!on- %eller secre% sho((er ra%!n"s- and new
accoun% secre% sho((er surveys.
)enson e% al. I2004J collec%ed da%a fro each of %he 9459
(eranen%- salar!ed e(loyees of a lar"e h!"h-%echnolo"y
anufac%ur!n" *r %o assess %he effec%s on e(loyee
%urnover of %he or"an!/a%!on9s !nves%en% !n e(loyee
devel- o(en% v!a a %u!%!on re!#urseen% (ro"ra.
,nves%en% !n %ra!n!n" v!a %u!%!on re!#urse- en%
decreased %urnover wh!le e(loyees were s%!ll %a<!n" classes.
1owever- %urnover !ncreased once e(loyees o#%a!ned %he!r
de"rees !f %hey were no% (roo%ed. +h!s s%udy (o!n%s %o
%he need %o offer develo(en% o((or%un!%!es on an
on"o!n" #as!s and %o al!"n %ra!n!n" effor%s w!%h!n an
or"an!/a%!on9s (erforance ana"e- en% sys%e IA"u!n!s
2009J.
+he na%ure of an or"an!/a%!on9s re(u%a- %!on
!nNuences how cus%oers Iand (o%en%!al cus%oersJ-
co(e%!%ors- and even e(loyees !n%erac% w!%h %he
or"an!/a%!on. +hus- an or- "an!/a%!on9s re(u%a%!on can have
!(or%an% *- nanc!al conseOuences. 3lardy I2005J no%ed %ha%
an or"an!/a%!on9s re(u%a%!on can #e affec%ed #y !%s
%ra!n!n" (rac%!ces. .r"an!/a%!ons such as %he 0@ACs
Is(ec!al o(era%!ons force of %he $.0. ?avyJ are le"endary for
%he!r r!"orous and
A
n
n
u
.

R
e
v
.

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
.

2
0
0
9
.
6
0
:
4
5
1
-
4
7
4
.

D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o

w
w
w
.
a
n
n
u
a
l
r
e
v
!
e
w
s
.
o
r
"

#
y

R
!
c
e

$
n
!
v
e
r
s
!
%
y

o
n

1
2
&
2
0
&
1
1
.

'
o
r

(
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
e=%ens!ve %ra!n!n" (ro"ras. .ne of %he "oals
of %he 0@AC %ra!n!n"- as freOuen%ly shown on
%elev!s!on and o%her ed!a- !s %o Kcons%ruc%
a re(u%a%!on of 0@ACs as %o%ally ded!ca%ed-
ru%hless- and le%hally s<!lled o(era%ors who
would #e a %o%ally !nv!nc!#le foeL I3lardy 2005-
(. 291J. 0!!larly- al%hou"h no% e(!r!cally doc-
uen%ed ye%- ano%her (oss!#le #ene*% of %ra!n-
!n" could #e social caital- v!a rela%!onsh!( #u!ld-
!n"- nor develo(en%- and !ns%!%u%!onal %rus%
I)rown M Ban )uren 2007J. ,n o%her words-
%ra!n!n" has %he (o%en%!al %o affec% !(or%an%
soc!al (rocesses %ha% !n %urn are l!<ely %o affec%
or"an!/a%!onal-level ou%coes.
Darch M Cucas I2002J conduc%ed !n%erv!ews
w!%h 20 sall and ed!u-s!/e #us!ness own-
ers !n %he food !ndus%ry !n Uueensland IAus-
%ral!aJ. +hese co(an!es deal% w!%h (roduc%s
such as ea%- fru!%- ve"e%a#les- seafood- and
"ra!ns. +he a!n "oals of %h!s s%udy were %o
unders%and #us!ness owners9 #arr!ers %o %he!r
u(%a<e of e-coerce and %o !den%!fy s%ra%e-
"!es ena#l!n" %he %o en"a"e !n e-coerce
!n!%!a%!ves. Resul%s showed %ha% of several #ar-
r!ers %o e-coerce- an !(or%an% one was %he
lac< of %ra!n!n". 0%udy (ar%!c!(an%s no%ed %ha%
%ra!n!n" would #e a <ey s%ra%e"y #y wh!ch %hey
could address %he!r need %o acOu!re %he nec-
essary <nowled"e and %echnolo"!cal s<!lls. ,n
shor%- %ra!n!n" was seen as an !(or%an% ena#ler
for e-coerce- a <ey s%ra%e"!c d!rec%!on for
%he success of any of %hese sall and ed!u-
s!/e #us!nesses.
,n suary- any s%ud!es have "a%hered
su((or% for %he #ene*%s of %ra!n!n" for or"an!-
/a%!ons as a whole. +hese #ene*%s !nclude !-
(roved or"an!/a%!onal (erforance Ie.".- (rof-
!%a#!l!%y- effec%!veness- (roduc%!v!%y- o(era%!n"
revenue (er e(loyeeJ as well as o%her ou%-
coes %ha% rela%e d!rec%ly Ie.".- reduced cos%s-
!(roved Oual!%y and Ouan%!%yJ or !nd!rec%ly
Ie.".- e(loyee %urnover- or"an!/a%!on9s re(u%a-
%!on- soc!al ca(!%alJ %o (erforance. ,n %he ne=%
sec%!on- we rev!ew ev!dence re"ard!n" #ene*%s
(roduced #y %ra!n!n" ac%!v!%!es a% %he soc!e%al
level.
#$N$%IT& O% TRAININ'
%OR &OCI$T1
Dos% of %he research on %he rela%!onsh!( #e-
%ween %ra!n!n" ac%!v!%!es and %he!r #ene*%s for
soc!e%y has #een conduc%ed #y econo!s%s6 %he
focal de(enden% var!a#le !s na%!onal econo!c
(erforance. .verall- %h!s #ody of l!%era%ure
leads %o %he conclus!on %ha% %ra!n!n" effor%s (ro-
duce !(roveen%s !n %he Oual!%y of %he la#or
force- wh!ch !n %urn !s one of %he os% !(or-
%an% con%r!#u%ors %o na%!onal econo!c "row%h
Ie.".- )ec<er 1962- 1964J. @cono!s%s co!ned
%he %ers Khuan ca(!%alL and Kca(!%al fora-
%!on !n (eo(leL !n referr!n" a!nly %o school!n"
and on-%he->o# %ra!n!n" I;an" e% al. 2002J.
An !llus%ra%!on of %h!s %y(e of analys!s !s a
s%udy #y van Ceeuwen M van Praa" I2002J-
who calcula%ed %he cos%s assoc!a%ed w!%h on-%he-
>o# %ra!n!n" and %he !(ac% of such %ra!n!n" on
coun%ry-level acroecono!c var!a#les. +hese
researchers concluded %ha% !f e(loyers rece!ve
a %a= cred!% of 115 (er e(loyee %ra!ned-
%he %o%al e=(ense for %he coun%ry would #e
11 !ll!on- #u% 114 !ll!on would #e "en-
era%ed !n !ncreased revenue resul%!n" fro %he
new s<!lls acOu!red.
,n add!%!on %o econo!c "row%h and o%her
rela%ed *nanc!al ou%coes- %ra!n!n" ac%!v!%!es
have %he (o%en%!al %o (roduce #ene*%s such as
%he !nclus!on of %he coun%ry !n (owerful eco-
no!c #loc<s Ie.".- @uro(ean $n!onJ. +h!s !s
#ecause soe of %he reOu!reen%s !(osed on
coun%r!es %o #e (ar% of %hese #loc<s !nclude
huan ca(!%al develo(en%. Accord!n"ly- !n
reco"n!%!on of %he #ene*%s of %ra!n!n" a% %he so-
c!e%al level- any coun%r!es encoura"e na%!onal-
scale %ra!n!n" and develo(en% (ro>ec%s as a
a%%er of na%!onal (ol!cy I3ho M DcCean
2004J. 3ons!der %he follow!n" selec%!ve ev!-
dence.
,n %he Pac!*c ,slands- a re"!on of .cean!a
w!%h ore %han 10-000 !slands !n %he 0ou%h Pa-
c!*c .cean- %he (o(ula%!on !s d!s(ersed over
lar"e d!s%ances and !s vulnera#le %o nuer-
ous env!ronen%al %hrea%s and na%ural d!sas-
%ers I)ar%le%% M Rod"ers 2004J. +hese !slands
A
n
n
u
.

R
e
v
.

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
.

2
0
0
9
.
6
0
:
4
5
1
-
4
7
4
.

D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o

w
w
w
.
a
n
n
u
a
l
r
e
v
!
e
w
s
.
o
r
"

#
y

R
!
c
e

$
n
!
v
e
r
s
!
%
y

o
n

1
2
&
2
0
&
1
1
.

'
o
r

(
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
cons%!%u%e 22 d!fferen% (ol!%!cal en%!%!es- os%
of %he econo!es are sall- educa%!on !s "en-
erally "ood a% %he eleen%ary level #u% no%
%he secondary level- and !n-co(any %ra!n!n"
!s l!!%ed. +he area !s very d!verse econo!-
cally- soc!ally- and cul%urally. 1owever- %he
Pa- c!*c ,slands- led #y %he re"!onal
!n%er"overn- en%al 0ecre%ar!a% of %he Pac!*c
3oun!%y and %he Pac!*c ,slands 'oru
0ecre%ar!a%- have develo(ed a coon and
un!Oue v!s!on of (eo- (le as K%he os%
!(or%an% #u!ld!n" #loc< for econo!c- soc!al-
and cul%ural develo(en%L I)ar%le%% M Rod"ers
2004- (. 511J. +h!s (eo(le- cen%ered a((roach
assues %ha% !nves%en% !n huan ca(!%al !s
fundaen%al for ach!ev!n" so- c!e%al
(ros(er!%y.
,n %he $n!%ed 2!n"do- %he "overnen%
w!shes %o !(rove %he s<!lls of %he wor<force
and encoura"es %he develo(en% of l!felon"
learn!n" (rac%!ces %hrou"h a var!e%y of or"an!-
/a%!ons and !n!%!a%!ves ICee 2004J. Al%hou"h %he
"overnen% leads %hese !n!%!a%!ves- %hey "!ve a
s%ron" vo!ce %o e(loyers- %rade un!ons- (ro-
fess!onal #od!es- and o%her s%a<eholders !n %he
#us!ness sec%or. 'or e=a(le- %he or"an!/a%!on
,nves%ors !n Peo(le "!ves awards %o or"an!/a-
%!ons %ha% !(leen% e=cellen% (rac%!ces !n %he
%ra!n!n" of !nd!v!duals %o ach!eve #us!ness "oals.
D!fferen% or"an!/a%!ons can use d!fferen% eans
%o ach!eve success %hrou"h %he!r (eo(le- so ,n-
ves%ors !n Peo(le does no% (rescr!#e any one
e%hod #u% !ns%ead (rov!des a fraewor< %o
hel( or"an!/a%!ons *nd %he os% su!%a#le eans
for ach!ev!n" success %hrou"h (eo(le I,nves%ors
!n Peo(le 0%andard 2006J.
+he reco"n!%!on of %he !(or%ance of
%ra!n!n" ac%!v!%!es led ,nd!a !n 1945 %o #ecoe
%he *rs% na%!on !n %he As!a-Pac!*c re"!on
%o crea%e a D!n!s%ry of 1uan Resource
Develo(en% IRao 2004J. +h!s !n!s%ry was
crea%ed #y %hen Pr!e D!n!s%er Ra>!v Ahand!-
who had a v!s!on %ha% !nves%en% !n huan
ca(!%al would #e an essen%!al %ool for %he
coun%ry9s develo(en%. Accord!n"ly- %he (u#l!c
sec%or- wh!ch had %rad!%!onally #een %he lar"es%
e(loyer !n ,nd!a- ass!s%ed !n %he crea%!on of
cor(ora%e %ra!n!n" de(ar%en%s. @=a(les of
or"an!/a%!ons w!%h such de(ar%en%s !nclude
1!ndus%an Dach!ne +ools- )hara% 1eavy
@lec- %r!cals- 1!ndus%an Aeronau%!cs- 0%a%e
)an< of ,nd!a- 0%eel Au%hor!%y of ,nd!a- and
3oal ,nd!a.
Poland !s an add!%!onal !n%eres%!n" !llus%ra-
%!on "!ven !%s %rans!%!on fro a cen%ral!/ed econ-
oy under 0ov!e% con%rol %o a e#er of %he
@uro(ean $n!on !n Day 2004. $nder 0ov!e%
con%rol w!%h a coand econoy- and v!r%ually
full s%a%e ownersh!( !n all sec%ors- a %y(!cal Pol-
!sh e(loyee was Kchron!cally sus(!c!ous- full of
sour deand- una#le %o %a<e res(ons!#!l!%y or %o
co!% h!self- ever ready %o wallow !n h!s own
!sery and !sfor%uneL I+!schner 1992 as c!%ed
!n 0/al<ows<! M Ean<ow!c/ 2004- (. 547J. +o
say %he leas%- %he a>or!%y of e(loyees d!d no%
(ossess %he a%%!%udes and s<!lls needed %o ee%
%he deands of a ar<e% econoy. ,n add!%!on-
%ha% %housands of e(loyees were on %he coun-
%ry9s (ayroll w!%hou% a<!n" value-added con-
%r!#u%!ons #ecae o#v!ous as several !ndus%r!es
shrun< %he!r wor<forces. 'or e=a(le- %he coal
!n!n" !ndus%ry wen% fro a#ou% 500-000 e-
(loyees !n %he !d-1990s %o a#ou% 100-000 e-
(loyees a decade la%er I0/al<ows<! M Ean<ow!c/
2004J. +hus- !n Poland now %here !s a "eneral
feel!n" %ha% Kfur%her (ro"ress !n %he coer-
c!al s(here can only coe %hrou"h en"a"een%
!n %he (rocess of "lo#al!/a%!on and %hrou"h %he
develo(en% of na%!onal huan resources v!a
%ra!n!n"- educa%!on- and researchL I0/al<ows<!
M Ean<ow!c/ 2004- (. 550J.
,n suary- %he reco"n!%!on of %he #ene*%s
of %ra!n!n" ac%!v!%!es for soc!e%y has led any
coun%r!es around %he world %o ado(% na%!onal
(ol!c!es %o encoura"e %he des!"n and del!very of
%ra!n!n" (ro"ras a% %he na%!onal level. +hese
(ol!c!es have %he "oal %o !(rove a na%!on9s hu-
an ca(!%al- wh!ch !n %urn !s rela%ed %o "rea%er
econo!c (ros(er!%y.
HOW TO *A2I*I0$ TH$
#$N$%IT& O% TRAININ'
,n %he ne=% sec%!on- we suar!/e recen% %heory
and research or!en%ed %oward !(rov!n" %he
effec%!veness and !(ac% of %ra!n!n". Rou"hly
follow!n" %he !ns%ruc%!onal des!"n odel
IAolds%e!n M 'ord 2002J- we or"an!/e %h!s
A
n
n
u
.

