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471fff000ca8ff0086fbff00ab2aff0082807fe238ff00f8655fa0145007e7ff00fc37dffd5957fc
1403ff0011c7ff00c32a3fe1beff00eacabfe0a01ff88e3ffe1957e8051401f9ff00ff000df7ff00
5655ff000500ff00c471ff00f0ca8ff86fbffab2aff82807fe238fff008655fa0145007e7fff00c3
7dff00d5957fc1403ff11c7ffc32a3fe1beffeacabfe0a01ff0088e3ff00e1957e8051401f9fff00
f0df7ff5655ff0500ffc471fff000ca8ff0086fbff00ab2aff0082807fe238ff00f8655fa0145007

e7ff00fc37dffd5957fc1403ff0011c7ff00c32a3fe1beff00eacabfe0a01ff88e3ffe1957e80514
01f9ff00ff000df7ff005655ff000500ff00c471ff00f0ca8ff86fbffab2aff82807fe238fff0086
55fa0145007e7fff00c37dff00d5957fc1403ff11c7ffc32a3fe1beffeacabfe0a01ff0088e3ff00
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40051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451
40051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451
40051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451
40051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451
40051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451
40051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451
40051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451
40051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451
40051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451
40051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451
40051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451
40051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451
40051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451401fffd9}}}}}\pard\sb0\s
l-240{\bkmkstart Pg3}{\bkmkend Pg3}\par\pard\li850\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\l
i850\sb109\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx10955 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 \ul0\nosupers
ub\cf5\f6\fs20 Civil law (legal system)\tab \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex101 1\par\p
ard\ql \li1253\sb373\sl-506\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \ul0\nosupersub
\cf6\f7\fs44 Civil law (legal system) \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \p
ar\pard\ql\li1253\sb132\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 \ul0\nosuper
sub\cf5\f6\fs20 Civil law (or civilian law) is a {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK h
ttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Legal_system }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupers
ub\cf5\f6\fs20 lega}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 l \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri7326\
sb13\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK h
ttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Legal_system }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupers
ub\cf5\f6\fs20 system}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 originating in {\field{\*\f
ldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Western_Europe }}{\f
ldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Western Europe}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 intellectualized within the framework \lin
e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex122 of late {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.w
ikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs2
0 Roman law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , and whose most \line \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex103 prevalent feature is that its core \line \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex100 principles are {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/
index.php?title=Codification_%28law%29 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
codified}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 into a referable \line \up0 \expndtw0\ch
arscalex103 system which serves as the primary \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex109 source of law. This can be contrasted \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110
with common law systems whose\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw4
804\colsr160\colno2\colw6796\colsr160\ql \li1253\sb74\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex112 intellectual framework comes from\par\pard\qj \li1253\ri340
\sb13\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 judge-made {\field{\*\fldinst
{HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Case_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\
nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 decisional law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 which gives
\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wik
ipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Precedent }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
precedential}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 authority to prior court\par\par
d\column \ql \li4964\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li20\sb2\sl-184\slmult0 \u
p0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Legal systems of the worl
d Civil law Common law Bijuridical (civil and common\par\pard\ql \li2374\sb56\sl-184\
lmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 law) Fiqh \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone \qj \l
i1253\ri1038\sb5\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf
5\f6\fs20 decisions on the principle that it is unfair to treat similar facts di
fferently on different occasions (doctrine of judicial \up0 \expndtw-3\charscale
x100 precedent).\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [1][2] \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb181\

sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Historic

ally, it is the group of legal ideas and systems ultimately derived from the {\f
ield{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Code_of_Jus
tinian }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Code of Justinian}}}\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf5\f6\fs20 , but heavily \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 overlaid by {\f
ield{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early_Germa
nic_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Germanic}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\
f6\fs20 , {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?titl
e=Canon_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 canon-law}}}\ul0\nosupersub
\cf5\f6\fs20 , feudal, and local practices,\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [3] \ul0\nosup
ersub\cf5\f6\fs20 as well as doctrinal strains such as natural law, \line \up0 \
expndtw-2\charscalex100 codification, and legislative positivism. \par\pard\qj \
li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 Conceptually, civ
il law proceeds from abstractions, formulates general principles, and distinguis
hes substantive rules \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 from procedural rules.\
ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [4] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 It holds {\field{\*\fldins
t {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Case_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul
0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 case law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 to be secondary
and subordinate to {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/inde
x.php?title=Statutory_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 statutory law
}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , and the court system is \line \up0 \expndtw0\ch
arscalex109 usually {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/inde
x.php?title=Inquisitorial_system }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 inquis
itorial}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , unbound by precedent, and composed of sp
ecially trained judicial officers with a limited \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex
104 authority to interpret law. {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedi
a.org/w/index.php?title=Jury }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Juries}}}\
ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 separate from the judges are not used, although in s
ome cases, benches may be sat \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 by {\field{\*\f
ldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lay_judge }}{\fldrsl
t {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 lay judge}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 s alongsi
de legally-trained career judges. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-322\slmult0 \par\p
ard\ql\li1253\sb40\sl-322\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex131 \ul0\nosupersub\c
f7\f8\fs28 Overview \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb77\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 The purpose of codification is to p
rovide all citizens with an accessible and written collection of the laws which
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 apply to them and which judges must follow. I
t is the most widespread system of law in the world, in force in \line \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex105 various forms in about 150 countries,\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24
[5] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and draws heavily from arguably the most intrica
te legal system we know of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 from before the mo
dern era - Roman law. Colonial expansion spread the civil law which has been rec
eived in much \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLIN
K http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Latin_America }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosu
persub\cf5\f6\fs20 Latin America}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and parts of {\f
ield{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Asia }}{\fl
drslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Asia}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and Afric
a.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [6] \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up
0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Where codes exist, the pri
mary source of law is the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/
w/index.php?title=Civil_code }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 law code}}
}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , which is a systematic collection of interrelated
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 articles,\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [7] \ul0\nosu
persub\cf5\f6\fs20 arranged by subject matter in some pre-specified order,\ul0\s
uper\cf1\f2\fs24 [8] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and that explain the principles
of law, rights and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 entitlements, and how bas
ic legal mechanisms work. Law codes are usually created by a {\field{\*\fldinst
{HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Legislature }}{\fldrslt {\u
l0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 legislature}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 's enactment
of a \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 new statute that embodies all the old s

tatutes relating to the subject and including changes necessitated by court \lin
e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 decisions. In some cases, the change results in a
new statutory concept. Other major legal systems in the world \line \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex109 include common law, {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wi
kipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Halakha }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 H
alakha}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.w
ikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Canon_Law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs2
0 canon law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , and Islamic law. \par\pard\ql \li125
3\sb118\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Civilian countries can be di
vided into: \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1160\sb73\sl-300\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex100 \u8226? those where civil law in some form is still living law
but there has been no attempt to create a {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://e
n.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Civil_code }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6
\fs20 civil code}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 : {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK h
ttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Andorra }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf
5\f6\fs20 Andorra}}} \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5
\f6\fs20 and {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?t
itle=San_Marino }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 San Marino}}} \par\pard
\ql \li1253\ri1426\sb1\sl-300\slmult0\tx1493\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 \u8226? those with uncodified mixed systems in whi
ch civil law is an academic source of authority but common law is \line \tab \up
0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 also influential: {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http:/
/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scotland }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6
\fs20 Scotland}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman-Dutch_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosu
persub\cf5\f6\fs20 Roman-Dutch law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 countries (Sou
th Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Sri Lanka and \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
08 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Guyan
a }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Guyana}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
) \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1793\sb1\sl-300\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x103 \u8226? those with codified mixed systems in which civil law is the backgr
ound law but has its public law heavily \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103
influenced by common law: {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/
w/index.php?title=Louisiana }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Louisiana}}
}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia
.org/w/index.php?title=Quebec }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Quebec}}}
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , Puerto Rico, Philippines \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24
\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg4}{\bkmkend Pg4}\par\pard\
li850\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li850\sb109\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx10955 \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex101 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Civil law (legal system)\tab \
dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex101 2\par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\q
l\li1253\sb171\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 \u8226? those with c
omprehensive codes that exceed a single civil code, such as {\field{\*\fldinst {
HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=France }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nos
upersub\cf5\f6\fs20 France}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , {\field{\*\fldinst {H
YPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Germany }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nos
upersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Germany}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , Greece, Japan, \par\
pard\qj \li1493\ri1033\sb13\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 {\field
{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mexico }}{\fldr
slt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Mexico}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 : it is th
is last category that is normally regarded as typical of civil law systems, and
is discussed in the rest \line \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex95 of this article. \pa
r\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 The S
candinavian systems are of a hybrid character since their background l
aw is a mix of civil law and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 Scandinav
ian customary law and have been partially codified. Likewise, the laws of the {\
field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Channel_Is
lands }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Channel Islands}}}\ul0\nosupersub
\cf5\f6\fs20 ({\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php
?title=Jersey }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Jersey}}}\ul0\nosupersub\

cf5\f6\fs20 , \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK h

ttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Guernsey }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\c
f5\f6\fs20 Guernsey}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLIN
K http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alderney }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersu
b\cf5\f6\fs20 Alderney}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , Sark) are hybrids which m
ix Norman customary law and French civil law. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\s
l-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 A prominent example of a civil-law co
de would be the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.ph
p?title=Napoleonic_Code }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Napoleonic Code
}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (1804), named after French emperor \line \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex110 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/in
dex.php?title=Napoleon_Bonaparte }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Napole
on Bonaparte}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 . The Code comprises three components
: the law of persons, property law, and commercial law. \line \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex102 Rather than a compendium of statutes or catalog of caselaw, the Code
sets out general principles as rules of law.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [7] \par\pard
\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 \ul0\nosuper
sub\cf5\f6\fs20 Unlike common law systems, civil law jurisdictions deal with {\f
ield{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Case_law }}
{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 case law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 a
part from any {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Precedent }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 precedence}}}\ul0\nosup
ersub\cf5\f6\fs20 value. Civil law \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 courts ge
nerally decide cases using statutory law on a case-by-case basis, without refere
nce to other (or even \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 superior) judicial dec
isions.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [9] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 In actual practice
, an increasing degree of precedence is creeping into civil law \line \up0 \expn
dtw0\charscalex104 jurisprudence, and is generally seen in the nation's highest
highest court.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [9] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 While the t
ypical {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=F
rancophone }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Francophone court of}}} \lin
e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia
.org/w/index.php?title=Court_of_cassation }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs
20 cassation}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 decision is short, concise and devoi
d of explanation or justification, in {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wi
kipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Germanic_Europe }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f
6\fs20 Germanic Europe}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , the supreme \line \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex111 courts can and do tend to write more verbose opinions supp
orted by legal reasoning.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [9] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
A line of similar case \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 decisions, while not p
recedent per se, forms the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org
/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence_constante }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\f
s20 jurisprudence constante}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 .\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs2
4 [9] \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1030\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
13 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Civil law is sometimes referred to as neo-Roman l
aw, Romano-Germanic law or Continental law. The expression \up0 \expndtw-3\chars
calex100 civil law is a translation of Latin jus civile, or \u8220?citizens\u821
7? law\u8221?, which was the late imperial term for its legal system, as \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex102 opposed to the laws governing conquered peoples (jus genti
um); hence, the Justinian code's title Corpus Juris Civilis. \up0 \expndtw0\char
scalex107 Civilian lawyers, however, traditionally refer to their system in a br
oad sense as jus commune, literally "common \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 law", m
eaning the general principles of law as opposed to laws peculiar to particular a
reas. (The use of "common \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 law" for the Anglo-Saxon
systems may or may not be influenced by this usage.) \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl
-322\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb60\sl-322\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex11
7 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs28 History \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1080\sb57\sl-300\sl
mult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 The civil law tak
es as its major inspiration classical {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wi
kipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20

Roman law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (c. AD 1-250), and in particular {\fie

ld{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Justinian_I }
}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Justinian law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\f
s20 (6th \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 century AD), and further expounding
and developments in the late {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.
org/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Roman_Law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs2
0 Middle Ages}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 under the influence of canon law.\u
l0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [10] \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5
\f6\fs20 The Justinian Code's doctrines provided a sophisticated model for contr
acts, rules of procedure, family law, wills, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108
and a strong monarchical constitutional system.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [11] \ul0\
nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Roman law was received differently in different countries
. In \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 some it went into force wholesale by leg
islative act, i.e., it became {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.
org/w/index.php?title=Positive_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 posi
tive law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , whereas in others it was diffused \line
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 into society by increasingly influential legal ex
perts and scholars. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex105 Roman law continued without interruption in the {\field{\*\fldi
nst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Empire }}{\fl
drslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Byzantine Empire}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs2
0 until its final fall in the 15th century. However, \line \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex104 subject as it was to multiple incursions and occupations by Western Eur
opean powers in the late medieval period, its \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108
laws became widely available in the West. It was first received into the {\fiel
d{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Holy_Roman_Emp
ire }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Holy Roman Empire}}}\ul0\nosupersub
\cf5\f6\fs20 partly because it was \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 considere
d imperial law, and it spread in Europe mainly because its students were the onl
y trained lawyers. It \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 became the basis of {\f
ield{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scots_law }
}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Scots law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
, though partly rivaled by received feudal {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://
en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Norman_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f
6\fs20 Norman law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 . In England, it was taught \lin
e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 academically at Oxford and Cambridge, but underla
y only probate and matrimonial law insofar as both were \line \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex107 inherited from canon law, and maritime law, adapted from the {\field{
\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lex_mercatoria }
}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 law merchant}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs
20 through the Bordeaux trade. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 Consequently, neither of the two waves of Romanism
completely dominated in Europe. Roman law was a secondary \line \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex106 source that was applied only when local customs and laws were found
lacking on a certain subject. However, after a \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
08 time, even local law came to be interpreted and evaluated primarily on the ba
sis of Roman law (it being a common \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 European
legal tradition of sorts), thereby in turn influencing the main source of law. E
ventually, the works of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 civilian glossators a
nd commentators led to the development of a common body of law and writing about
law, a \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 common legal language, and a common m
ethod of teaching and scholarship, all termed the jus commune, or law \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex110 common to Europe, which consolidated canon law and Roma
n law, and to some extent, feudal law.
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{\shp {\*\shpinst\shpleft850\shptop15969\shpright11055\shpbottom15969\shpfhdr0\s