R
e
v
.

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
.

2
0
0
9
.
6
0
:
4
5
1
-
4
7
4
.

D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o

w
w
w
.
a
n
n
u
a
l
r
e
v
!
e
w
s
.
o
r
"

#
y

R
!
c
e

$
n
!
v
e
r
s
!
%
y

o
n

1
2
&
2
0
&
1
1
.

'
o
r

(
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
rev!ew around s%a"es of needs assessen% and
(re%ra!n!n" s%a%es- %ra!n!n" des!"n and del!very-
%ra!n!n" evalua%!on- and %ransfer of %ra!n!n".
Needs Assessment and
-retraining &tates
3onduc%!n" a %horou"h needs assessen% #e-
fore %ra!n!n" !s des!"ned and del!vered hel(s
se% a((ro(r!a%e "oals for %ra!n!n" and ensure
%ha% %ra!nees are ready %o (ar%!c!(a%e I)lanchard
M +hac<er 2007J. 1owever- %here con%!nues
%o #e l!%%le %heore%!cal or e(!r!cal wor< on
needs assessen% I2ra!"er 2005J. .ne e=ce(-
%!on !s a s%udy #y )aran/!n! e% al. I2001J- who
showed %ha% ana"ers9 >o# !nvolveen%- or"a-
n!/a%!onal co!%en%- and (erce(%!ons of %he
wor< env!ronen% I!.e.- (erce!ved su((or% and
reco"n!%!onJ were (red!c%!ve of (re%ra!n!n" self-
ef*cacy- wh!ch !n %urn was rela%ed %o
(re%ra!n!n" o%!va%!on. Pre%ra!n!n" o%!va%!on
was rela%ed %o (os%%ra!n!n" easures of u%!l!%y
reac%!ons- af- fec%!ve reac%!ons- declara%!ve
<nowled"e scores- and (rocedural <nowled"e
scores. Pre%ra!n!n" o%!va%!on has also #een
shown %o #e rela%ed %o %ra!nee (ersonal!%y
IRowold 2007J- %ra!nee self-ef*cacy and
%ra!n!n" re(u%a%!on I0w!%/er e% al. 2005J- as
well as reac%!ons %o (r!or %ra!n- !n" courses
I0!%/ann e% al. 2007J. ,n a *eld s%udy of
learners !n a %rad!%!onal classroo or
Trans+er o+ training:
%he e=%en% %o wh!ch
new <nowled"e and
s<!lls learned dur!n"
%ra!n!n" are a((l!ed on
%he >o#
-retraining
motivation:
!nd!v!dual a%%!%udes-
e=(ec%anc!es- and
self-#el!efs l!<ely %o
!nNuence w!ll!n"ness
%o a%%end %ra!n!n" and
learn!n" dur!n"
%ra!n!n"
develo(ed and val!da%ed a needs assessen%
%ool for %he av!a%!on a!n%enance !ndus%ry. A
second e=a(le of a %heory-#ased a((roach
%o conduc%!n" a needs assessen% !s a s%udy
#y 'owl<es e% al. I2000J- who evalua%ed an
even%-#ased <nowled"e-el!c!%a%!on %echn!Oue !n
wh!ch su#>ec% a%%er e=(er%s I0D@sJ are as<ed
a#ou% %ea s!%ua%!onal awareness fac%ors !n re-
s(onse %o a !l!%ary hel!co(%er o(era%!on. Re-
sul%s showed %ha% ore e=(er!enced e=(er%s
!den%!*ed a r!cher da%a#ase of cues and were
ore l!<ely %o !den%!fy res(onse s%ra%e"!es- su(-
(or%!n" %he conclus!on %ha% us!n" 0D@s dur!n"
a needs assessen% a=!!/es %he #ene*%s of
%ra!n!n". +he *nd!n" %ha% e=(er%!se affec%s %he
Oual!%y of needs assessen% da%a !s cons!s%en%
w!%h %he conclus!ons of Dor"eson M 3a(!on
I1997J- who re(or%ed %ha% %he accuracy of >o#
analys!s da%a ay #e co(ro!sed #y u( %o
16 d!fferen% sys%ea%!c sources of error. +hese
!nclude soc!al !nNuence and self-(resen%a%!on
!nNuences and l!!%a%!ons !n !nfora%!on (ro-
cess!n" Icf. 'ord M 2ra!"er 1995J. Dore e-
(!r!cal research !s necessary %o unders%and how
%he Oual!%y of %ra!n!n" des!"n and del!very !s af-
fec%ed #y sys%ea%!c and rando !nNuences on
%he Oual!%y of needs assessen% da%a.
3ons!dera%!on of %he (re%ra!n!n" s%a%es or
!nd!v!dual charac%er!s%!cs of %ra!nees also en-
hances %he #ene*%s of %ra!n!n". +racey e% al.
I2001J collec%ed da%a fro 420 ho%el ana"ers
who a%%ended a %wo-and-a-half-day ana"er!al
<nowled"e and s<!lls %ra!n!n" (ro"ra. Resul%s
#lended learn!n" course- 2le!n e% al. I2006J
found %ha% learners had a h!"her o%!va%!on %o
learn when %hey had a h!"h learn!n" "oal or!en-
%a%!on Ira%her %han a lower learn!n" "oal or!en-
%a%!onJ and when %hey (erce!ved env!ronen%al
cond!%!ons Ie.".- %!e- ,n%erne% accessJ as learn-
!n" ena#lers Ira%her %han as #arr!ersJ. Do%!va-
%!on %o learn- !n %urn- was rela%ed %o learner
sa%!sfac%!on- e%aco"n!%!on- and course "rade.
2o/lows<! e% al. I2001J showed %ha% %ra!% and
an!(ula%ed learn!n" or!en%a%!on had !nde(en-
den% effec%s on (ar%!c!(an%s9 self-ef*cacy and
s%ruc%ural <nowled"e.
Dore "enerally- 3olOu!%% e% al. I2000J su-
ar!/ed 20 years of research on fac%ors af-
fec%!n" %ra!nee o%!va%!on. +he!r e%a-analys!s
showed %ha% %ra!n!n" o%!va%!on was s!"n!*-
can%ly (red!c%ed #y !nd!v!dual charac%er!s%!cs
Ie.".- locus of con%rol- consc!en%!ousness- an=!-
e%y- a"e- co"n!%!ve a#!l!%y- self-ef*cacy- valence
of %ra!n!n"- and >o# !nvolveen%J as well as #y
s!%ua%!onal charac%er!s%!cs Ie.".- or"an!/a%!onal
cl!a%eJ.
,n suary- %wo ways %o a=!!/e %he #en-
e*%s of %ra!n!n" !s %o conduc% a needs assess-
en% us!n" e=(er!enced 0D@s and %o a<e
sure %ra!nees are ready and o%!va%ed for %ra!n-
!n". 'or e=a(le- %ra!n!n" read!ness can #e
enhanced #y lower!n" %ra!nees9 an=!e%y a#ou%
%ra!n!n"- deons%ra%!n" %he value of %ra!n!n"
#efore %ra!n!n" #e"!ns- and a<!n" sure e-
(loyees are h!"hly !nvolved and en"a"ed w!%h
%he!r >o#s.
A
n
n
u
.

R
e
v
.

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
.

2
0
0
9
.
6
0
:
4
5
1
-
4
7
4
.

D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o

w
w
w
.
a
n
n
u
a
l
r
e
v
!
e
w
s
.
o
r
"

#
y

R
!
c
e

$
n
!
v
e
r
s
!
%
y

o
n

1
2
&
2
0
&
1
1
.

'
o
r

(
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
Training Design and Training Delivery
Research on %ra!n!n" des!"n and del!very can #e
ca%e"or!/ed !n%o %wo "eneral %hees: research
on new a((roaches %o en"a"e learners !n ean-
!n"ful learn!n" (rocesses and research on s(e-
c!*c %ra!n!n" e%hods. 0everal s%ud!es !n each
of %hese %wo doa!ns (rov!de !nfora%!on on
how %o a=!!/e %he #ene*%s of %ra!n!n".
C!nou M 2on%o"!ann!s I2004J co(ared !-
ed!a%e recall and follow-u( re%en%!on levels
Iaf%er s!= wee<sJ !n four "rou(s. +ra!nees were
(roduc%!on en"!neer!n" under"radua%es. +he
(r!ary o#>ec%!ve of %ra!n!n" was %o hel( (ar-
%!c!(an%s develo( d!a"nos%!c s%ra%e"!es %o !den-
%!fy sy(%os and (ro#les "!ven a se% of faul%
scenar!os. .ne "rou( rece!ved sys%e!c %ra!n!n"
Ifocus!n" on s%ruc%ural- func%!onal- and (hys!cal
rela%!onsh!(s aon" su#sys%esJ- %wo "rou(s
rece!ved e!%her low-level or h!"h-level d!a"nos-
%!c !nfora%!on- and one "rou( rece!ved "eneral
%ra!n!n" on %heor!es rela%ed %o anufac%ur!n"
(lan%s. +he %heory "rou( and #o%h d!a"nos%!c
"rou(s (erfored #e%%er on %he !ed!a%e re-
call easures- whereas %he sys%e!c "rou( (er-
fored #e%%er on %he re%en%!on easure- (re-
sua#ly #ecause "rou( e#ers #u!l% a ore
s%a#le or"an!/a%!on Ien%al odelJ of %he %ra!n-
!n" con%en%. 0!!larly- 1olladay M Uu!nV
ones I2005J showed %ha% add!n" var!a#!l!%y %o
(rac- %!ce %r!als resul%ed !n #e%%er lon"-%er
re%en- %!on- (resua#ly #ecause %ra!nees had %o
e=er% "rea%er effor% dur!n" s<!ll acOu!s!%!on.
Researchers con%!nued %o e=(lore error
%ra!n!n" as a s%ra%e"y for !ncreas!n" (erfor-
ance and a!n%a!n!n" (erforance under
chan"!n" env!ronen%al deands. ,n con%ras%
%o %rad!%!onal %ra!n!n" des!"n a((roaches %ha%
focus on %each!n" correc% e%hods Iand avo!d-
!n" errorsJ- error ana"een% %ra!n!n" encour-
a"es %ra!nees %o a<e errors and en"a"e !n
reNec%!on %o unders%and %he causes of errors
and s%ra%e"!es %o avo!d a<!n" %he !n %he fu-
%ure. 1e!#ec< e% al. I2005J !(leen%ed error
%ra!n!n" us!n" a sa(le of under"radua%e s%u-
den%s. +he %as< cons!s%ed of learn!n" how %o use
s(readshee% sof%ware I!.e.- @=celJ. Perforance
was assessed #y ra%ers who rev!ewed v!deo%a(ed
sess!ons and ra%ed whe%her d!scre%e %as<s such
as en%er!n" da%a correc%ly or fora%%!n" a %a#le
were (erfored correc%ly. +ra!nees who were
(rov!ded %he o((or%un!%y %o a<e errors I%o-
"e%her w!%h e=(l!c!% !ns%ruc%!ons encoura"!n"
%he %o learn fro %hese errorsJ (erfored s!"-
n!*can%ly h!"her %han %hose !n error-avo!dan%
cond!%!ons. ,n a follow-u( e=(er!en%- (ar%!c-
!(an%s learn!n" how %o use (resen%a%!ons sof%-
ware I!.e.- PowerPo!n%J (erfored #e%%er !n %he
error %ra!n!n" w!%h e%aco"n!%!on (ro(%!n"
I!.e.- !ns%ruc%!ons encoura"!n" %ra!nees %o %h!n<
e=(l!c!%ly a#ou% wha% %he (ro#le !s- wha% %hey
are %ry!n" %o ach!eve- and so for%hJ co(ared
%o %he error-avo!dan% cond!%!on I2e!%h M 'rese
2005J. A recen% e%a-analys!s #y 2e!%h M 'rese
I2004J re(or%ed %ha% overall- error ana"een%
%ra!n!n" was su(er!or %o e!%her (rocedural!/ed
error-avo!dan% %ra!n!n" or e=(lora%ory %ra!n!n"
w!%hou% error encoura"een% Id Q 0.44J. @f-
fec% s!/es were odera%ed #y %wo !(or%an%
fac- %ors: @ffec% s!/es were "rea%er for
(os%%ransfer easures co(ared %o w!%h!n-
%ra!n!n" (erfor- ance- and for ada(%!ve
%ransfer %as<s Ias o(- (osed %o %as<s s%ruc%urally
s!!lar %o %ra!n!n"J. +hus- error %ra!n!n" ay
#e a((ro(r!a%e for de- velo(!n" a dee(er %as<
unders%and!n" %ha% fac!l- !%a%es %ransfer %o
novel %as<s.
Research on error %ra!n!n" h!"hl!"h%s %he
!(or%ance of unders%and!n" and affec%!n"
learner s%a%es and answers lon"-s%and!n" calls
%o en"a"e !n research on how !nd!v!duals
learn- no% !n >us% %he la%es% %ra!n!n" fads Ie.".-
3a(#ell 1971- 2ra!"er e% al. 1995J. 'or e=-
a(le- 0ch!d% M 'ord I2005J re(or%ed %ha%
levels of e%a-co"n!%!ve ac%!v!%y ed!a%ed %he
effec%s of a co(u%er-#ased %ra!n!n" (ro"ra
on declara%!ve <nowled"e- %as< (erforance-
and (ar%!c!(an%s9 self-ef*cacy. An !ncreas!n"
aoun% of ev!dence su""es%s %ha% %ra!nees9
self-re"ula%ory (rocesses ed!a%e %he %ra!n!n"8
learn!n" rela%!onsh!(. 0elf-re"ula%!on refers %o
%he e=%en% %o wh!ch e=ecu%!ve-level co"n!%!ve
sys%es !n %he learner on!%or and e=er% con-
%rol on %he learner9s a%%en%!on and ac%!ve en-
"a"een% of %ra!n!n" con%en% IBancouver M
Day 2005J. 3hen e% al. I2005J %ra!ned 156
A
n
n
u
.

R
e
v
.

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
.

2
0
0
9
.
6
0
:
4
5
1
-
4
7
4
.

D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o

w
w
w
.
a
n
n
u
a
l
r
e
v
!
e
w
s
.
o
r
"

#
y

R
!
c
e

$
n
!
v
e
r
s
!
%
y

o
n

1
2
&
2
0
&
1
1
.

'
o
r

(
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
!nd!v!duals !n 74 %eas on a N!"h% s!ula%or %as<
and e=a!ned ada(%!ve (erforance on su#se-
Ouen% (erforance %r!als. +ra!n!n" (ar%!c!(an%s9
self-re"ula%!on (rocesses ed!a%ed %he effec%s of
%ra!n!n" on %as< self-ef*cacy and %he!r ada(%!ve
(erforance across %r!als. +wo s%ud!es
re(or%ed #y 0!%/ann e% al. I2004J used
re(ea%ed %r!- als %o deons%ra%e %ha% wh!le
en"a"!n" !n self- re"ula%ory (rocesses
fac!l!%a%es learn!n"- %he ef-
(u#l!shed s%ud!es !nvolv!n" 19-551 %ra!nees- %he
researchers found %ha% ;e#-#ased !ns%ruc%!on
was 6R ore effec%!ve %han classroo !ns%ruc-
%!on for %each!n" declara%!ve <nowled"e #u% was
eOually effec%!ve for %each!n" (rocedural <nowl-
ed"e. 1owever- when %he sae !ns%ruc%!onal
e%hods were used !n #o%h fors of !ns%ruc-
%!on- %here were no d!fferences !n %he rela%!ve
effec%!veness of e!%her ed!a. +hus- %he sall
Adaptive gidance:
(rov!d!n" %ra!nees w!%h
d!a"nos%!c- fu%ure-
or!en%ed !nfora%!on
%o a!d dec!s!ons a#ou%
wha% and how uch %o
s%udy and (rac%!ce !n
%ra!n!n"
fec%s !(rove over %!e.
+echnolo"y-del!vered !ns%ruc%!on I+D,J
con%!nues %o #ecoe !ncreas!n"ly (o(ular !n
!ndus%ry IParad!se 2007J- al%hou"h researchers
have #een slow %o s%udy fac%ors %ha% fac!l!%a%e
or l!!% !%s effec%!veness I)rown 2001- ;elsh
e% al. 2005J. +D, !ncludes ;e#-#ased %ra!n!n"
and !ns%ruc%!on on s!n"le wor<s%a%!ons- PDAs
and DP5 (layers- as well as e#edded >us%-!n-
%ra!n!n" !n wor<-rela%ed sof%ware IA"u!n!s e% al.
2009J. .ne (o%en%!al draw#ac< of +D, !s %ha% !%
%ransfers ore con%rol %o learners %o a<e dec!-
s!ons a#ou% wha% and how %o learn I?oe 2004J.
A recen% e%a-analys!s #y 2ra!"er M Eerden
I2007J !nd!ca%ed %ha% h!"h learner con%rol has
only ar"!nally #ene*c!al effec%s on learn!n"-
and !n any s%ud!es- h!"h con%rol has a ne"a-
%!ve effec%. Cow-a#!l!%y or !ne=(er!enced learn-
ers under h!"h learner-con%rol cond!%!ons ay
a<e (oor dec!s!ons a#ou% wha% and how %o
learn IDeRou!n e% al. 2004J. .ne (ro!s!n"
%echn!Oue for cou(l!n" learner-dr!ven !ns%ruc-
%!on w!%h %echnolo"y !s %o su((leen% learner
con%rol w!%h ada(%!ve "u!dance. 0(ec!*cally-
)ell M 2o/lows<! I2002J concluded %ha% (ro-
v!d!n" ada(%!ve "u!dance !n a co(u%er-#ased
%ra!n!n" env!ronen% su#s%an%!vely !(roved
%ra!nees9 s%udy and (rac%!ce effor%- <nowled"e
acOu!red- and (erforance.
)e%%er hardware and sof%ware ca(a#!l!%!es
have allowed for !(roveen%s !n %he del!v-
ery of var!ous fors of reo%e %ra!n!n". Fhao
e% al. I2005J conduc%ed a e%a-analys!s co(ar-
!n" face-%o-face and d!s%ance educa%!on courses
and found no s!"n!*can% d!fferences #e%ween
fora%s. A e%a-analys!s #y 0!%/ann e% al.
I2006J e=a!ned %he rela%!ve effec%!veness of
;e#-#ased !ns%ruc%!on over classroo !ns%ruc-
%!on. ,n an analys!s of 96 (u#l!shed and un-
advan%a"e of ;e#-#ased !ns%ruc%!on over class-
roo %ra!n!n" ay #e due ore %o %he use of
novel Iand effec%!veJ %ra!n!n" s%ra%e"!es %han %o
%he ed!u (er se.
Researchers are also e=(lor!n" %he !(ac%
of novel %ra!n!n" %echnolo"!es on ou%coes
o%her %han learn!n". 'or e=a(le- ;esson M
Ao"us I2005J co(ared %wo d!fferen% e%h-
ods for del!ver!n" soc!al!/a%!on %ra!n!n" %o new
e(loyees: a "rou( soc!al-#ased (ro"ra and
an !nd!v!dual co(u%er-#ased (ro"ra. +h!s
Ouas!-e=(er!en% !ncluded 261 new e(loy-
ees fro a lar"e %echnolo"y-#ased consul%!n"
*r. +he soc!al-#ased (ro"ra was su#s%an-
%!ally ore successful !n soc!al!/!n" new e-
(loyees re"ard!n" (eo(le- (ol!%!cs- and or"an!-
/a%!onal "oals and values.
,n suary- %he a((l!ca%!on of a((ro(r!a%e
%ra!n!n" des!"n and del!very e%hods can hel(
a=!!/e %he #ene*%s of %ra!n!n". ,n %ers of
des!"n- recen% research su""es%s %ha% %he #ene-
*%s of %ra!n!n" are enhanced #y a((ly!n"
%heory- #ased learn!n" (r!nc!(les such as
encoura"!n" %ra!nees %o or"an!/e %he %ra!n!n"
con%en%- a<- !n" sure %ra!nees e=(end effor%
!n %he acOu!s!- %!on of new s<!lls- and
(rov!d!n" %ra!nees w!%h an o((or%un!%y %o
a<e errors %o"e%her w!%h e=(l!c!% !ns%ruc%!ons
%o encoura"e %he %o learn fro %hese errors.
,n %ers of %ra!n!n" del!very- recen% research
!nd!ca%es %ha% %he #ene*%s of us- !n" %echnolo"y
can #e enhanced #y (rov!d!n" %ra!nees w!%h
ada(%!ve "u!dance.
Training $valation
+he 2!r<(a%r!c< four-levels a((roach %o %ra!n-
!n" evalua%!on con%!nues %o #e %he os% w!dely
used %ra!n!n" evalua%!on odel aon" (rac%!-
%!oners Ie.".- 0u"rue M
R!vera 2005- +w!%chell
A
n
n
u
.

R
e
v
.

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
.

2
0
0
9
.
6
0
:
4
5
1
-
4
7
4
.

D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o

w
w
w
.
a
n
n
u
a
l
r
e
v
!
e
w
s
.
o
r
"

#
y

R
!
c
e

$
n
!
v
e
r
s
!
%
y

o
n

1
2
&
2
0
&
1
1
.

'
o
r

(
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
Training
e++ectiveness: %he
s%udy of !nd!v!dual--
"rou(-- or
or"an!/a%!onal-level
fac%ors %ha% !nNuence
learn!n" !n %ra!n!n"
and %ransfer af%er
%ra!n!n"
e% al. 2000J- al%hou"h %he a((roach con%!nues %o
#e cr!%!c!/ed #y researchers Ie.".- 1ol%on 2005-
2ra!"er 2002- 0(!%/er 2005J. +here has #een
l!%%le e(!r!cal wor< !n %he %wen%y-*rs% cen-
%ury on des!"n!n" and val!da%!n" new evalua-
%!on easures- al%hou"h %here have #een several
conce(%ual con%r!#u%!ons %o fraewor<s "u!d-
!n" evalua%!on dec!s!ons I1ol%on 2005- 2ra!"er
2002- 0(!%/er 2005- ;an" M ;!lco= 2006J.
2ra!"er I2002J (ro(osed a dec!s!on-#ased
evalua%!on odel. +he odel fraes dec!s!ons
a#ou% how %o easure %ra!n!n" !(ac% around
%he !n%ended (ur(ose for evalua%!onP(ur(oses
of dec!s!on a<!n"- ar<e%!n"- and (rov!d!n"
feed#ac< %o (ar%!c!(an%s- !ns%ruc%ors- or !ns%ruc-
%!onal des!"ners. +he odel also e(has!/es
%a!lor!n" evalua%!on easures %o %he needs
and so(h!s%!ca%!on of %he !n%ended aud!enceIsJ.
,% (ro(oses a co(rehens!ve %a=onoy for
evalua%!on- !nclud!n" assess!n" %he %ra!n!n"
(ro"ra- chan"es !n %he learner- and chan"es
!n %he or"an!/a%!on. ?o%a#ly- a nu#er of
au%hors have cr!%!c!/ed %he lac< of r!"or !n
%ra!n!n" evalua%!on des!"ns Ie.".- @d<!ns 2002-
C!%%rell e% al. 2006- .93onnor e% al. 2002-
;an"
2002J. Al%hou"h 2ra!"er9s odel e(has!/es
%he !(or%ance of sol!d des!"ns Ias co(ared
%o ore or #e%%er easuresJ- he ar"ued %ha%
ean!n"ful evalua%!on can #e done w!%h !nco-
(le%e research des!"ns- a (o!n% ra!sed earl!er
#y 0ac<e%% M Dullen I1995J and +annen#au
M ;oods I1992J- and la%er echoed #y 2ra!"er
e% al. I2004J. +he !n%ernal referenc!n" s%ra%e"y-
!n wh!ch effec% s!/es for %ra!ned #ehav!or Ior
<nowled"eJ are co(ared %o effec% s!/es for
non%ra!ned #ehav!ors Ior <nowled"eJ- was used
!n several s%ud!es as an al%erna%!ve %o ore
r!"orous des!"ns w!%h a con%rol "rou( IA"u!n!s
M )rans%e%%er 2007- 'rese e% al. 2005J.
1ow (eo(le reac% %o %ra!n!n" has con%!n-
ued %o rece!ve a%%en%!on !n %he l!%era%ure- (ar-
%!cularly around %he Oues%!on of how #es% %o
use reac%!ons for !(rov!n" %ra!n!n" des!"n and
del!very. Dor"an M 3as(er I2000J fac%or ana-
ly/ed a se% of %ra!n!n" reac%!on !%es fro 9124
"overnen% e(loyees and found ev!dence of
%wo underly!n" fac%ors: overall affec% %oward
%ra!n!n" and (erce!ved u%!l!%y of %he %ra!n!n".
A"u!n!s M )rans%e%%er I2007J also d!scussed %he
need %o d!scr!!na%e #e%ween affec%!ve and u%!l-
!%y reac%!ons #ecause u%!l!%y reac%!ons are ore
s%ron"ly rela%ed %o learn!n" %han are affec%!ve
reac%!ons. 2.A. )rown I2005J (ro(osed a %he-
ore%!cal s%ruc%ure w!%h d!s%!nc% fac%ors Ien>oy-
en%- relevance- and %echnolo"y sa%!sfac%!onJ as
well as a second-order fac%or of overall sa%!sfac-
%!on- rela%ed !n (ar% %o %ra!nee affec%. Da%a fro
%wo s%ud!es re(or%ed #y 2.A. )rown I2005J su(-
(or%ed %h!s odel. ,n a s%udy of 141 2orean
wor<ers- C! M Dorr!s I2006J showed %ha%
%he rela%!onsh!( #e%ween (erce!ved a((l!ca#!l-
!%y I%ra!n!n" u%!l!%yJ and (erce!ved a((l!ca%!on
I%ransferJ decreased as %he %!e #e%ween %ra!n-
!n" and easureen% !ncreased.
+here con%!nues %o #e calls for es%a#l!sh!n"
%he re%urn on !nves%en% for %ra!n!n"- (ar%!cu-
larly as %ra!n!n" con%!nues %o #e ou%sourced and
new fors of +D, are ar<e%ed as cos% effec-
%!ve. Al%hou"h %he %ools and s%ra%e"!es for show-
!n" re%urn on !nves%en% are well <nown Ie.".-
2ra!"er 2002- Ph!ll!(s M Ph!ll!(s 2007- 0(!%/er
2005J- as %he a#ove rev!ew of or"an!/a%!onal-
level ou%coes !nd!ca%ed- %here rea!n few (u#-
l!shed s%ud!es of re%urn on !nves%en%.
,n suary- !% !s !(or%an% no% only %ha% %he
#ene*%s of %ra!n!n" #e a=!!/ed- #u% also %ha%
%hese #ene*%s are docuen%ed. Recen%ly (ro-
(osed conce(%ual!/a%!ons and easures of %ra!n-
!n" effec%!veness can enhance %he (erce!ved
#ene*%s of %ra!n!n" fro %he (ers(ec%!ve of %he
var!ous s%a<eholders !n %he (rocess- !nclud!n"
%hose who (ar%!c!(a%e !n %ra!n!n"- %hose who
del!ver !%- and %hose who fund !% Ie.".- or"an!-
/a%!onsJ. ,% !s !(or%an% %ha% %ra!n!n" evalua%!on
!nclude a cons!dera%!on of %he !n%ended (ur(ose
of %he evalua%!on- %he needs and so(h!s%!ca%!on
of %he !n%ended aud!ence- and %he var!a#les re-
la%ed %o var!ous %y(es of u%!l!%y reac%!ons I!.e.-
affec%!ve versus u%!l!%yJ.
Trans+er o+ Training
@v!dence descr!#ed !n %he (rev!ous sec%!ons
forcefully a<es %he (o!n% %ha% %ra!n!n" wor<s-
!n %he sense %ha% !% has an !(ac% on !nd!v!d-
uals and %eas and on %he or"an!/a%!ons and
A
n
n
u
.

R
e
v
.

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
.

2
0
0
9
.
6
0
:
4
5
1
-
4
7
4
.