hpbxpage\shpbypage\shpwr3\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz31\shplid1{\sp{\sn shapeType}{
\sv 20}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn lineColor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn lin
eWidth}{\sv 0}}
}}\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart P
g5}{\bkmkend Pg5}\par\pard\li850\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li850\sb109\sl-230\
slmult0\fi0\tx10955 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Civ
il law (legal system)\tab \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex101 3\par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0
\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb127\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex112 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs24 Codification \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb65\
sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 An impor
tant common characteristic of civil law, aside from its origins in Roman law, is
the comprehensive \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 codification of received R
oman law, i.e., its inclusion in civil codes. The earliest {\field{\*\fldinst {H
YPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Codification_%28law%29 }}{\fl
drslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 codification}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 k
nown is the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?ti
tle=Code_of_Hammurabi }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Code of}}} \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.o
rg/w/index.php?title=Code_of_Hammurabi }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
Hammurabi}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , written in ancient {\field{\*\fldinst
{HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Babylon }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\n
osupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Babylon}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 during the 18th cen
tury BC. However, this, and many of the codes that \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex105 followed, were mainly lists of civil and criminal wrongs and their punishm
ents. Codification of the type typical of \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 modern ci
vilian systems did not first appear until the Justinian Code. \par\pard\qj \li12
53\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Germanic codes appear
ed over the 6th and 7th centuries to clearly delineate the law in force for Germ
anic privileged \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 classes versus their Roman su
bjects and regulate those laws according to folk-right. Under feudal law, a numb
er of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 private {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Custumal }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\
cf5\f6\fs20 custumal}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 s were compiled, first un
der the Norman empire \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 (Trs ancien coutumier, \u
p0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 1200-1245), then \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb58\sl-230\sl
mult0\tx4278\tx6138 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 elsewhere, to record the ma
norial \tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 - and later regional \tab \up0 \exp
ndtw-2\charscalex100 - customs, court decisions, and the legal principles
\par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb13\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 un
derpinning them. Custumals were commissioned by lords who presided as lay judges
over manorial courts in order \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 to inform th
emselves about the court process. The use of custumals from influentia
l towns soon became \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 commonplace over large
areas. In keeping with this, certain monarchs consolidated their kingdoms by at
tempting to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 compile custumals that would serv
e as the law of the land for their realms, as when Charles VII of France \line \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 commissioned in 1454 an official custumal of Crown l
aw. Two prominent examples include the Coutume de Paris \line \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex104 (written 1510; revised 1580), which served as the basis for the Napol
eonic Code, and the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/inde
x.php?title=Sachsenspiegel }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Sachsenspieg
el}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (c. 1220) of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
4 the bishoprics of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/inde
x.php?title=Magdeburg }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Magdeburg}}}\ul0\
nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.or
g/w/index.php?title=Halberstadt }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Halbers
tadt}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 which was used in northern Germany, Poland,
and the Low Countries. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex107 The concept of codification was further developed during the
17th and 18th centuries AD, as an expression of both \line \up0 \expndtw0\chars

calex108 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title

=Natural_Law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 natural law}}}\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf5\f6\fs20 and the ideas of the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wi
kipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\
cf5\f6\fs20 Enlightenment}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 . The political ideal of
that era was expressed by the concepts of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 {\
field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy
}}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 democracy}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
, protection of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.p
hp?title=Property }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 property}}}\ul0\nosup
ersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and the rule of law. That ideal required the creation of cert
ainty of law, through \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 the recording of law an
d through its uniformity. So, the aforementioned mix of Roman law and customary
and local \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 law ceased to exist, and the road opened
for law codification, which could contribute to the aims of the above \up0 \expn
dtw0\charscalex100 mentioned political ideal. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\s
l-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Another reason that contributed to co
dification was that the notion of the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wi
kipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nation-state }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\f
s20 nation-state}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 required the recording of the \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipe
dia.org/w/index.php?title=Law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 law}}}\ul
0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 that would be applicable to that state. \par\pard\qj \
li1253\ri1062\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Certainly, there
was also a reaction to law codification. The proponents of codification regarded
it as conducive to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 certainty, unity and syst
ematic recording of the law; whereas its opponents claimed that codification wou
ld result in \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLI
NK http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ossification }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f
6\fs20 ossification}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 of the law. \par\pard\qj \li1
253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 In the end, despite
whatever resistance to codification, the codification of European private laws m
oved forward. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 Codifications were completed by
Denmark (1687), Sweden (1734), Prussia (1794), {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Napoleonic_Code }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nos
upersub\cf5\f6\fs20 France}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (1804), and {\field{\
*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ABGB }}{\fldrslt
{\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Austria}}} \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 \ul0\
nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (1811). The French codes were imported into areas conquer
ed by Emperor {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Napoleon }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Napoleon}}}\ul0\nosupers
ub\cf5\f6\fs20 and later adopted with \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 modifi
cations in Poland ({\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/inde
x.php?title=Duchy_of_Warsaw }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Duchy of Wa
rsaw}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 /{\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wiki
pedia.org/w/index.php?title=Congress_Poland }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\
fs20 Congress Poland}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ; Kodeks cywilny 1806/1825),
Louisiana (1807), \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 Canton of Vaud (Switzerla
nd; 1819), the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php
?title=Burgerlijk_Wetboek }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Netherlands}}
}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (1838), Italy and Romania (1865), Portugal (1867),
Spain \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 (1888), {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=B%C3%BCrgerliches_Gesetzbuch }}{\fldrs
lt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Germany}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (1900), a
nd {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Swiss
_civil_code }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Switzerland}}}\ul0\nosupers
ub\cf5\f6\fs20 (1912). These codifications were in turn imported into colonies
at one \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 time or another by most of these count
ries. The Swiss version was adopted in Brazil (1916) and Turkey (1926). \par\par
d\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 Because Ger

many was a rising power in the late 19th century and its legal system was well o
rganized, when many \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 Asian nations were develo
ping, the German Civil Code became the basis for the legal systems of {\field{\*
\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan }}{\fldrslt
{\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Japan}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and {\field{\*
\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=South_Korea }}{\fl
drslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 South}}} \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 {
\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=South_Kor
ea }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Korea}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
. In {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chi
na }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 China}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
, the German Civil Code was introduced in the later years of the Qing Dynasty an
d formed the basis \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 of the law of the {\field{
\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_Chin
a }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Republic of China}}}\ul0\nosupersub\c
f5\f6\fs20 , which remains in force in {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.w
ikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taiwan }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 T
aiwan}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 . \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\sl
mult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 Some authors consider civil law to have serve
d as the foundation for {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/
index.php?title=Socialist_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 socialist
law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 used in {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http:/
/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Communism }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f
6\fs20 communist}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 countries, \line \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex102 which in this view would basically be civil law with the addition
of Marxist-Leninist ideas. Even if this is so, civil \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsc
alex107 law was generally the legal system in place before the rise of socialist
law, and some Eastern European countries \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 re
verted back to the pre-Socialist civil law following the fall of socialism, whil
e others continued using their socialist \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 leg
al systems.
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{\shp {\*\shpinst\shpleft850\shptop15969\shpright11055\shpbottom15969\shpfhdr0\s
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\sv 20}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn lineColor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn lin
eWidth}{\sv 0}}
}}\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart P
g6}{\bkmkend Pg6}\par\pard\li850\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li850\sb109\sl-230\
slmult0\fi0\tx10955 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Civ
il law (legal system)\tab \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex101 4\par\pard\qj \li1253\sb0
\sl-300\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1253\ri1090\sb44\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\ch
arscalex109 Several civil-law mechanisms seem to have been borrowed from medieva
l Islamic {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?titl
e=Sharia }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Sharia}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f
6\fs20 and {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?ti
tle=Fiqh }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 fiqh}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\
fs20 . For example, the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Islamic {\field{\*\fl
dinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hawala }}{\fldrslt {\
ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 hawala}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (hundi) underli
es the avallo of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.p
hp?title=Italy }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Italian}}}\ul0\nosupersu
b\cf5\f6\fs20 law and the aval of French and Spanish law.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24
[12] \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-322\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb60\sl-322\sl
mult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs28 Differentiation f
rom other major legal systems \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb57\sl-300\slmult0 \u
p0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 It should be noted that i

t has been said that little is known of continental European civil law systems f
rom a \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en
.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Comparative_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf
5\f6\fs20 comparative law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 perspective.\ul0\super\
cf1\f2\fs24 [13] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 The table below contains essential
disparities (and in some cases similarities) \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103
between the world's four major legal systems.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [7] \par\pa
rd\li1193\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li1193\sb97\sl-184\slmult0\fi1945\tx5644\t
x7394\tx9281 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 Common law\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex115 Civil law\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 Socialist law\tab \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex115 Islamic law\par\pard\li1193\sb176\sl-184\slmult0\fi0\tx2422\tx48
88\tx7129\tx8627 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 Other names\tab \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex115 Anglo-American, English,\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 Continental
, Romano-Germanic\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 Social\tab \up0 \expndtw0\cha
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1\f2\fs24 [15] \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-322\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb72\
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s \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri6362\sb117\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 The term civil law comes from English legal \
line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 scholarship and is used in English-speaki
ng \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 countries to lump together somewhat d
ivergent \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 traditions. On the other hand, {\fie

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ipedia.org/w/index.php?title=France }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Fra
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f5\f6\fs20 ({\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?t
itle=Republic_of_China }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Republic of Chin
a}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ); \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb98\sl-230\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex111 \u8226? Scandinavian: {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK ht
tp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Denmark }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5
\f6\fs20 Denmark}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK h
ttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Finland }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf
5\f6\fs20 Finland}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , Iceland, Norway, and Sweden. \
par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1148\sb33\sl-300\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
05 \u8226? {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?ti
tle=Chinese_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Chinese}}}\ul0\nosupers
ub\cf5\f6\fs20 (except Hong Kong) is a mixture of civil law and {\field{\*\fldi
nst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Socialist_law }}{\fldrs
lt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 socialist law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 . Ho

ng Kong, although part of China, uses \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 co

mmon law. The Basic Law of Hong Kong ensures the use and status of common law in
Hong Kong. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1071\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex106 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title
=Portugal }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Portugal}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf
5\f6\fs20 , {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?ti
tle=Brazil }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Brazil}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5
\f6\fs20 and Italy have alternated from French to German influence, as their 19
th century civil codes were \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 close to the Napo
leonic Code and their 20th century civil codes are much closer to the German {\
field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=B%C3%BCrge
rliches_Gesetzbuch }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Brgerliche}}}\ul0\nos
upersub\cf5\f6\fs20 s \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYP
ERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=B%C3%BCrgerliches_Gesetzbuch }}
{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Gesetzbuch}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
(BGB). More recently, {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/i
ndex.php?title=Brazil }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Brazil}}}\ul0\nos
upersub\cf5\f6\fs20 's 2002 Civil Code was heavily inspired by the Italian Civil
Code in its \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 unification of {\field{\*\fldins
t {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Private_law }}{\fldrslt {
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 private law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ; legal cu
lture and academic law now more closely follow the Germanistic tradition. The \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 other law in these countries is often said to
be of a hybrid nature. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex107 Some systems of civil law do not fit neatly into this typolo
gy, however. The {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.p
hp?title=Law_of_Poland }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Polish law}}}\ul
0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 developed as a mixture of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex110 French and German civil law in the 19th century. After the reunification
of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polan
d }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Poland}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
in 1918, five legal systems \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex121 (French Napoleon
ic Code from the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.p
hp?title=Duchy_of_Warsaw }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Duchy of Warsa
w}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , German BGB from Western Poland, Austrian ABGB
from \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 Southern Poland, Russian law from Easter
n Poland, and Hungarian law from {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikiped
ia.org/w/index.php?title=Spisz }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Spisz}}}
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikiped
ia.org/w/index.php?title=Orawa }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Orawa}}}
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ) were merged into \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
8 one. Similarly, {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.
php?title=Law_of_the_Netherlands }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Dutch
law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , while originally codified in the Napoleonic
tradition, has been heavily altered under \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 inf
luence from the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.ph
p?title=Netherlands }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Netherlands}}}\ul0\
nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ' native tradition of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http:
//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman-Dutch_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersu
b\cf5\f6\fs20 Roman-Dutch law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (still in effect i
n its former colonies). \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 {\field{\*\fldinst {H
YPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scotland }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\no
supersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Scotland}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 's {\field{\*\fldins
t {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scots_law }}{\fldrslt {\u
l0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 civil law tradition}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 bor
rowed heavily from Roman-Dutch law. Swiss law is categorized as Germanistic, but
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 it has been heavily influenced by the Napole
onic tradition, with some indigenous elements added in as well. \par\pard\qj \li
1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 {\field{\*\fldinst
{HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_law }}{\fldrslt {

\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Louisiana private law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20

is primarily based on civil law. {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipe
dia.org/w/index.php?title=Louisiana }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Lou
isiana}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 is the only U.S. state partially based on
French and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http
://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Spain }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\
cf5\f6\fs20 Spanish}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 codes and ultimately {\field{
\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_law }}{\fl
drslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Roman law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , as
opposed to English common law.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [16] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6
\fs20 In Louisiana, private law was \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 codified
into the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title
=Louisiana_Civil_Code }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Louisiana Civil C
ode}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 . Current Louisiana law has converged consider
ably with American law, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 especially in its {\f
ield{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Public_law
}}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 public law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs2
0 , its judicial system, and adoption of the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http:
//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Uniform_Commercial_Code }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\n
osupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Uniform Commercial Code}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (ex
cept for Article 2) \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 and certain legal devices
of American common law.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [17] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
The law of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?tit
le=Quebec }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Quebec}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\
f6\fs20 , whose private law is similarly of French \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex106 civilian origin, has developed along the same lines, having adapted in the
same way as Louisiana to the public law \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 and
judicial system of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index
.php?title=Canadian_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Canadian common
law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 . \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slm
ult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 Several Islamic countries have civil law syste
ms that contain elements of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.or
g/w/index.php?title=Sharia }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Islamic law}
}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 .\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [18] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f
6\fs20 As an example, the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 {\field{\*\fldinst
{HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_Civil_Code }}{\fld
rslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Egyptian Civil Code}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\f
s20 of 1810 [That developed in the early 19th century\u8212?which remains in fo
rce in Egypt is the basis \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 for the civil law i
n many countries of the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/
index.php?title=Arab_world }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Arab world}}
}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 where the civil law is used\u8212? is based on the
Napoleonic Code, \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl240{\bkmkstart Pg8}{\bkmkend Pg8}\par\pard\li850\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li8
50\sb109\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx10955 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 \ul0\nosupersub
\cf5\f6\fs20 Civil law (legal system)\tab \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex101 6\par\par
d\qj \li1253\sb0\sl-300\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1253\ri1090\sb44\sl-300\slmult0 \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 but its primary author {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abd_El-Razzak_El-Sanhuri }}{\fldrslt
{\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Abd El-Razzak El-Sanhuri}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\f
s20 attempted to integrate principles and features of Islamic law in \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex103 deference to the unique circumstances of Egyptian socie
ty. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-322\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb60\sl-322\slmu
lt0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex122 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs28 Notes \par\pard\qj
\li1253\ri1915\sb86\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosu
persub\cf1\f2\fs16 [1] Washington Probate, "Estate Planning & Probate Glossary"
, Washington (State) Probate, s.v. "common law", [htm], 8 Dec. 2008: \line\tab \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 <http://www.wa-probate.com/Intro/Estate-Probate-Glos
sary.htm>, retrieved on 7 November 2009. \par\pard\ql \li1253\ri2178\sb0\sl-240\
slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 [2] Charles Arnold-Baker, The Companion to