D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o

w
w
w
.
a
n
n
u
a
l
r
e
v
!
e
w
s
.
o
r
"

#
y

R
!
c
e

$
n
!
v
e
r
s
!
%
y

o
n

1
2
&
2
0
&
1
1
.

'
o
r

(
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
%he soc!e%!es !n wh!ch %hey func%!on. 1owever-
%ra!n!n" effor%s w!ll no% y!eld %he an%!c!(a%ed ef-
fec%s !f <nowled"e- a%%!%udes- and s<!lls acOu!red
!n %ra!n!n" are no% fully and a((ro(r!a%ely %rans-
ferred %o >o#-rela%ed ac%!v!%!es. +hus- %he s%udy
of %ransfer of %ra!n!n" focuses on var!a#les %ha%
affec% %he !(ac% of %ra!n!n" on %ransfer of %ra!n-
!n" as well as on !n%erven%!ons !n%ended %o en-
hance %ransfer.
Research on odera%ors of %he %ra!n!n"-
%ransfer rela%!onsh!( has focused (r!ar!ly
on wor<"rou( fac%orsPsu(erv!sory and (eer
su((or%Pas well as on or"an!/a%!onal-level fac-
%ors. 1ol%on e% al. I2005J used %he Cearn!n"
+ransfer 0ys%e ,nven%ory I1ol%on e% al. 2001J
%o e=a!ne d!fferences !n %ransfer charac%er!s-
%!cs across e!"h% d!fferen% or"an!/a%!ons- %hree
or"an!/a%!on %y(es- and %hree %ra!n!n" %y(es.
+he Cearn!n" +ransfer 0ys%e ,nven%ory !n-
cludes 64 !%es enco(ass!n" 16 conce(%ual
cons%ruc%s %ha% !n %urn are or"an!/ed !n %o four
a>or "rou(s: %ra!nee charac%er!s%!cs Ilearner
read!ness and self-ef*cacyJ- %ra!nee o%!va%!on
Io%!va%!on %o %ransfer- %ransfer effor% %o (erfor-
ance e=(ec%a%!ons- and (erforance %o ou%-
coe e=(ec%a%!onsJ- wor< env!ronen% I(erfor-
ance coach!n"- su(erv!sor su((or%- su(erv!sor
sanc%!ons- (eer su((or%- res!s%ance-o(enness %o
chan"e- (os!%!ve (ersonal ou%coes- and ne"a-
%!ve (ersonal ou%coesJ- and a#!l!%y I(erce!ved
con%en% val!d!%y- (ersonal ca(ac!%y for %ransfer-
%ransfer des!"n- and o((or%un!%y %o useJ. Anal-
yses showed %ha% scale scores d!ffered across !n-
d!v!dual or"an!/a%!ons- or"an!/a%!on %y(es- and
%ra!n!n" %y(es- !nd!ca%!n" %ha% %ransfer env!ron-
en%s are (ro#a#ly un!Oue %o each %ra!n!n"
a((l!ca%!on.
Re"ard!n" or"an!/a%!onal-level fac%ors-
2on%o"h!or"hes I2004J e(has!/ed %he !-
(or%ance of #o%h %ransfer cl!a%e and %he wor<
env!ronen% !n fac!l!%a%!n" %ransfer. +ransfer
cl!a%e !ncludes a nu#er of fac%ors !nclud!n"
su(erv!sory and (eer su((or%- #u% also %as<
cues- %ra!n!n" accoun%a#!l!%y- o((or%un!%!es %o
(rac%!ce- o((or%un!%!es %o use new <nowled"e
and s<!lls- and !n%r!ns!c and e=%r!ns!c rewards
for us!n" new <nowled"e. ;or< env!ronen%
fac%ors !nclude soc!o%echn!cal sys%e des!"n
var!a#les Ie.".- fos%er!n" >o# !nvolveen%- e-
(loyee !nvolveen%- !nfora%!on shar!n"J- >o#
des!"n var!a#les Ie.".- fos%er!n" %as< au%onoy-
>o# a%chJ- Oual!%y ana"een% var!a#les Ie.".-
e(loyee co!%en% %o Oual!%y wor<- cus-
%oer focusJ- and con%!nuous learn!n" var!a#les
Ie.".- con%!nuous learn!n" as a (r!or!%y- rewards
for learn!n"J. ;!%h a sa(le of 500 e(loyees
!n %he !nfora%!on %echnolo"y d!v!s!on of a
lar"e $.0. au%oa<er- 2on%o"h!or"hes I2004J
found su((or% for #o%h cl!a%e and wor<
env!ronen% fac%ors as (red!c%ors of %ransfer
o%!va%!on and (erforance.
Al%hou"h %here con%!nue %o #e cla!s %ha%
%he %ransfer cl!a%e !s cr!%!cal %o %ransfer of
%ra!n!n"- e(!r!cal s%ud!es of %ransfer cl!a%e
have y!elded !=ed resul%s. R!chan-1!rsch
I2001J found %ha% (os%%ra!n!n" %ransfer en-
hanceen% !n%erven%!ons were ore successful
!n su((or%!ve wor< env!ronen%s. 3h!a#uru M
Dar!nova I2005J found no effec%s for su(erv!-
sory su((or% #u% (os!%!ve resul%s for (eer su(-
(or% !n a s%udy of 146 %ra!ned e(loyees. van
der 2l!n< e% al. I2001J also found no effec% for
su- (erv!sory su((or% on %wo s%ud!es !nvolv!n"
#an< %ellers. An !(or%an% s%udy for
unders%and!n" %hese !=ed resul%s ay #e %ha%
of P!dd I2004J- wh!ch e=a!ned %he role of (eer
and su(erv!sory su((or% for %ransfer of %ra!n!n"
on wor<(lace dru" and alcohol awareness. P!dd
re(or%ed %ha% %he !nNuence of wor<(lace
su((or% on %ransfer was odera%ed #y %he
e=%en% %o wh!ch %ra!nees !den%!*ed w!%h %he
"rou(s %ha% (rov!ded su((or%.
A nu#er of s%ud!es have !nves%!"a%ed !n-
%ra!n!n" s%ra%e"!es for !(rov!n" %ransfer- w!%h
l!%%le or !=ed success. +.3. )rown I2005J e=-
a!ned "oal se%%!n" a% %he end of %ra!n!n" #y
co(ar!n" %hree cond!%!ons: se%%!n" d!s%al "oals-
se%%!n" (ro=!al (lus d!s%al "oals- and %ell!n"
(ar%!c!(an%s %o do %he!r #es%. 3on%rary %o e=(ec-
%a%!ons- (ar%!c!(an%s !ns%ruc%ed %o do %he!r #es%
ou%-(erfored %ra!nees %old %o se% d!s%al "oals-
and d!d as well as (ar%!c!(an%s %old %o se% (ro=-
!al (lus d!s%al "oals. ,n con%ras%- R!chan-
1!rsch I2001J re(or%ed (os!%!ve effec%s for
a (os%%ra!n!n" "oal-se%%!n" !n%erven%!on- (ar-
%!cularly !n su((or%!ve wor< env!ronen%s.
A
n
n
u
.

R
e
v
.

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
.

2
0
0
9
.
6
0
:
4
5
1
-
4
7
4
.

D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o

w
w
w
.
a
n
n
u
a
l
r
e
v
!
e
w
s
.
o
r
"

#
y

R
!
c
e

$
n
!
v
e
r
s
!
%
y

o
n

1
2
&
2
0
&
1
1
.

'
o
r

(
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
Aaud!ne M 0a<s I2004J found no d!fferences
#e%ween a rela(se (reven%!on and %ransfer en-
hanceen% !n%erven%!on for nurses a%%end!n"
a %wo-day %ra!n!n" (ro"ra. +he researchers
su""es%ed %ha% %ransfer cl!a%e and su((or%
were l!<ely ore (o%en% de%er!nan%s of %rans-
fer %han were (os%%ra!n!n" !n%erven%!ons. 1u!n%
M 0a<s I2005J e=a!ned ana"ers9 reac%!ons %o
e!%her a rela(se (reven%!on !n%erven%!on or one
e(has!/!n" su(erv!sor su((or%. 'or a sa(le
of 174 ana"ers and s%uden%s- %here was no s!"-
n!*can% d!fference !n (references for e!%her !n-
%erven%!on- al%hou"h %here was a sl!"h%
%endency %o (refer %he su(erv!sor su((or%
!n%erven%!on.
,n suary- recen% research has re(or%ed
on how %o ensure %ha% %he chan"es %ha% %a<e
(lace dur!n" %ra!n!n" are %ransferred #ac< %o %he
>o# env!ronen%. +a<en %o"e%her- %h!s #ody of
research (o!n%s %o %he !(or%ance of cons!d-
er!n" !n%er(ersonal fac%ors such as su(erv!sory
and (eer su((or% as odera%ors of %he %ra!n!n"-
%ransfer of %ra!n!n" rela%!onsh!(. Dore d!s%al
or"an!/a%!onal-level fac%ors such as %ransfer cl!-
a%e have no% rece!ved cons!s%en% su((or% as
!(or%an% odera%ors.
CONC)U&ION& AND
&U''$&TION& %OR
%UTUR$ R$&$ARCH
;e %a<e %he (o!n% of v!ew %ha% %ra!n!n" leads
%o !(or%an% #ene*%s for !nd!v!duals and %eas-
or"an!/a%!ons- and soc!e%y. +he (resen% rev!ew
su""es%s %ha% %hese #ene*%s ran"e fro !nd!-
v!dual and %ea (erforance %o %he econo!c
(ros(er!%y of a na%!on. +o unders%and %hese
#en- e*%s of %ra!n!n"- we ado(%ed a ul%!level-
ul- %!d!sc!(l!nary- and "lo#al (ers(ec%!ve.
;e also !ncluded a d!scuss!on of how %o
a=!!/e %he #ene*%s of %ra!n!n". +hese
fac%ors !nclude (ay- !n" a%%en%!on %o needs
assessen% and (re%ra!n- !n" s%a%es of %ra!nees
Ie.".- %ra!nee o%!va%!onJ- %ra!n!n" des!"n and
del!very Ie.".- advan%a"es of us!n" error
%ra!n!n"J- %ra!n!n" evalua%!on Ie.".-
docuen%!n" %ra!n!n" success d!fferen%ly de-
(end!n" on %he s%a<eholder !n Oues%!onJ- and
%ransfer of %ra!n!n" I!.e.- %he !(or%ance of !n-
%er(ersonal fac%orsJ.
Implications +or -ractice
+he or"an!/a%!ons %ha% are a#le %o real!/e %he #ene*%s of
%ra!n!n" %ha% are docuen%ed !n %h!s rev!ew are a#le %o ove
away fro v!ew!n" %he %ra!n!n" func%!on as an o(era%!onal
func%!on or cos% cen%er %o one %ha% !s value dr!ven I'o=
2005J. 'or e=a(le- %he consul%!n" co(any
Pr!cewa%erhouse3oo(ers has cu% cos%s !n any areas #u%
!ncreased !%s !nves%en% !n e(loyee %ra!n!n" %o a#ou% :120
!ll!on (er year. Ano%her lead!n" consul%!n" *r- )oo/
Allen 1a!l%on- #el!eves !n develo(!n" wor<ers as a lon"-
%er co(e%!%!ve advan%a"e and ana"es !%s learn- !n"
func%!ons as revenue cen%ers I'o= 2005J. Dana"ers and
o%her dec!s!on a<ers !n %hese or"an!/a%!ons (refer
!nfora%!on and da%a on #us!ness-rela%ed resul%s %o a<e
dec!s!ons a#ou% how %o alloca%e resources- !nclud!n"
resources for %ra!n!n" ac%!v!%!es IDa%%son 2005J. +ra!n!n" for
%he sa<e of %ra!n!n"- an a((roach %ha% focuses on
develo(en%al !deals and su((or%!ve or"an!- /a%!onal
env!ronen%s- !s no% al!"ned w!%h %o- day9s #us!ness
real!%!es- !nclud!n" co(ressed career (ro"ress!on
(a%hways- #ud"e%ary cu%s and cons%ra!n%s- h!"hly
co(e%!%!ve env!ron- en%s- and ar<e%-dr!ven econo!c
(h!loso- (h!es IDcAu!re e% al. 2005J. Des!"n!n"- del!v-
er!n"- evalua%!n"- and clearly docuen%!n" %he #ene*%s of
%ra!n!n" us!n" %he !nfora%!on !n- cluded !n %h!s rev!ew
w!ll allow %he huan re- source ana"een% func%!on %o
#e a s%ra%e"!c or"an!/a%!onal (layer and %o ove away fro
%he ne"a%!ve conno%a%!ons Ie.".- Kwelfare sec- re%ar!esLJ
assoc!a%ed w!%h %h!s func%!on !n %he %wen%!e%h cen%ury
I1aonds 2005- Eaco#y
2004- 2ra!"er e% al. 2004J.
&ggestions +or %tre Researc.
;e also !den%!fy fu%ure d!rec%!ons for research. '!rs%- we
su""es% %ha% %he #ene*%s of %ra!n- !n" ay have a
cascad!n" effec% such %ha% !nd!v!dual-level #ene*%s Ie.".-
!nd!v!dual (erfor- anceJ affec% %ea-level #ene*%s I!.e.- %ea
(er- foranceJ- wh!ch !n %urn affec% or"an!/a%!onal I!.e.-
(ro*%a#!l!%yJ and soc!e%al I!.e.- huan ca(- !%alJ ou%coes.
1owever- research !s needed %o
A
n
n
u
.

R
e
v
.

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
.

2
0
0
9
.
6
0
:
4
5
1
-
4
7
4
.

D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o

w
w
w
.
a
n
n
u
a
l
r
e
v
!
e
w
s
.
o
r
"

#
y

R
!
c
e

$
n
!
v
e
r
s
!
%
y

o
n

1
2
&
2
0
&
1
1
.