British History, s.v. "English Law" (London: Loncross Denholm Press, 2008), 484
. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 [3] Charles Arnold Baker, The Companion to Briti
sh History, s.v. "Civilian" (London: Routledge, 2001), 308. \line \up0 \expndtw0
\charscalex103 [4] Michel Fromont, Grands systmes de droit trangers, 4th edn. (Pa
ris: Dalloz, 2001), 8. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1858\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493 \up
0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 [5] "CIA - The World Factbook," retrieved on 30 Novem
ber 2010 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/
the-world-factbook/docs/notesanddefs.html?countryName=Iran&countryCode=ir&region
Code=me#2100 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (https:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf
9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf1\f2\fs16 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 ci
a.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 gov/\ul0\nosupersub\c
f9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 library/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul
0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 publications/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupers
ub\cf1\f2\fs16 the-world-factbook/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\c
f1\f2\fs16 docs/}}} \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 {\field{\*\fldinst {
HYPERLINK https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/docs/notes
anddefs.html?countryName=Iran&countryCode=ir&regionCode=me#2100 }}{\fldrslt {\ul
0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 notesanddefs.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupers
ub\cf1\f2\fs16 html?countryName=Iran&\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersu
b\cf1\f2\fs16 countryCode=ir&\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2
\fs16 regionCode=me#2100)}}} \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb47\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expn
dtw0\charscalex109 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 [6] " Civil law (Romano-Germanic
) {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/119271
/civil-law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f
10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersu
b\cf1\f2\fs16 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 brita
nnica.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 com/\ul0\nosupers
ub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 EBchecked/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs
2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 topic/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersu
b\cf1\f2\fs16 119271/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 ci
vil-law)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 ". Encyclopdia Britannica. \par\pard\qj \l
i1253\ri1764\sb10\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 [7] Neubau
er, David W.,and Stephen S. Meinhold. Judicial Process: Law, Courts, and Politic
s in the United States. Belmont: Thomson \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107
Wadsworth, 2007, pg.28. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1903\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493 \u
p0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 [8] "Glossary of Legal Terms", 12th District Court Jackson, County, MI, retrieved on 12 June 2009: {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK h
ttp://www.d12.com/glossary/glossary.htm }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16
(http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersu
b\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0
\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 d12.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\
fs16 com/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 glossary/}}} \
line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://www.
d12.com/glossary/glossary.htm }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 glossary.
\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 htm)}}} \par\pard\ql \l
i1253\sb47\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs
16 [9] Reynolds 1998, p. 58 \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb56\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex108 [10] "Roman Law and Its Influence" {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERL
INK http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/society/A0859206.html }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16
/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 www.\ul0\nosupersub\c
f9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 infoplease.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2
\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 com/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1
\f2\fs16 ce6/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 society/\u
l0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 A0859206.\ul0\nosupersub\
cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 html)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 . I
nfoplease.com. . Retrieved 2011-08-18. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb56\sl-184\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 [11] Kenneth Pennington, "Roman and Secula Law in
the Middle Ages", Medieval Latin: An Introduction and Bibliographical Guide, edd

. \par\pard\qj \li1493\ri1679\sb10\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 F

.A.C. Mantello and A.G. Rigg (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University Press of Ame
rica, 1996), 254-266; [html], available at {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://
faculty.cua.edu/pennington/law508/histlaw.htm }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f
2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /}}} \lin
e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://faculty.cua.
edu/pennington/law508/histlaw.htm }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 facul
ty.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 cua.\ul0\nosupersub\
cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 edu/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\n
osupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 pennington/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf
1\f2\fs16 law508/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 histla
w.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 htm)}}}\ul0\nosupersu
b\cf1\f2\fs16 , retrieved 27 August 2011. \par\pard\ql \li1253\ri1267\sb0\sl-240
\slmult0\tx1493\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 [12] Badr, Gamal Moursi (Sp
ring, 1978), "Islamic Law: Its Relation to Other Legal Systems", The American Jo
urnal of Comparative Law (The \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 American Jo
urnal of Comparative Law, Vol. 26, No. 2) 26 (2 [Proceedings of an International
Conference on Comparative Law, Salt Lake \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
8 City, Utah, February 24-25, 1977]): 187-198 [196-8], doi:10.2307/839667, JSTOR
839667 \par\pard\ql \li1253\ri1100\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493\tx1493\tx1493\tx149
3 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 [13] European Union Committee of the {\field{\*\
fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=House_of_Lords }}{\
fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 House of Lords}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs1
6 (2008). The Treaty of Lisbon: an impact assessment, 10th report of session 20
07-08 \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http
://books.google.com/books?id=WjcvGFqc2BEC&pg=SL5-PA131 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16
/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 books.\ul0\nosupersub\
cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 google.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul
0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 com/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2
\fs16 books?id=WjcvGFqc2BEC&\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\
fs16 pg=SL5-PA131)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 . 2. London: Stationary Office.
p. E-131. \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 ISBN 978-0-10-401244-4. . "One
problem we have is that little is known about continental systems of criminal ju
stice. It is an area that has \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 hardly eve
r been studied. There are no university chairs of comparative law that specializ
e in comparative criminal procedure, anywhere in the \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-5\
charscalex100 British Isles." \par\pard\ql \li1253\ri2267\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx1
493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 [14] Makdisi, John A. (June 1999), "The Islami
c Origins of the Common Law", {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.
org/w/index.php?title=North_Carolina_Law_Review }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1
\f2\fs16 North Carolina Law Review}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 77 (5): 1635-1
739 \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 [15] Smits, Jan (ed.); Dotevall, Rolf (2
006), Elgar Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, "63: Sweden" {\field{\*\fldinst {HY
PERLINK http://books.google.com/?id=qQK_RBUyX9cC }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf
1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\
nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 books.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f1
0\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 google.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosu
persub\cf1\f2\fs16 com/}}} \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 {\field{\*\fl
dinst {HYPERLINK http://books.google.com/?id=qQK_RBUyX9cC }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosu
persub\cf1\f2\fs16 ?id=qQK_RBUyX9cC)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 , {\field{\*\
fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edward_Elgar_Publis
hing }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Edward Elgar Publishing}}}\ul0\nos
upersub\cf1\f2\fs16 , ISBN 1-84542-013-6, \par\pard\ql \li1253\ri1646\sb0\sl-240\
slmult0\tx1493\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 [16] "How the Code Napoleon
makes Louisiana law different" {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://web.archive.
org/web/20061031041737/http://www.la-legal.com/modules/article/view.article.php?
c8/29 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs
2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1
\f2\fs16 web.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 archive.\u

l0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 org/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f

10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 web/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf1\f2\fs16 20061031041737/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1
\f2\fs16 http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\no
supersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs
2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 la-legal.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf1\f2\fs16 com/}}} \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 {\field{\*\fldi
nst {HYPERLINK http://web.archive.org/web/20061031041737/http://www.la-legal.com
/modules/article/view.article.php?c8/29 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16
modules/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 article/\ul0\n
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fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 article.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosup
ersub\cf1\f2\fs16 php?c8/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs1
6 29)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 . {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wi
kipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LA-Legal }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16
LA-Legal}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 . Archived from the original (http:/\ul0\
nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2
\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\c
f1\f2\fs16 la-legal.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 com
/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 modules/\ul0\nosupersu
b\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 article/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2
\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 view.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf
1\f2\fs16 article. \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 {\field{\*\fldinst {H
YPERLINK http://www.la-legal.com/modules/article/view.article.php?c8/29 }}{\fldr
slt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 php?c8/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf1\f2\fs16 29)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 on 2006-10-31. . Retrieved 2
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http://www.city-data.com/states/Louisiana-Judicial-system.html }}{\fldrslt {\ul0
\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\
f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 www.\ul0\nosup
ersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 city-data.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10
\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 com/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupers
ub\cf1\f2\fs16 states/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 L
ouisiana-Judicial-system.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs1
6 html)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 . City-data.com. . Retrieved 2011-08-18. \
line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 [18] " Civil Law {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLIN
K http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761565815/Civil_Law.html }}{\fldrslt {\ul0
\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\
f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 encarta.\ul0\n
osupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 msn.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\f
s2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 com/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub
\cf1\f2\fs16 encyclopedia_761565815/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub
\cf1\f2\fs16 Civil_Law.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16
html)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 ". Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 200
9. \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 Archived {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLIN
K http://www.webcitation.org/5kwR3YCSY }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16
(http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub
\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\
nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 webcitation.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\
cf1\f2\fs16 org/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 5kwR3YC
SY)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 2009-10-31. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-322\s
lmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb31\sl-322\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 \ul0
\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs28 Bibliography \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1844\sb57\sl-300\slm
ult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 \u8226? Ly
dorf, Claudia. (2011). Romance Legal Family {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http:/
/nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2012060604 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6
\fs20 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 /\ul0\nosu
persub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 nbn-resolving.\ul0\nosupersub\cf
9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 de/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosu

persub\cf5\f6\fs20 urn:nbn:de:0159-2012060604)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 . \
line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Mainz: {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http
://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Institute_of_European_History }}{\fldrslt
{\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Institute of European History}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5
\f6\fs20 . \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1620\sb1\sl-300\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex110 \u8226? MacQueen, Hector L. " Scots Law and the Road to the New I
us Commune {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://www.ejcl.org/44/art44-1.html }}{
\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\n
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www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ejcl.\ul0\nosupersu
b\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 org/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0
\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 44/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\f
s20 art44-1.}}} \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPE
RLINK http://www.ejcl.org/44/art44-1.html }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs
20 html)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ." Electronic Journal of Comparative Law
4, no. 4 (December 2000). \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1481\sb1\sl-300\slmult0\tx1493 \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \u8226? Moustaira Elina N., Comparative Law: Univer
sity Courses (in Greek), Ant. N. Sakkoulas Publishers, Athens, \line\tab \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex107 2004, ISBN 960-15-1267-5 \par\pard\ql \li1253\ri1780\sb1\s
l-300\slmult0\tx1493\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 \u8226? Reynolds, Thom
as H. (1998). "Introduction to Foreign and Comparative Law" {\field{\*\fldinst {
HYPERLINK http://books.google.com/books?id=yt6xbymeO7IC&pg=PA57 }}{\fldrslt {\ul
0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5
\f6\fs20 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 books.\ul0\no
supersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 google.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10
\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 com/}}} \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex11
4 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://books.google.com/books?id=yt6xbymeO7IC&pg
=PA57 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 books?id=yt6xbymeO7IC&\ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 pg=PA57)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\
fs20 . In Rehberg, Jeanne; Popa, Radu D. Accidental Tourist on the New \line \ta
b \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Frontier: An Introductory Guide to Global Legal R
esearch. pp. 47-86. ISBN 978-0-837-71075-4.
{\shp {\*\shpinst\shpleft850\shptop832\shpright11055\shpbottom832\shpfhdr0\shpbx
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slmult0\fi0\tx10955 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Civ
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x109 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs28 External links \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb114\sl-23
0\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 \u8226? A co
llection of Roman Law resources maintained by professor Ernest Metzger {\field{\
*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://www.iuscivile.com }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f
6\fs20 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 /\ul0\nos
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6\sb13\sl-300\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 \u8226? The Roman Law
Library by Professor Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPER
LINK http://web.upmf-grenoble.fr/Haiti/Cours/Ak }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5
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nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 fr/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs

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r\pard\qj \li1253\ri2395\sb1\sl-300\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 \u8226? A Primer on the Civil Law System {\field{\*
\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://www.fjc.gov/public/pdf.nsf/lookup/CivilLaw.pdf/$file/
CivilLaw.pdf }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9
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sub\cf5\f6\fs20 $file/}}} \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 {\field{\*\fld
inst {HYPERLINK http://www.fjc.gov/public/pdf.nsf/lookup/CivilLaw.pdf/$file/Civi
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{\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Federal
_Judicial_Center }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Federal Judicial Cente
r}}} \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb58\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 \ul0\
nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 \u8226? Brasil Law Articles in English {\field{\*\fldins
t {HYPERLINK http://br.vlex.com/source/1885/ }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6
\fs20 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 /\ul0\nosu
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0\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 \u8226
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.kinsellalaw.com/publications/dictionary.pdf }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6
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\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 pdf)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\
cf5\f6\fs20 by {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.ph
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\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikip
edia.org/w/index.php?title=N._Stephan_Kinsella }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\
f6\fs20 Stephan Kinsella}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , Louisiana Law Review (1
994) \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb58\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 \u822
6? Brehon Law (King Ollamh Fodhla) {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://www.kin
gollamhfodhla.com }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (http:/\ul0\nosupersu
b\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\no
supersub\cf5\f6\fs20 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs2
0 kingollamhfodhla.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 com)
}}} \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb442\sl-506\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex146 \ul0\
nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs44 Common law \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb245\sl-300\slmul
t0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Common law (also kno
wn as {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ca
se_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 case law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f
6\fs20 or {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?tit
le=Precedent }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 precedent}}}\ul0\nosupersu
b\cf5\f6\fs20 ) is law developed by judges through decisions of courts and \line
\up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 similar tribunals (as opposed to {\field{\*\fldin

st {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Statute_law }}{\fldrslt

{\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 legislative statutes}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
or {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exec
utive_%28government%29 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 executive branch
action}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ).\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [1] \par\pard\qj
\li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 \ul0\nosupersub\
cf5\f6\fs20 A "common law system" is a {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.w
ikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Legal_systems_of_the_world }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosu
persub\cf5\f6\fs20 legal system}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 that gives great
precedential weight to common law,\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [2] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5
\f6\fs20 on the principle \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 that it is unfair t
o treat similar facts differently on different occasions.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24
[3] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 The body of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http:/
/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Precedent }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f
6\fs20 precedent}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 is called "common \line \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex104 law" and it binds future decisions. In cases where the part
ies disagree on what the law is, a common law court looks \line \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex100 to past {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/ind
ex.php?title=Precedent }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 precedent}}}\ul0
\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ial decisions of relevant courts. If a similar dispute h
as been resolved in the past, the court is {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://
en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Binding_precedent }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersu
b\cf5\f6\fs20 bound}}} \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6
\fs20 to follow the reasoning used in the prior decision (this principle is know
n as {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sta
re_decisis }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 stare decisis}}}\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf5\f6\fs20 ). If, however, the court \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 fin
ds that the current dispute is fundamentally distinct from all previous cases (c
alled a "{\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title
=Case_of_first_impression }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 matter of fir
st impression}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 "), \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
11 judges have the authority and duty to make law by creating {\field{\*\fldinst
{HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Precedent }}{\fldrslt {\ul
0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 precedent}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 .\ul0\super\cf1
\f2\fs24 [4] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Thereafter, the new decision becomes \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 precedent, and will bind future courts. \par\p
ard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 In practi
ce, common law systems are considerably more complicated than the simplified sys
tem described above. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 The decisions of a court
are binding only in a particular {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipe
dia.org/w/index.php?title=Jurisdiction }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
jurisdiction}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , and even within a given jurisdictio
n, some \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 courts have more power than others. F
or example, in most jurisdictions, decisions by {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK ht
tp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Appellate_courts }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosup
ersub\cf5\f6\fs20 appellate courts}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 are binding on
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 lower courts in the same jurisdiction and on
future decisions of the same appellate court, but decisions of lower \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex108 courts are only non-binding persuasive authority. Inter
actions between common law, {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.or
g/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
constitutional law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Statutory_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosup
ersub\cf5\f6\fs20 statutory}}} \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 {\field{\*\fld
inst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Statutory_law }}{\fldr
slt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and {\field{
\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Regulatory_law }
}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 regulatory law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\
fs20 also give rise to considerable complexity. However, stare decisis, the pri
nciple that similar \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 cases should be decided a