'
o
r

(
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
unders%and %he fac%ors %ha% fac!l!%a%e a soo%h
cross-level %ransfer of #ene*%s. .f s(ec!al !n-
%eres% !s %he Oues%!on of ver%!cal %ransfer: how
effec%s of %ra!n!n" on !nd!v!duals I!ncreased
<nowled"e and s<!llsJ %ransla%e d!rec%ly !n%o #e%-
%er func%!on!n" a% %he %ea and or"an!/a%!onal
level. Al%hou"h "ood conce(%ual odels of %h!s
(rocess e=!s% Ie.".- 2o/lows<! M 0alas 1997-
2o/lows<! e% al. 2000J- %here has #een l!%%le
e(!r!cal research. 3once(%ual wor< on such
cross-level %ransfers !n o%her areas of a((l!ed
(sycholo"y ay (rove useful !n %h!s re"ard Ie.".-
'!ol e% al. 2001J.
0econd- a "a( e=!s%s #e%ween %he a((l!ed and
scholarly l!%era%ures re"ard!n" %he use of cycle
%!e as a var!a#le %o assess %ra!n!n" effec%!ve-
ness I1ol%on 2005J. @ffec% s!/es for %he Oual!%y
of (erforance ay no% #e %he sae as %hose
for %he s(eed a% wh!ch !nd!v!duals- %eas- and
or- "an!/a%!ons !den%!fy and !(leen%
solu%!ons %o new (ro#les. A!ven co(e%!%!on
and ar<e%- rela%ed (ressures- or"an!/a%!ons
need %o real!/e %he #ene*%s of %ra!n!n" fas%er
and fas%er. Re- search on %h!s !ssue !s lac<!n"
!n %he scholarly l!%era%ure6 wor< !s needed
re"ard!n" %he fac%ors %ha% can accelera%e %he
real!/a%!on of %he #ene*%s of %ra!n!n" a% var!ous
levels of analys!s. +h!s re- search ay (ro*%
fro !n!%!al s%ud!es on %he ef- fec%s of %ra!n!n"
on !nnova%!on and (erforance ada(%a#!l!%y.
+h!rd- al%hou"h %he role of affec% has #een
ac<nowled"ed !n %he easureen% of reac%!ons
%o %ra!n!n"- affec% could (lay a ore cen%ral
role !n %he %ra!n!n" (rocess !n "eneral. Pr!or
research has focused on %he rela%!onsh!( #e-
%ween l!<!n" a %ra!n!n" (ro"ra I(os!%!ve re-
ac%!onsJ and e(loyee learn!n" or su#seOuen%
(erforance IAll!"er e% al. 1997J- #u% has (a!d
less a%%en%!on %o rela%!onsh!(s #e%ween affec%!ve
s%a%es dur!n" %ra!n!n" and learn!n". .ffer!n"
e(loyees %ra!n!n" o((or%un!%!es can #e seen as
a essa"e %ha% %he or"an!/a%!on cares for !%s e-
(loyees IA"u!n!s 2009J. +h!s (erce(%!on ay !n
%urn (roduce #ene*%s even %hou"h %ra!n!n" de-
s!"n and del!very ay no% #e o(%!al. ,n shor%-
fu%ure research could !nves%!"a%e %he e=%en% %o
wh!ch %ra!n!n" o((or%un!%!es are seen as a es-
sa"e %ha% %he or"an!/a%!on cares- wh!ch could
#e a (owerful and !(or%an% essa"e !n %o-
day9s cor(ora%e world (la"ued #y downs!/!n"
and e(loyee layoffs.
'our%h- we !den%!*ed %he need %o s%udy od-
era%ors !n several areas. Dodera%ors e=(la!n %he
cond!%!ons under wh!ch an effec% or rela%!onsh!(
!s l!<ely %o #e (resen% and l!<ely %o #e s%ron"er
IA"u!n!s 2004- A"u!n!s e% al. 2005J. +ra!n!n"
re- search has cons!s%en%ly found su((or% for
#o%h !nd!v!dual and s!%ua%!onal odera%ors on
rela- %!onsh!(s aon" %ra!n!n" !n%erven%!ons-
%ra!nee learn!n"- and wor<(lace (erforance
I2ra!"er
M A"u!n!s 2001J. 'or e=a(le- !n %h!s rev!ew
we h!"hl!"h%ed %he !(or%ance of odera%ors
!n %he s%udy of %he rela%!onsh!( #e%ween #ehav-
!or odel!n" and %ra!n!n" ou%coes- %he rela-
%!onsh!( #e%ween cross-cul%ural %ra!n!n" and e=-
(a%r!a%e ad>us%en%- %he rela%!onsh!( #e%ween
%ra!n!n" and %ransfer. 1owever- add!%!onal re-
search !s needed %o unders%and fully %he ran"e
and !(ac% of %hese odera%ors. ,deally- %h!s
research would #e dr!ven #y #e%%er %heory on
how (ro(osed s!%ua%!onal and !nd!v!dual od-
era%ors o(era%e %o effec% learn!n" and %ransfer.
'or e=a(le- how do or"an!/a%!onal sys%es for
accoun%a#!l!%y !nNuence %ra!nee o%!va%!on or
co"n!%!ve effor% dur!n" %ra!n!n"W 1ow does co"-
n!%!ve a#!l!%y !nNuence #o%h %he ra%e and de(%h
of learn!n" dur!n" %ra!n!n"W
;e close #y e(has!/!n" %he overwhel-
!n" ev!dence !n favor of %he #ene*%s %ha% %ra!n-
!n" (roduces for !nd!v!duals and %eas- or"a-
n!/a%!ons- and soc!e%y. An !(or%an% challen"e
for %he (rac%!ce of %ra!n!n" !s %o !n%e"ra%e %he
%ra!n!n" func%!on w!%h e(loyee selec%!on- (er-
forance ana"een%- rewards- and o%her hu-
an resource ana"een% (rac%!ces IA"u!n!s
2009- A"u!n!s M P!erce 2004- 3asc!o M A"u!n!s
2005J. +ra!n!n" alone ay no% #e a#le %o
real!/e !%s #ene*%s !f !% !s d!sconnec%ed fro
o%her hu- an resource ana"een% func%!ons
or %he or- "an!/a%!on !s dysfunc%!onal !n o%her
areas Ie.".- !n%er(ersonal rela%!onsh!(sJ.
+ra!n!n" w!ll have %he "rea%es% !(ac% when !%
!s #undled %o"e%her w!%h o%her huan resource
ana"een% (rac- %!ces and %hese (rac%!ces are
also !(leen%ed follow!n" sound (r!nc!(les
and e(!r!cal research.
A
n
n
u
.

R
e
v
.

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
.

2
0
0
9
.
6
0
:
4
5
1
-
4
7
4
.

D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o

w
w
w
.
a
n
n
u
a
l
r
e
v
!
e
w
s
.
o
r
"

#
y

R
!
c
e

$
n
!
v
e
r
s
!
%
y

o
n

1
2
&
2
0
&
1
1
.

'
o
r

(
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
&U**AR1 -OINT&
1. +he curren% rev!ew d!ffers fro (rev!ous Annual Review of Psychology ar%!cles on %he %o(!c
of %ra!n!n" and develo(en% #ecause !%s a((roach !s fundaen%ally ul%!d!sc!(l!nary-
ul%!level- and "lo#al.
2. +here !s cons!dera#le su((or% for %he any #ene*%s of %ra!n!n" for !nd!v!duals and %eas.
+hese #ene*%s !nclude (erforance as well as var!a#les %ha% rela%e d!rec%ly Ie.".- !nno-
va%!on and %ac!% s<!lls- ada(%!ve e=(er%!se- %echn!cal s<!lls- self-ana"een% s<!lls- cross-
cul%ural ad>us%en%J or !nd!rec%ly Ie.".- e(oweren%6 coun!ca%!on- (lann!n"- and
%as< coord!na%!on !n %easJ %o (erforance.
5. Dany s%ud!es have "a%hered su((or% for %he #ene*%s of %ra!n!n" for or"an!/a%!ons as a
whole. +hese #ene*%s !nclude !(roved or"an!/a%!onal (erforance Ie.".- (ro*%a#!l!%y-
effec%!veness- (roduc%!v!%y- o(era%!n" revenue (er e(loyeeJ as well as o%her ou%coes
%ha% rela%e d!rec%ly Ie.".- reduced cos%s- !(roved Oual!%y and Ouan%!%yJ or !nd!rec%ly Ie.".-
e(loyee %urnover- or"an!/a%!on9s re(u%a%!on- soc!al ca(!%alJ %o (erforance.
4. +he reco"n!%!on of %he #ene*%s of %ra!n!n" ac%!v!%!es for soc!e%y has led any coun%r!es
around %he world %o ado(% na%!onal (ol!c!es %o encoura"e %he des!"n and del!very of
%ra!n!n" (ro"ras a% %he na%!onal level. +he "oal of %hese (ol!c!es !s %o !(rove a
na%!on9s huan ca(!%al- wh!ch !n %urn !s rela%ed %o "rea%er econo!c (ros(er!%y.
5. 0everal !n%erven%!ons are effec%!ve a% enhanc!n" %he #ene*%s of %ra!n!n". '!rs%- or"an!-
/a%!ons should conduc% a needs assessen% us!n" e=(er!enced su#>ec% a%%er e=(er%s %o
a<e sure %ra!nees are ready and o%!va%ed for %ra!n!n". 0econd- !n %ers of des!"n- or-
"an!/a%!ons should a((ly %heory-#ased learn!n" (r!nc!(les such as encoura"!n" %ra!nees
%o or"an!/e %he %ra!n!n" con%en%- a<!n" sure %ra!nees e=(end effor% !n %he acOu!s!%!on
of new s<!lls- and (rov!d!n" %ra!nees w!%h an o((or%un!%y %o a<e errors %o"e%her w!%h
e=(l!c!% !ns%ruc%!ons %o encoura"e %he %o learn fro %hese errors enhances %he #ene*%s
of %ra!n!n". +h!rd- !n %ers of %ra!n!n" del!very- %he #ene*%s of us!n" %echnolo"y for
%ra!n!n" del!very can #e enhanced #y (rov!d!n" %ra!nees w!%h ada(%!ve "u!dance. 'our%h-
!% !s !(or%an% no% only %ha% %he #ene*%s of %ra!n!n" #e a=!!/ed- #u% also %ha% %hese
#ene*%s are docuen%ed. Recen%ly (ro(osed conce(%ual!/a%!ons and easures of %ra!n!n"
effec%!veness can enhance %he (erce!ved #ene*%s of %ra!n!n" fro %he (ers(ec%!ve of %he
var!ous s%a<eholders !n %he (rocess- !nclud!n" %hose who (ar%!c!(a%e !n %ra!n!n"- %hose
who del!ver !%- and %hose who fund !% Ie.".- or"an!/a%!onsJ. '!nally- recen% research (o!n%s
%o %he !(or%ance of cons!der!n" !n%er(ersonal fac%ors such as su(erv!sory and (eer su(-
(or% as odera%ors of %he rela%!onsh!( #e%ween %ra!n!n" and %ransfer of %ra!n!n" #ac< %o
%he wor< env!ronen%.
6. Des!"n!n"- del!ver!n"- evalua%!n"- and clearly docuen%!n" %he #ene*%s of %ra!n!n" us!n"
%he !nfora%!on !ncluded !n %h!s rev!ew w!ll allow %he huan resource ana"een% func-
%!on %o #e a s%ra%e"!c or"an!/a%!onal (layer and %o ove away fro %he ne"a%!ve conno-
%a%!ons Ie.".- Kwelfare secre%ar!esLJ assoc!a%ed w!%h %h!s func%!on !n %he %wen%!e%h cen%ury.
7. 'u%ure research !s needed !n several areas. 'or e=a(le- %he #ene*%s of %ra!n!n" ay have
a cascad!n" effec% such %ha% !nd!v!dual-level #ene*%s Ie.".- !nd!v!dual (erforanceJ affec%
%ea-level #ene*%s I!.e.- %ea (erforanceJ- wh!ch !n %urn affec% or"an!/a%!onal I!.e.- (rof-
!%a#!l!%yJ and soc!e%al I!.e.- huan ca(!%alJ ou%coes. 1owever- fu%ure research !s needed
A
n
n
u
.

R
e
v
.

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
.

2
0
0
9
.
6
0
:
4
5
1
-
4
7
4
.

D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o

w
w
w
.
a
n
n
u
a
l
r
e
v
!
e
w
s
.
o
r
"

#
y

R
!
c
e

$
n
!
v
e
r
s
!
%
y

o
n

1
2
&
2
0
&
1
1
.