ccording to consistent principled rules so that they will reach similar results,
lies at the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 heart of all common law systems. \par\
pard\qj \li1253\ri1080\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 One thir
d of the world's population (approximately 2.3 billion people) live in common la
w jurisdictions, particularly \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 in {\field{\*\f
ldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_England }
}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 England}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 w
here it originated in the Middle Ages,\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [5] \ul0\nosupersub
\cf5\f6\fs20 and countries that trace their legal heritage to England as \line \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 former colonies of the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=British_Empire }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosu
persub\cf5\f6\fs20 British Empire}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , including {\fi
eld{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=India }}{\fl
drslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 India}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ,\ul0\sup
er\cf1\f2\fs24 [6] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 the United States, Pakistan,\ul0
\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [7]\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Nigeria, Bangladesh, \line \u
p0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org
/w/index.php?title=Canada }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Canada}}}\ul0
\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/
w/index.php?title=Malaysia }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Malaysia}}}\
ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , Ghana, Australia,\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [8]\ul0\nos
upersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Sri Lanka, Hong Kong, Singapore, Ireland, New Zealand, Jama
ica, Trinidad \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK h
ttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trinidad_%26_Tobago }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\n
osupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 & Tobago}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , {\field{\*\fldins
t {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cyprus }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\
nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Cyprus}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , Barbados,\ul0\supe
r\cf1\f2\fs24 [9]\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 South Africa, Zimbabwe, Cameroon,
Namibia, Botswana, Guyana and Israel use \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 comm
on law systems, or mixed systems with civil law.
{\shp {\*\shpinst\shpleft850\shptop832\shpright11055\shpbottom832\shpfhdr0\shpbx
page\shpbypage\shpwr3\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz6\shplid0{\sp{\sn shapeType}{\sv 2
0}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn lineColor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn lineWidt
h}{\sv 0}}
}}
{\shp {\*\shpinst\shpleft850\shptop15969\shpright11055\shpbottom15969\shpfhdr0\s
hpbxpage\shpbypage\shpwr3\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz31\shplid1{\sp{\sn shapeType}{
\sv 20}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn lineColor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn lin
eWidth}{\sv 0}}
}}
{\shp {\*\shpinst\shpleft1253\shptop5356\shpright10651\shpbottom5356\shpfhdr0\sh
pbxpage\shpbypage\shpwr3\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz482\shplid2{\sp{\sn shapeType}{
\sv 20}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn lineColor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn lin
eWidth}{\sv 15101}}
}}\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart P
g10}{\bkmkend Pg10}\par\pard\li850\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li850\sb109\sl-23
0\slmult0\fi0\tx10955 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex139 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 C
ommon law\tab \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex139 8\par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-322\slmu
lt0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb83\sl-322\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 \ul0\no
supersub\cf7\f8\fs28 Primary connotations \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb114\sl-230\slmu
lt0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 The term common law
has three main connotations and several historical meanings worth mentioning: \
par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb76\sl-276\slmult0 \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs24 1. Common law as opposed
to statutory law and regulatory law \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb65\sl-300\slm
ult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipe
dia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_law%231._Common_law_as_opposed_to_statutory_law
_and_regulatory_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Connotation 1}}}\u
l0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 distinguishes the authority that promulgated a
law. For example, most areas of law in most \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsc

alex110 Anglo-American {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/i

ndex.php?title=Jurisdiction }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 jurisdictio
n}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 s include "{\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://
en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Statute }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\f
s20 statutory law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 " enacted by a legislature, "reg
ulatory law" promulgated by \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 executive branch
agencies pursuant to delegation of rule-making authority from the legislature, a
nd {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Commo
n_law%231._Common_law_as_opposed_to_statutory_law_and_regulatory_law }}{\fldrslt
{\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 common law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 or \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 "{\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia
.org/w/index.php?title=Case_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 case la
w}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ", i.e., decisions issued by {\field{\*\fldinst
{HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Courts }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\no
supersub\cf5\f6\fs20 courts}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (or quasi-judicial tr
ibunals within agencies).\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [10][11] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\
fs20 This first connotation \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 can be further di
fferentiated into (a) pure {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org
/w/index.php?title=Common_law%231._Common_law_as_opposed_to_statutory_law_and_re
gulatory_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 common law}}}\ul0\nosupers
ub\cf5\f6\fs20 arising from the traditional and inherent authority of courts to
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 define what the law is, even in absence of a
n underlying statute, e.g., most {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikiped
ia.org/w/index.php?title=Criminal_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 c
riminal law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK htt
p://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Procedural_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupers
ub\cf5\f6\fs20 procedural law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 before \line \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex100 the 20th century, and even today, most of {\field{\*\fldi
nst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Contract_law }}{\fldrsl
t {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 contract law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and t
he law of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?titl
e=Torts }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 torts}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\
fs20 , and (b) court decisions that interpret and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x116 decide the fine boundaries and distinctions in law promulgated by other bod
ies. This body of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.
php?title=Common_law%231._Common_law_as_opposed_to_statutory_law_and_regulatory_
law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 common law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6
\fs20 , \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 sometimes called "interstitial common
law," includes judicial interpretations of the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK ht
tp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constitution }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersu
b\cf5\f6\fs20 Constitution}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , of statutes, and of \
line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 regulations, and examples of application of la
w to facts.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [12] \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \
par\pard\ql\li1253\sb64\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul0\nosuper
sub\cf8\f9\fs24 2. Common law legal systems as opposed to civil law legal system
s \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb65\sl-300\slmult0\tx2388 \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex114 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Co
mmon_law%232._Common_law_legal_systems_as_opposed_to_civil_law_legal_systems }}{
\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Connotation}}} \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex106 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=C
ommon_law%232._Common_law_legal_systems_as_opposed_to_civil_law_legal_systems }}
{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 2}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 differe
ntiates "common law" jurisdictions and legal systems from "civil law"
or "{\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cod
ification_%28law%29 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 code}}}\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf5\f6\fs20 " \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 jurisdictions.\ul0\super\cf
1\f2\fs24 [12]\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://
en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_law%232._Common_law_legal_systems_as_o
pposed_to_civil_law_legal_systems }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Commo
n law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 systems place great weight on court decisio