'
o
r

(
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
%o unders%and %he fac%ors %ha% fac!l!%a%e a soo%h cross-level %ransfer of #ene*%s. 0econd-
a "a( e=!s%s #e%ween %he a((l!ed and scholarly l!%era%ures re"ard!n" %he use of cycle %!e
as a var!a#le %o assess %ra!n!n" effec%!veness. +h!rd- al%hou"h %he role of affec% has #een
ac<nowled"ed !n %he easureen% of reac%!ons %o %ra!n!n"- affec% has %he (o%en%!al %o (lay
a ore cen%ral role !n %he %ra!n!n" (rocess !n "eneral. '!nally- %h!s rev!ew !den%!*es %he
need %o s%udy odera%ors- !nclud!n" odera%ors of %he rela%!onsh!( #e%ween #ehav!or
odel!n" and %ra!n!n" ou%coes- %he rela%!onsh!( #e%ween cross-cul%ural %ra!n!n" and
e=(a%r!a%e ad>us%en%- and %he rela%!onsh!( #e%ween %ra!n!n" and %ransfer.
4. +ra!n!n" alone ay no% #e a#le %o real!/e !%s #ene*%s !f !% !s d!sconnec%ed fro o%her
huan resource ana"een% func%!ons or !f %he or"an!/a%!on !s dysfunc%!onal !n o%her
areas Ie.".- !n%er(ersonal rela%!onsh!(sJ. +ra!n!n" w!ll have %he "rea%es% !(ac% when !%
!s #undled %o"e%her w!%h o%her huan resource ana"een% (rac%!ces and %hese
(rac%!ces are also !(leen%ed follow!n" sound (r!nc!(les and (rac%!ces #ased on
e(!r!cal research.
DI&C)O&UR$ &TAT$*$NT
+he au%hors are no% aware of any #!ases %ha% !"h% #e (erce!ved as affec%!n" %he o#>ec%!v!%y of %h!s
rev!ew.
ACKNOW)$D'*$NT&
;e %han< 2en )rown- 0%eve 2o/lows<!- 3huc< P!erce- and 0a#!ne 0onnen%a" for cons%ruc%!ve
coen%s on earl!er draf%s. +h!s research was conduc%ed !n (ar% wh!le 1eran A"u!n!s was on
sa##a%!cal fro %he $n!vers!%y of 3olorado Denver and hold!n" v!s!%!n" a((o!n%en%s a% %he
$n!vers!%y of 0alaanca I0(a!nJ and %he $n!vers!%y of Puer%o R!co.
)IT$RATUR$ CIT$D
A"u!n!s 1. 2009. Perfor!ance &anage!ent. $((er 0addle R!ver- ?E: Pearson Pren%!ce 1all. 2nd ed.
A"u!n!s 1. 2004. Regression Analysis for 'ategorical &oderators. ?ew Gor<: Au!lford
A"u!n!s 1- )ea%y E3- )o!< RE- P!erce 3A. 2005. @ffec% s!/e and (ower !n assess!n" odera%!n" effec%s of
ca%e"or!cal var!a#les us!n" ul%!(le re"ress!on: a 50-year rev!ew. (. Al. Psychol. 90:948107
A"u!n!s 1- )rans%e%%er 0A. 2007. +each!n" %he conce(% of %he sa(l!n" d!s%r!#u%!on of %he ean. (. &anag.
)duc. 51:467845
A"u!n!s 1- Da/ur<!ew!c/ DD- 1e""es%ad- @D. 2009. $s!n" ;e#-#ased frae-of-reference %ra!n!n" %o de-
crease #!ases !n (ersonal!%y-#ased >o# analys!s: an e=(er!en%al *eld s%udy. Pers. Psychol. ,n (ress
A"u!n!s 1- P!erce 3A. 2004. @nhanc!n" %he relevance of or"an!/a%!onal #ehav!or #y e#rac!n" (erforance
ana"een% research. (. *rgan. Behav. 29:159845
A"u!n!s 1- 0%uran D3- P!erce 3A. 2004. 3o(ar!son of %hree e%a-analy%!c (rocedures for es%!a%!n"
odera%!n" effec%s of ca%e"or!cal var!a#les. *rgan. Res. &ethods 11:9854
All!"er AD- +annen#au 0,- )enne%% ; Er- +raver 1- 0ho%land A. 1997. A e%a-analys!s of %he rela%!ons
aon" %ra!n!n" cr!%er!a. Pers. Psychol. 50:541854
Ara"oS n-0aS nche/ A- )ar#a-Ara"oS n ,- 0an/-Balle R. 2005. @ffec%s of %ra!n!n" on #us!ness resul%s. +nt. (.
,u!.
Resour. &anag. 14:956840
Art.r W,3 #ennett W,3 $dens -3 #ell &T4 56674 $++ectiveness o+ training in organi!ations: a meta/
analysis o+ design and evalation +eatres4 J. Appl. Psychol. 88:579:9;
)aran/!n! D- )acch! D- 3acc!a#ue P3. 2001. A %ool for evalua%!on and !den%!*ca%!on of %ra!n!n" needs !n
a!rcraf%. ,u!.
-actors Aeros. .af.
1:167895
A broad meta/analysis s.o"ing lin<ages bet"een training design and evalation +eatres and training sccess at
individal and organi!ational levels4
A
n
n
u
.

R
e
v
.

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
.

2
0
0
9
.
6
0
:
4
5
1
-
4
7
4
.

D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o

w
w
w
.
a
n
n
u
a
l
r
e
v
!
e
w
s
.
o
r
"

#
y

R
!
c
e

$
n
!
v
e
r
s
!
%
y

o
n

1
2
&
2
0
&
1
1
.

'
o
r

(
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
#lends t.eory and
application to advance a
"or<able compromise
bet"een advocates o+
.ig.ly strctred and
prely e=ploratory
compter/based
learning environments4
-resents bot. a
.ierarc.ical analysis o+
training reactions and a
case +or t.eir vale in
decision ma<ing related
to training4
Demonstrates t.e
importance o+ trainee
sel+/reglation dring
training3 particlarly on
sbse>ent adaptive
per+ormance4
)ar#er E. 2004. 0<!ll u("rad!n" w!%h!n !nforal %ra!n!n": lessons fro %he ,nd!an au%o echan!c. +nt. (. Train.
Dev. 4:124859
)ar%le%% 2R- Rod"ers E. 2004. 1RD as na%!onal (ol!cy !n %he Pac!*c ,slands. Adv. Dev. ,u!. Resour. 6:507814
)ec<er A. 1962. ,nves%en% !n huan ca(!%al: a %heore%!cal analys!s. (. Pol. )con. 70I0u((l. 5- P%. 2J:09849
)ec<er A. 1964. ,u!an 'aital/ A Theoretical and )!irical Analysis0 1ith .ecial Reference to )ducation. ?ew
Gor<: 3olu#!a $n!v. Press
#ell #&3 Ko!lo"s<i &W,4 56654 Adaptive gidance: en.ancing sel+/reglation3 <no"ledge and per+or/
mance in tec.nology/based training4 Pers. Psychol. ;;:5?@:76?
)enson A- '!ne"old D- Dohran 0A. 2004. Gou (a!d for %he s<!lls- now <ee( %he: %u!%!on re!#urseen%
and volun%ary %urnover. Acad. &anag. (. 47:515851
)hawu< DP0- )r!sl!n R;. 2000. 3ross-cul%ural %ra!n!n": a rev!ew. Al. Psychol./ An +nt. Rev. 49:162891
)lanchard P?- +hac<er E;. 2007. )ffective Training/ .yste!s0 .trategies0 and Practices. $((er 0addle R!ver- ?E:
Pearson Pren%!ce 1all. 5rd ed.
)rown 2A. 2001. $s!n" co(u%ers %o del!ver %ra!n!n": ;h!ch e(loyees learn and whyW Pers. Psychol. 54:2718
96
#ro"n K'4 566;4 $=amining t.e strctre and nomological net"or< o+ trainee reactions: a closer
loo< at Asmile s.eets4B J. Appl. Psychol. C6:CCD:D66D
)rown 2A- Ban )uren D@. 2007. A((ly!n" a soc!al ca(!%al (ers(ec%!ve %o %he evalua%!on of d!s%ance %ra!n!n".
,n 1here is the 2earning in Distance 2earning3 Towards a .cience of Distri$uted 2earning and Training-
ed. 0D '!ore- @ 0alas- ((. 41865. ;ash!n"%on- D3: A. Psychol. Assoc.
)rown +3. 2005. @ffec%!veness of d!s%al and (ro=!al "oals as %ransfer-of-%ra!n!n" !n%erven%!ons: a *eld e=-
(er!en%. ,u!. Resour. Dev. 4. 16:569847
3asc!o ;'- A"u!n!s 1. 2005. Alied Psychology in ,u!an Resource &anage!ent. $((er 0addle R!ver- ?E:
Pearson Pren%!ce 1all. 6%h ed.
3asc!o ;'- A"u!n!s 1. 2004. 0%af*n" %wen%y-*rs%-cen%ury or"an!/a%!ons. ,n Acade!y of &anage!ent Annals-
ed. EP ;alsh- AP )r!ef- 2:155865. Dahwah- ?E: @rl#au
3a(#ell EP. 1971. Personnel %ra!n!n" and develo(en%. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 22:5658602
3h!a#uru D0- Dar!nova 0B. 2005. ;ha% (red!c%s s<!ll %ransferW An e=(lora%ory s%udy of "oal or!en%a%!on-
%ra!n!n" self-ef*cacy and or"an!/a%!onal su((or%s. +nt. (. Train. Dev. 9:110825
C.en '3 T.omas #3 Wallace ,C4 566;4 A mltilevel e=amination o+ t.e relations.ips among training
otcomes3 mediating reglatory processes3 and adaptive per+ormance4 J. Appl. Psychol. C6:85@:9D
3ho @- DcCean A?. 2004. ;ha% we d!scovered a#ou% ?1RD and wha% !% eans for 1RD. Adv. Dev. ,u!.
Resour. 6:542895
3lardy A. 2005. Re(u%a%!on- "oodw!ll- and loss: en%er!n" %he e(loyee %ra!n!n" aud!% eOua%!on. ,u!. Resour.
Dev. Rev. 4:2798504
3oll!ns D)- 1ol%on @' ,,,. 2004. +he effec%!veness of ana"er!al leadersh!( develo(en% (ro"ras: a e%a-
analys!s of s%ud!es fro 1942 %o 2001. ,u!. Resour. Dev. 4. 15:217844
3olOu!%% EA- CeP!ne EA- ?oe RA. 2000. +oward an !n%e"ra%!ve %heory of %ra!n!n" o%!va%!on: a e%a-analy%!c
(a%h analys!s of 20 years of research. (. Al. Psychol. 45:6748707
3ullen E- +urn#ull 0. 2005. A e%a-rev!ew of %he ana"een% develo(en% l!%era%ure. ,u!. Resour. Dev. Rev.
4:555855
Darch 1- Cucas +. 2002. +ra!n!n" as an e-coerce ena#ler. (. 1or5lace 2earn. 14:144855
Dav!s 'D- G! DG. 2004. ,(rov!n" co(u%er s<!ll %ra!n!n": #ehav!or odel!n"- sy#ol!c en%al rehearsal-
and %he role of <nowled"e s%ruc%ures. (. Al. Psychol. 49:509825
Day DB. 2000. Ceadersh!( develo(en%: a rev!ew !n con%e=%. 2eadersh. 4. 11:5418614
Dec<er PE- ?a%han )R. 1945. Behavior &odeling Training/ Princiles and Alications. ?ew Gor<: Prae"er
DeRou!n R@- 'r!%/sche )A- 0alas @. 2004. .(%!!/!n" e-learn!n": research-#ased "u!del!nes for learner-
con%rolled %ra!n!n". ,u!. Resour. &anag. Rev. 45:147862
Dr!s<ell- 1all Eohns%on E- 0alas @. 2001. Does s%ress %ra!n!n" "eneral!/e %o novel se%%!n"sW ,u!. -actors 42:998
110
Dv!r +- @den D- Avol!o )E- 0ha!r ). 2002. ,(ac% of %ransfora%!onal leadersh!( on follower develo(en%
and (erforance: a *eld e=(er!en%. Acad. &anag. (. 45:755844
A
n
n
u
.

R
e
v
.

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
.

2
0
0
9
.
6
0
:
4
5
1
-
4
7
4
.

D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o

w
w
w
.
a
n
n
u
a
l
r
e
v
!
e
w
s
.
o
r
"

#
y

R
!
c
e

$
n
!
v
e
r
s
!
%
y

o
n

1
2
&
2
0
&
1
1
.

'
o
r

(
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
@d<!ns AD. 2002. A rev!ew of %he #ene*%s of av!a%!on huan fac%ors %ra!n!n". ,u!. -actors Aeros. .af.
2:201816
@ll!s APE- )ell )0- Ployhar% R@- 1ollen#ec< ER- ,l"en DR. 2005. An evalua%!on of "ener!c %eawor< s<!lls
%ra!n!n" w!%h ac%!on %eas: effec%s on co"n!%!ve and s<!ll-#ased ou%coes. Pers. Psychol. 54:641872
'!ol 3D- .93onnor @E- A"u!n!s 1. 2001. All for one and one for allW +he develo(en% and %ransfer of (ower
across or"an!/a%!onal levels. Acad. &anag. Rev. 26:224842
'ord E2- 2ra!"er 2. 1995. +he a((l!ca%!on of co"n!%!ve cons%ruc%s and (r!nc!(les %o %he !ns%ruc%!onal sys%es
odel of %ra!n!n". ,(l!ca%!ons for needs assessen%- des!"n- and %ransfer. ,n +nternational Review of
+ndustrial and *rgani6ational Psychology- ed. 3C 3oo(er- ,+ Ro#er%son- 10:1844. 3h!ches%er- $2: ;!ley
'ord E2- 0ch!d% AD. 2000. @er"ency res(onse %ra!n!n": s%ra%e"!es for enhanc!n" real-world (erforance.
(. ,a6ard. &ater. 75:1958215
'owl<es E@- 0alas @- )a<er DP- 3annon-)owers EA- 0%ou% RE. 2000. +he u%!l!%y of even%-#ased <nowled"e
el!c!%a%!on. ,u!. -actors 42:24855
'o= A. 2005. +ra!n!n" #ud"e%s sa!d %o #e w!%hs%and!n" co(an!es9 econo!c %rou#les. ,R &ag. 44I7J:52- 54
'rayne 3A- Aer!n"er ED. 2000. 0elf-ana"een% %ra!n!n" for !(rov!n" >o# (erforance: a *eld e=(er!en%
!nvolv!n" sales(eo(le. (. Al. Psychol. 45:561872
'rese D- )e!el 0- 0choen#orn 0. 2005. Ac%!on %ra!n!n" for char!sa%!c leadersh!(: %wo evalua%!ons of s%ud!es
of a coerc!al %ra!n!n" odule on !ns(!ra%!onal coun!ca%!on of a v!s!on. Pers. Psychol. 56:671897
Aaud!ne AP- 0a<s AD. 2004. A lon"!%ud!nal Ouas!-e=(er!en% on %he effec%s of (os%%ra!n!n" %ransfer !n%erven-
%!ons. ,u!. Resour. Dev. 4. 15:57876
Aoe%ers 2D. 2002. @valua%!on of %he effec%s of 3RD %ra!n!n" #y %he assessen% of non%echn!cal s<!lls under
C.'+. ,u!. -actors Aeros. .af. 2:71846
Aolds%e!n ,C. 1940. +ra!n!n" !n wor< or"an!/a%!ons. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 51:229872
Aolds%e!n ,C- 'ord E2. 2002. Training in *rgani6ations. )elon%- 3A: ;adswor%h. 4%h ed.
Auerrero 0- )arraud-D!d!er B. 2004. 1!"h-!nvolveen% (rac%!ces and (erforance of 'rench *rs. +nt. (.
,u!. Resour. &anag. 15:1404825
1aonds 21. 2005. ;hy we ha%e 1R. -ast 'o. 97:40
1e!#ec< D- 'rese D- 0onnen%a" 0- 2e!%h ?. 2005. ,n%e"ra%!n" errors !n%o %he %ra!n!n" (rocess: %he func%!on
of error ana"een% !ns%ruc%!ons and %he role of "oal or!en%a%!on. Pers. Psychol. 56:555861
1!ll 3@- Cen% R;. 2006. A narra%!ve and e%a-analy%!c rev!ew of hel(!n" s<!lls %ra!n!n": %!e %o rev!ve a
doran% area of !nOu!ry. Psychother. Theory Res. Pract. 45:154872
1olladay 3C- Uu!nV ones DA. 2005. Prac%!ce var!a#!l!%y and %ransfer of %ra!n!n": %he role of self-ef*cacy
"en- eral!%y. (. Al. Psychol. 44:10948105
1ol%on @' ,,,. 2005. 3ycle %!e: a !ss!n" d!ens!on !n 1RD research and %heory. ,u!. Resour. Dev. Rev.
2:555856
1ol%on @' ,,,. 2005. 1ol%on9s evalua%!on odel: new ev!dence and cons%ruc% ela#ora%!ons. Adv. Dev. ,u!.
Resour. 7:57854
1ol%on @' ,,,- )a%es RA- Ruona ;@A. 2001. Develo(en% of a "eneral!/ed learn!n" %ransfer sys%e
!nven%ory.
,u!. Resour. Dev. 4. 11:555860
1ol%on @' ,,,- 3hen 1-3- ?aOu!n 00. 2005. An e=a!na%!on of learn!n" %ransfer sys%e charac%er!s%!cs across
or"an!/a%!onal se%%!n"s. ,u!. Resour. Dev. 4. 14:459842
1u!n% 1- 0a<s AD. 2005. +ransla%!n" %ra!n!n" sc!ence !n%o (rac%!ce: a s%udy of ana"ers9 reac%!ons %o (os%-
%ra!n!n" %ransfer !n%erven%!ons. ,u!. Resour. Dev. 4. 14:141894
,nves%ors !n Peo(le 0%andard. 2006. .ttp:EE"" " 4investorsinpeople4co4<E
Eaco#sen E- C!nde<aer AC- .s%er"aard 1+- ?!elsen 2- .s%er"aard D- Cau# D- e% al. 2001. Dana"een% of
ana(hylac%!c shoc< evalua%ed us!n" a full-scale anaes%hes!a s!ula%or. Acta Anaesthesiol. .cand. 45:515819
Eaco#y 0D. 2004. )!loying Bureaucracy. Dahwah- ?E: @rl#au. 2nd ed.
2aufan R- Auerra ,. 2001. A (ers(ec%!ve ad>us%en% %o add value %o e=%ernal cl!en%s I!nclud!n" soc!e%yJ. ,u!.
Resour. Dev. 4. 12:519824
Keit. N3 %rese *4 566;4 &el+/reglation in error management training: emotion control and metacog/
nition as mediators o+ per+ormance e++ects4 J. Appl. Psychol. C6:?@@:CD
2e!%h ?- 'rese D. 2004. @ffec%!veness of error ana"een% %ra!n!n": a e%a-analys!s. (. Al. Psychol. 95:59869
$mpirical stdy t.at
.ig.lig.ts t"o trainee
states t.at li<ely
mediate t.e
e++ectiveness o+
increasingly poplar
error management
training4
A
n
n
u
.

R
e
v
.

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
.

2
0
0
9
.
6
0
:
4
5
1
-
4
7
4
.

D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o

w
w
w
.
a
n
n
u
a
l
r
e
v
!
e
w
s
.
o
r
"

#
y

R
!
c
e

$
n
!
v
e
r
s
!
%
y

o
n

1
2
&
2
0
&
1
1
.

'
o
r

(
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
Introdces perceived
barriers and enablers as
+actors in c.oosing and
bene+iting +rom
traditional and blended
learning environments4
Criti>es past
approac.es to training
evalation models and
presents a t.eory/ and
practice/based ne"
evalation model +or
practitioners and
researc.ers4
Klein H,3 Noe RA3 Wang C4 566?4 *otivation to learn and corse otcomes: t.e impact o+ delivery
mode3 learning goal orientation3 and perceived barriers and enablers4 Pers. Psychol. ;C:??;:@65
2on%o"h!or"hes 3. 2004. Reconce(%ual!/!n" %he learn!n" %ransfer conce(%ual fraewor<: e(!r!cal val!da%!on
of a new sys%e!c odel. +nt. (. Train. Dev. 4:210821
2o/lows<! 0;E- )rown 2A- ;e!ss#e!n DA- 3annon-)owers EA- 0alas @. 2000. A ul%!-level (ers(ec%!ve
on %ra!n!n" effec%!veness: enhanc!n" hor!/on%al and ver%!cal %ransfer. ,n &ultilevel Theory0 Research0 and
&ethods in *rgani6ations- ed. 2E 2le!n- 0;E 2o/lows<!- ((. 1578210. 0an 'ranc!sco- 3A: Eossey-)ass
2o/lows<! 0;E- Aully 0D- )rown 2A- 0alas @- 0!%h @D- ?ason @R. 2001. @ffec%s of %ra!n!n" "oals and "oal
or!en%a%!on %ra!%s on ul%!d!ens!onal %ra!n!n" ou%coes and (erforance ada(%a#!l!%y. *rgan. Behav.
,u!. Decis. Process. 45:1851
2o/lows<! 0;E- 0alas @. 1997. An or"an!/a%!onal sys%es a((roach for %he !(leen%a%!on and %ransfer of
%ra!n!n". ,n +!roving Training )ffectiveness in 1or5 *rgani6ations- ed. 2 'ord- 0; 2o/lows<!- 2 2ra!"er-
@ 0alas- D +eachou%- ((. 247847. Dahwah- ?E: @rl#au
Kraiger K4 56654 Decision/based evalation4 In Creating, Implementing, and Maintaining Effective
Training and Development: tate!of!the!Art "essons for Practice3 ed4 K Kraiger3 pp4 77D:@;4 &an
%rancisco3 CA: ,ossey/#ass
2ra!"er 2. 2005. Pers(ec%!ves on %ra!n!n" and develo(en%. ,n ,and$oo5 of Psychology/ 7olu!e 180 +ndustrial
and *rgani6ational Psychology- ed. ;3 )oran- DR ,l"en- RE 2l!os<!- ((. 171892. 1o#o<en- ?E: ;!ley
2ra!"er 2- A"u!n!s 1. 2001. +ra!n!n" effec%!veness: assess!n" %ra!n!n" needs- o%!va%!on- and
acco(l!shen%s. ,n ,ow Peole )valuate *thers in *rgani6ations/ Person Percetion and +nterersonal (udg!ent in
+9* Psychology-
ed. D Condon- ((. 205819. Dahwah- ?E: @rl#au
2ra!"er 2- 'ord E2- 0alas @. 1995. A((l!ca%!on of co"n!%!ve- s<!ll-#ased- and affec%!ve %heor!es of learn!n"
ou%coes %o new e%hods of %ra!n!n" evalua%!on. (. Al. Psychol. 74:511824
2ra!"er 2- Eerden @. 2007. A new loo< a% learner con%rol: e%a-analy%!c resul%s and d!rec%!ons for fu%ure
research. ,n 1here is the 2earning in Distance 2earning3 Towards a .cience of Distri$uted 2earning
and Training- ed. 0D '!ore- @ 0alas- ((. 65890. ;ash!n"%on- D3: APA )oo<s
2ra!"er 2- DcC!nden D- 3as(er ;E. 2004. 3olla#ora%!ve (lann!n" for %ra!n!n" !(ac%. ,u!. Resour. &anag.
Rev. 45:557851
Ca%ha AP. 1944. 1uan resource %ra!n!n" and develo(en%. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 59:545842
Cee D. 2004. ?a%!onal huan resource develo(en% !n %he $n!%ed 2!n"do. Adv. Dev. ,u!. Resour. 6:554845
C!evens '- 1arr!s DD- Ban 2eer @- )!sOuere% 3. 2005. Pred!c%!n" cross-cul%ural %ra!n!n" (erforance: %he
val!d!%y of (ersonal!%y- co"n!%!ve a#!l!%y- and d!ens!ons easured #y an assessen% cen%er and a #ehav!or
descr!(%!on !n%erv!ew. (. Al. Psychol. 44:476849
C! D1- Dorr!s DC. 2006. ,nNuence of %ra!nee charac%er!s%!cs- !ns%ruc%!onal sa%!sfac%!on- and or"an!/a%!onal
cl!a%e on (erce!ved learn!n" and %ransfer %ra!n!n". ,u!. Resour. Dev. 4. 17:458115
C!nou ?- 2on%o"!ann!s +. 2004. +he effec% of %ra!n!n" sys%e!c !nfora%!on on %he re%en%!on of faul%-*nd!n"
s<!lls !n anufac%ur!n" !ndus%r!es. ,u!. -actors )rgon. &anufacturing 14:1978217
C!%%rell C?- 0alas @- 1ess 2P- Paley D- R!edel 0. 2006. @=(a%r!a%e (re(ara%!on: a cr!%!cal analys!s of 25 years
of cross-cul%ural %ra!n!n" research. ,u!. Resour. Dev. Rev. 5:555844
Da#ey 3- Ra!re/ D. 2005. Does ana"een% develo(en% !(rove or"an!/a%!onal (roduc%!v!%yW A s!=-
coun%ry analys!s of @uro(ean *rs. +nt. (. ,u!. Resour. &anag. 16:1067842
Dar<s DA- 0a#ella DE- )ur<e 30- Faccaro 0E. 2002. +he !(ac% of cross-%ra!n!n" on %ea effec%!veness.
(. Al. Psychol. 47:5815
Da%%son ). 2005. $s!n" %he cr!%!cal ou%coe %echn!Oue %o deons%ra%e *nanc!al and or"an!/a%!onal (erfor-
ance resul%s. Adv. Dev. ,u!. Resour. 7:102820
DcAu!re D- 3ross 3- .9Donnell D. 2005. ;hy huan!s%!c a((roaches !n 1RD won9% wor<. ,u!. Resour.
Dev. 4. 16:151857
Dorey E3- 0!on R- Eay AD- ;ears RC- 0al!s#ury D- e% al. 2002. @rror reduc%!on and (erforance !-
(roveen% !n %he eer"ency de(ar%en% %hrou"h foral %eawor< %ra!n!n": evalua%!on resul%s of %he
Ded+eas Pro>ec%. ,ealth .erv. Res. 57:1555841
Dor"an R)- 3as(er ;E. 2000. @=a!n!n" %he fac%or s%ruc%ure of (ar%!c!(an% reac%!ons %o %ra!n!n": a ul%!d!-
ens!onal a((roach. ,u!. Resour. Dev. 4. 11:501817
A
n
n
u
.

R
e
v
.

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
.

2
0
0
9
.
6
0
:
4
5
1
-
4
7
4
.

D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o

w
w
w
.
a
n
n
u
a
l
r
e
v
!
e
w
s
.
o
r
"

#
y

R
!
c
e

$
n
!
v
e
r
s
!
%
y

o
n

1
2
&
2
0
&
1
1
.

'
o
r

(
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
Dor"eson 'P- 3a(!on DA. 1997. 0oc!al and co"n!%!ve sources of (o%en%!al !naccuracy !n >o# analys!s.
(. Al. Psychol. 42:627855
Dorr!s DA- Ro#!e 3. 2001. A e%a-analys!s of %he effec%s of cross-cul%ural %ra!n!n" on e=(a%r!a%e (erforance
and ad>us%en%. +nt. (. Train. Dev. 5:112825
?oe RA. 2004. )!loyee Training and Develo!ent. )os%on- DA: ,rw!n-DcAraw. 4%h ed.
.93onnor P- 'l!n R- 'le%cher A. 2002. +echn!Oues used %o evalua%e crew resource ana"een% %ra!n!n": a
l!%era%ure rev!ew. ,u!. -actors Aeros. .af. 2:217855
-aradise A4 566@4 &tate o+ t.e Indstry: A&TDFs Annal Revie" o+ Trends in Wor<place )earning and
-er+ormance4 Ale=andria3 (A: A&TD
Ph!ll!(s EE- Ph!ll!(s P. 2007. Deasur!n" re%urn on !nves%en% !n leadersh!( develo(en%. ,n The ,and$oo5 of
2eadershi Develo!ent )valuation- ed. 2D 1annu- E; Dar%!neau- 3 Re!nel%- ((. 157866. 1o#o<en-
?E: ;!ley
P!dd 2. 2004. +he !(ac% of wor<(lace su((or% and !den%!%y on %ra!n!n" %ransfer: a case s%udy of dru" and
alcohol safe%y %ra!n!n" !n Aus%ral!a. +nt. (. Train. Dev. 4:274844
Rao +B. 2004. 1uan resource develo(en% as na%!onal (ol!cy !n ,nd!a. Adv. Dev. ,u!. Resour. 6:244896
R!chan-1!rsch ;C. 2001. Pos%%ra!n!n" !n%erven%!ons %o enhance %ransfer: %he odera%!n" effec%s of wor<
env!ronen%s. ,u!. Resour. Dev. 4. 12:105819
R!vera RE- Parad!se A. 2006. .tate of the +ndustry/ A.TD:s Annual Review of Trends in 1or5lace 2earning
and
Perfor!ance. Ale=andr!a- BA: A0+D
Ro#er%son ,+. 1990. )ehav!our odell!n": !%s record and (o%en%!al !n %ra!n!n" and develo(en%. Br. (. &anag.
1:117825
Rowold E. 2007. +he !(ac% of (ersonal!%y on %ra!n!n"-rela%ed as(ec%s of o%!va%!on: %es% of a lon"!%ud!nal
odel. ,u!. Resour. Dev. 4. 14:9851
0ac<e%% PR- Dullen @E. 1995. )eyond foral e=(er!en%al des!"n: %owards an e=(anded v!ew of %he %ra!n!n"
evalua%!on (rocess. Pers. Psychol. 46:615827
0alas @- )ur<e 30- )owers 3A- ;!lson 2A. 2001. +ea %ra!n!n" !n %he s<!es: Does crew resource
ana"een%
I3RDJ %ra!n!n" wor<W ,u!. -actors 42:641874
0alas @- 3annon-)owers EA. 2001. +he sc!ence of %ra!n!n": a decade of (ro"ress. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 52:471899
0alas @- ;!lson 2A- )ur<e 30. 2006. Does crew resource ana"een% %ra!n!n" wor<W An u(da%e- an
e=%ens!on- and soe cr!%!cal needs. ,u!. -actors 44:5928412
0a%%er*eld ED- 1u"hes @. 2007. @o%!on s<!lls %ra!n!n" for ed!cal s%uden%s: a sys%ea%!c rev!ew. &ed. )duc.
41:955841
0ch!d% A- 'ord E2. 2005. Cearn!n" w!%h!n a learner con%rol %ra!n!n" env!ronen%: %he !n%erac%!ve effec%s of
"oal or!en%a%!on and e%aco"n!%!ve !ns%ruc%!on on learn!n" ou%coes. Pers. Psychol. 56:405850
0!r!ann! PD- 'rey )A. 2001. 3han"!n" a cul%ure: evalua%!on of a leadersh!( develo(en% (ro"ra a% Dellon
'!nanc!al 0erv!ces. +nt. (. Train. Dev. 5:2908501
0!%/ann +- )ell )- 2ra!"er 2. 2004. A ul%!-level analys!s of %he effec% of (ro(%!n" self-re"ula%!on !n
%echnolo"y-del!vered !ns%ruc%!on. Pers. Psychol. Danuscr. under rev!ew
0!%/ann +- )rown 2A- @ly 2- 2ra!"er 2. 2004. Do%!va%!on %o learn !n a !l!%ary %ra!n!n" curr!culu: a
lon"!%ud!nal !nves%!"a%!on. &il. Psychol. Danuscr. under rev!ew
&it!mann T3 Kraiger K3 &te"art D3 Wis.er R4 566?4 T.e comparative e++ectiveness o+ Web/based and
classroom instrction: a meta/analysis4 Pers. Psychol. ;C:?57:?9
0!%h @D- 'ord E2- 2o/lows<! 0;E. 1997. )u!ld!n" ada(%!ve e=(er%!se: !(l!ca%!ons for %ra!n!n" des!"n.
,n Training for a Raidly 'hanging 1or5lace/ Alications of Psychological Research- ed. DA Uu!nV ones-
A @hrens%e!n- ((. 498114. ;ash!n"%on- D3: APA )oo<s
0(!%/er DR. 2005. Cearn!n" effec%!veness easureen%: a new a((roach for easur!n" and ana"!n" learn!n"
%o ach!eve #us!ness resul%s. Adv. Dev. ,u!. Resour. 7:55870
0u"rue )- R!vera RE. 2005. .tate of the +ndustry/ A.TD:s Annual Review of Trends in 1or5lace 2earning
and
Perfor!ance. Ale=andr!a- BA: A0+D
0wanson RA. 2001. Assessing the -inancial Bene;ts of ,u!an Resource Develo!ent. 3a#r!d"e- DA: Perseus
0w!%/er 23- ?a"y D0- Dull!ns D@. 2005. +he !nNuence of %ra!n!n" re(u%a%!on- ana"er!al su((or%- and
self-ef*cacy on
(re%ra!n!n"
o%!va%!on and
(erce!ved
%ra!n!n" %ransfer.
Al. ,R& Res.
10:21854
)atest in an annal series t.at docments training practices in a large sample o+ U4&4 corporations4
)arge/scale meta/ analysis t.at evalates t.e e++ectiveness o+ Web/based instrction and sggests design +actors +or
optimi!ing e++ectiveness4
A
n
n
u
.

R
e
v
.

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
.

2
0
0
9
.
6
0
:
4
5
1
-
4
7
4
.

D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o

w
w
w
.
a
n
n
u
a
l
r
e
v
!
e
w
s
.
o
r
"

#
y

R
!
c
e

$
n
!
v
e
r
s
!
%
y

o
n

1
2
&
2
0
&
1
1
.

'
o
r

(
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
0/al<ows<! A- Ean<ow!c/ D. 2004. +he develo(en% of huan resources dur!n" %he (rocess of econo!c and
s%ruc%ural %ransfora%!on !n Poland. Adv. Dev. ,u!. Resour. 6:546854
+annen#au 0,- ;oods 0). 1992. De%er!n!n" a s%ra%e"y for evalua%!n" %ra!n!n": o(era%!n" w!%h!n or"an!/a-
%!onal cons%ra!n%s. ,u!. Resour. Plann. 15I2J:65841
+annen#au 0,- Gu<l A. 1992. +ra!n!n" and develo(en% !n wor< or"an!/a%!ons. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 45:5998
441
+aylor PE- Russ-@f% D'- 3han D;C. 2005. A e%a-analy%!c rev!ew of #ehav!or odel!n" %ra!n!n". (. Al.
Psychol. 90:6928709
+harenou P- 0a<s AD- Doore 3. 2007. A rev!ew and cr!%!Oue of research on %ra!n!n" and or"an!/a%!onal-level
ou%coes. ,u!. Resour. &anag. Rev. 17:251875
+owler AE. 2005. @ffec%s of char!sa%!c !nNuence %ra!n!n" on a%%!%udes- #ehav!or- and (erforance. Pers.
Psychol.
56:565841
+racey E)- 1!n<!n +R- +annen#au 0- Da%h!eu E@. 2001. +he !nNuence of !nd!v!dual charac%er!s%!cs and
%he wor< env!ronen% on vary!n" levels of %ra!n!n" ou%coes. ,u!. Resour. Dev. 4. 12:5825
+w!%chell 2- 1ol%on @ ,,,- +ro%% E; Er. 2000. +echn!cal %ra!n!n" evalua%!on (rac%!ces !n %he $n!%ed 0%a%es.
Perfor!. +!rov. 4. 15I1J:448109
$#eda AarcTa D. 2005. +ra!n!n" and #us!ness (erforance: %he 0(an!sh case. +nt. (. ,u!. Resour. &anag.
16:16918710
Ban Der 2l!n< D- A!elen @- ?au%a 3. 2001. 0u(erv!sory su((or% as a a>or cond!%!on %o enhance %ransfer.
+nt. (. Train. Dev. 5:52865
van Ceeuwen DE- van Praa" )D. 2002. +he cos%s and #ene*%s of l!felon" learn!n": %he case of %he ?e%herlands.
,u!. Resour. Dev. 4. 15:151864
Bancouver E)- Day DB. 2005. ,ndus%r!al and or"an!sa%!on research on self-re"ula%!on: fro cons%ruc%s %o
a((l!ca%!ons. Al. Psychol. 54:155845
;an" A. 2002. 3on%rol "rou(s for huan (erforance %echnolo"y I1P+J evalua%!on and easureen%.
Perfor!. +!rov. 4. 15I2J:54844
;an" AA- Dou F- C! ?. 2002. A sys%es a((roach %o easur!n" re%urn on !nves%en% for 1RD !n%erven%!ons.
,u!. Resour. Dev. 4. 15:205824
;an" AA- ;!lco=. 2006. +ra!n!n" evalua%!on: <now!n" ore %han !s (rac%!ced. Adv. Dev. ,u!. Resour. 4:5248
59
;elsh @+- ;an#er" 3R- )rown 2A- 0!er!n" DE. 2005. @-learn!n": eer"!n" uses- e(!r!cal resul%s and
fu%ure d!rec%!ons. +nt. (. Train. Dev. 7:245854
;esson DE- Ao"us 3,. 2005. 0ha<!n" hands w!%h a co(u%er: an e=a!na%!on of %wo e%hods of
or"an!/a%!onal newcoer or!en%a%!on. (. Al. Psychol. 90:1014826
;e=ley 2?. 1944. Personnel %ra!n!n". Annu. Rev. Psychol. 55:519851
Fhao G- Ce! E- Ca! )G3- +an 10. 2005. ;ha% a<es %he d!fferenceW A (rac%!cal analys!s of research on %he
effec%!veness of d!s%ance educa%!on. Teach. 'oll. Rec. 107:1456844
vii
A
n
n
u
.

R
e
v
.

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
.

2
0
0
9
.
6
0
:
4
5
1
-
4
7
4
.

D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o

w
w
w
.
a
n
n
u
a
l
r
e
v
!
e
w
s
.
o
r
"

#
y

R
!
c
e

$
n
!
v
e
r
s
!
%
y

o
n

1
2
&
2
0
&
1
1
.

'
o
r

(
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
3on%en%s
-re+atory
@o%!on +heory and Research: 1!"hl!"h%s- $nanswered Uues%!ons-
and @er"!n" ,ssues
'arroll ). +6ard X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 1
Concepts and Categories
3once(%s and 3a%e"or!es: A 3o"n!%!ve ?euro(sycholo"!cal Pers(ec%!ve
Bradford <. &ahon and Alfonso 'ara!a66a X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 27
,dgment and Decision *a<ing
D!ndful Eud"en% and Dec!s!on Da<!n"
)l5e =. 1e$er and )ric (. (ohnson X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
55
Comparative -syc.ology
3o(ara%!ve 0oc!al 3o"n!%!on
%athan (. )!ery and %icola .. 'layton X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
47
Development: )earning3 Cognition3 and -erception
Cearn!n" fro .%hers: 3h!ldren9s 3ons%ruc%!on of 3once(%s
.usan A. >el!an X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 115
$arly and *iddle C.ild.ood
0oc!al ;!%hdrawal !n 3h!ldhood
?enneth ,. Ru$in0 Ro$ert (. 'olan0 and (ulie '. Bow5er X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 141
Adlt.ood and Aging
+he Ada(%!ve )ra!n: A"!n" and ?euroco"n!%!ve 0caffold!n"
Denise '. Par5 and Patricia Reuter-2oren6 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 175
&bstance Abse Disorders
A +ale of +wo 0ys%es: 3o-.ccurr!n" Den%al 1eal%h and 0u#s%ance
A#use D!sorders +rea%en% for Adolescen%s
)li6a$eth ,. ,aw5ins X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 197
Annal Revie" o+
-syc.ology
Bolue 60- 2009
A
n
n
u
.

R
e
v
.

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
.

2
0
0
9
.
6
0
:
4
5
1
-
4
7
4
.

D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o

w
w
w
.
a
n
n
u
a
l
r
e
v
!
e
w
s
.
o
r
"

#
y

R
!
c
e

$
n
!
v
e
r
s
!
%
y

o
n

1
2
&
2
0
&
1
1
.

'
o
r

(
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
T.erapy +or &peci+ic -roblems
+hera(y for 0(ec!*c Pro#les: Gou%h +o#acco 3essa%!on
.usan (. 'urry0 Ro$in (. &er!elstein0 and A!y ?. .orer X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 229
Adlt Clinical Neropsyc.ology
?euro(sycholo"!cal Assessen% of Deen%!a
David P. .al!on and &ar5 1. Bondi X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 257
C.ild Clinical Neropsyc.ology
Rela%!ons Aon" 0(eech- Can"ua"e- and Read!n" D!sorders
Bruce -. Pennington and Dorothy 7.&. Bisho X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 245
Attitde &trctre
Pol!%!cal ,deolo"y: ,%s 0%ruc%ure- 'unc%!ons- and @lec%!ve Af*n!%!es
(ohn T. (ost0 'hristoher &. -ederico0 and (ai!e 2. %aier X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 507
Intergrop relations3 stigma3 stereotyping3 preGdice3 discrimination
Pre>ud!ce Reduc%!on: ;ha% ;or<sW A Rev!ew and Assessen%
of Research and Prac%!ce
)li6a$eth 2evy Paluc5 and Donald P. >reen X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 559
Cltral In+lences
Personal!%y: +he $n!versal and %he 3ul%urally 0(ec!*c
.teven (. ,eine and )!!a ). Buchtel X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 569
Commnity -syc.ology
3oun!%y Psycholo"y: ,nd!v!duals and ,n%erven%!ons !n 3oun!%y
3on%e=%
)dison (. Tric5ett X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 595
)eaders.ip
Ceadersh!(: 3urren% +heor!es- Research- and 'u%ure D!rec%!ons
Bruce (. Avolio0 -red *. 1alu!$wa0 and Todd (. 1e$er X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 421
Training and Development
)ene*%s of +ra!n!n" and Develo(en% for ,nd!v!duals and
+eas- .r"an!/a%!ons- and 0oc!e%y
,er!an Aguinis and ?urt ?raiger X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 451
*ar<eting and Consmer #e.avior
3once(%ual 3onsu(%!on
Dan Ariely and &ichael +. %orton X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 475
'ontents i@
A
n
n
u
.

R
e
v
.

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
.

2
0
0
9
.
6
0
:
4
5
1
-
4
7
4
.

D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o

w
w
w
.
a
n
n
u
a
l
r
e
v
!
e
w
s
.
o
r
"

#
y

R
!
c
e

$
n
!
v
e
r
s
!
%
y

o
n

1
2
&
2
0
&
1
1
.

'
o
r

(
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
-syc.obiological *ec.anisms
1eal%h Psycholo"y: Develo(!n" )!olo"!cally Plaus!#le Dodels C!n<!n"
%he 0oc!al ;orld and Phys!cal 1eal%h
>regory ). &iller0 )dith 'hen0 and .teve 'ole X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 501
Healt. and &ocial &ystems
+he 3ase for 3ul%ural 3o(e%ency !n Psycho%hera(eu%!c ,n%erven%!ons
.tanley .ue0 %olan <ane0 >ordon '. %agaya!a ,all0 and 2auren ?. Berger X X X X X X X X X X 525
Researc. *et.odology
D!ss!n" Da%a Analys!s: Da<!n" ,% ;or< !n %he Real ;orld
(ohn 1. >raha! X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 549
-syc.ometrics: Analysis o+ )atent (ariables and Hypot.etical Constrcts
Ca%en% Bar!a#le Dodel!n" of D!fferences and 3han"es w!%h
Con"!%ud!nal Da%a
(ohn (. &cArdle X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 577
$valation
+he Rena!ssance of '!eld @=(er!en%a%!on !n @valua%!n" ,n%erven%!ons
1illia! R. .hadish and Tho!as D. 'oo5 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 607
Timely Topics
Adolescen% Roan%!c Rela%!onsh!(s
1. Andrew 'ollins0 De$orah P. 1elsh0 and 1yndol -ur!an X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 651
,!%a%!on- @(a%hy- and D!rror ?eurons
&arco +aco$oni X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 655
Pred!c%!n" ;or<(lace A""ress!on and B!olence
(ulian Barling0 ?athryne ). DureA0 and ). ?evin ?elloway X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 671
+he 0oc!al )ra!n: ?eural )as!s of 0oc!al 2nowled"e
Ralh Adolhs X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 695
;or<(lace B!c%!!/a%!on: A""ress!on fro %he +ar"e%9s Pers(ec%!ve
?arl ABuino and .tefan Thau X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 717
Inde=es
3uula%!ve ,nde= of 3on%r!#u%!n" Au%hors- Bolues 50860 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 745
3uula%!ve ,nde= of 3ha(%er +!%les- Bolues 50860 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 744
$rrata
An onl!ne lo" of correc%!ons %o Annual Review of Psychology ar%!cles ay #e found a%
h%%(:&&(sych.annualrev!ews.or"&erra%a.sh%l