ns, which are considered "law" with the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 same
force of law as statutes\u8212?for nearly a millennium, {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPE
RLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_law%232._Common_law_legal
_systems_as_opposed_to_civil_law_legal_systems }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\
f6\fs20 common law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 courts have had the authority
to make law \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 where no legislative statute exis
ts, and statutes mean what courts interpret them to mean. By contrast, in civil
law \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 jurisdictions (the legal tradition that p
revails in, or is combined with common law in, Europe and most non-Islamic, \lin
e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 non-common law countries), courts lack authority
to act where there is no statute, and judicial precedent is given less \line \up
0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 interpretive weight (which means that a judge deciding
a given case has more freedom to interpret the text of a \line \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex102 statute independently, and less predictably), and scholarly literat
ure is given more. For example, the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wiki
pedia.org/w/index.php?title=Napoleonic_code }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\
fs20 Napoleonic code}}} \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f
6\fs20 expressly forbade French judges from pronouncing general principles of la
w.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [13] \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \u
p0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 As a rough {\field{\*\fld
inst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rule_of_thumb }}{\fldr
slt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 rule of thumb}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , {
\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_la
w%232._Common_law_legal_systems_as_opposed_to_civil_law_legal_systems }}{\fldrsl
t {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 common law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 systems
trace their history to England, while civil law systems trace their \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex108 history to {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikip
edia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Ro
man law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK htt
p://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Napoleonic_Code }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf5\f6\fs20 Napoleonic Code}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 . \par\pard\qj \li
1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 The contrast betwee
n common law and civil law systems is elaborated in {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLIN
K http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_law%23Contrasts_between_commo
n_law_and_civil_law_systems }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 "Contrasts
between common law and civil}}} \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 {\field{\*\fl
dinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_law%23Contrast
s_between_common_law_and_civil_law_systems }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\f
s20 law systems"}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLIN
K http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_law%23Alternatives_to_common_
law_systems }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 "Alternatives to common law
systems"}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , below. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-276
\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb64\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 \u
l0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs24 3. Law as opposed to equity \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri106
0\sb65\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_law%233._Law_as_opposed_to_equ
ity }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Connotation 3}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5
\f6\fs20 differentiates "common law" (or just "law") from "{\field{\*\fldinst {
HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Equity_%28law%29 }}{\fldrslt
{\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 equity}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ".\ul0\super\
cf1\f2\fs24 [10][11] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Before 1873, England had two \l
ine \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 parallel court systems: courts of "{\field{\*\f
ldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_law%233._Law_
as_opposed_to_equity }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 law}}}\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf5\f6\fs20 " that could only award {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.
wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Monetary_damages }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf
5\f6\fs20 money damages}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and recognized only the l
egal owner of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 property, and courts of "equit
y" ({\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cour
ts_of_chancery }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 courts of chancery}}}\ul

0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ) that could issue {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http:/

/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Injunction }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\
f6\fs20 injunctive relief}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (that is, a court order
to a party \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 to do something, give something t
o someone, or stop doing something) and recognized {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trust_%28law%29 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nos
upersub\cf5\f6\fs20 trusts}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 of property. This spli
t \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 propagated to many of the colonies, includi
ng the United States (see "{\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.or
g/w/index.php?title=Common_law%23Propagation_of_the_common_law_to_the_colonies_a
nd_Commonwealth_by_reception_statutes }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 R
eception Statutes}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ", below). For most \line \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex105 purposes, most jurisdictions, including the U.S. federal
system and most states, have merged the two courts.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [14][1
5] \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Additionally,
even before the separate courts were merged, most courts were permitted to apply
both {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Co
mmon_law%233._Law_as_opposed_to_equity }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and equity, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
3 though under potentially different procedural law. Nonetheless, the historical
distinction between "{\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/in
dex.php?title=Common_law%233._Law_as_opposed_to_equity }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf5\f6\fs20 law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 " and "equity" \line \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex103 remains important today when the case involves issues such a
s the following: \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1191\sb61\sl-300\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex100 \u8226? categorizing and prioritizing {\field{\*\fldinst {
HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rights_to_property }}{\fldrs
lt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 rights to property}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
\u8212?for example, the same article of property often has a "{\field{\*\fldins
t {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Equitable_title%23Equitab
le_versus_legal_title }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 legal title}}}\ul
0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 " \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 and an "{\fie
ld{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Equitable_tit
le }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 equitable title}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf
5\f6\fs20 ," and these two groups of ownership rights may be held by different p
eople. \par\pard\ql \li1253\ri1214\sb1\sl-300\slmult0\tx1493\tx1493 \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex103 \u8226? in the United States, determining whether {\field{\*\f
ldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seventh_Amendment_to
_the_United_States_Constitution }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 the Sev
enth Amendment's}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 right to a {\field{\*\fldinst {H
YPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jury_trial }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\
nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 jury trial}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 applies (a dete
rmination \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 of a fact necessary to resolut
ion of a "common law" claim)\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [16] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\f
s20 or whether the issue will be decided by a {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http
://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Judge }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\
fs20 judge}}} \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs
20 (issues of what the law is, and all issues relating to equity).
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0}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn lineColor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn lineWidt
h}{\sv 0}}
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{\shp {\*\shpinst\shpleft850\shptop15969\shpright11055\shpbottom15969\shpfhdr0\s
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\sv 20}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn lineColor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn lin
eWidth}{\sv 0}}
}}\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart P
g11}{\bkmkend Pg11}\par\pard\li850\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li850\sb109\sl-23
0\slmult0\fi0\tx10955 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex139 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 C

ommon law\tab \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex139 9\par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-300\slmu

lt0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\ri1136\sb44\sl-300\slmult0\tx1493\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex100 \u8226? the standard of review and degree of deference given by a
n appellate tribunal to the decision of the lower tribunal \line\tab \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex100 under review (issues of law are reviewed de novo, that is, "as
if new" from scratch by the appellate tribunal, while \line \tab \up0 \expndtw1\charscalex100 most issues of equity are reviewed for "abuse of discretion," th
at is, with great deference to the tribunal below). \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb58\sl
-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 \u8226? the remedies available and ru
les of procedure to be applied. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\par
d\ql\li1253\sb76\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8
\f9\fs24 4. Historical uses \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb65\sl-300\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex102 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 In addition, there are seve
ral historical uses of the term that provide some background as to its meaning.
The English \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK htt
p://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Court_of_Common_Pleas_%28England%29 }}{\f
ldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Court of Common Pleas}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\
f6\fs20 dealt with lawsuits in which the Monarch had no interest, i.e. between
commoners. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Additionally, from at least the 1
1th century and continuing for several centuries after that, there were several
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 different circuits in the royal court system, serve
d by itinerant judges who would travel from town to town \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex112 dispensing the King's justice. The term "common law" was used to describe
the law held in common between the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 circuits and the
different stops in each circuit. The more widely a particular law was recognize
d, the more weight it \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 held, whereas purely local cu
stoms were generally subordinate to law recognized in a plurality of jurisdictio
ns. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 These definitions are archaic, their relevance
having dissipated with the development of the English legal system \up0 \expndtw
-2\charscalex100 over the centuries, but they do explain the origin of the term.
\par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-322\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb60\sl-322\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs28 Basic principles of co
mmon law \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb276\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex126
\ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs24 Common law adjudication \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\
sb65\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 In
a common law jurisdiction several stages of research and analysis are required t
o determine "what the law is" in a \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 given situ
ation. First, one must ascertain the facts. Then, one must locate any relevant s
tatutes and cases. Then one \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 must extract the
principles, analogies and statements by various courts of what they consider imp
ortant to determine \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 how the next court is lik
ely to rule on the facts of the present case. Later decisions, and decisions of
higher courts or \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 legislatures carry more weig
ht than earlier cases and those of lower courts.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [17] \ul0
\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Finally, one integrates all the lines \line \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex103 drawn and reasons given, and determines "what the law is". Then
, one applies that law to the facts. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \pa
r\pard\ql\li1253\sb64\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 \ul0\nosupersu
b\cf8\f9\fs24 The common law evolves to meet changing social needs and improved
understanding \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1080\sb65\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex104 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?tit
le=Oliver_Wendell_Holmes%2C_Jr. }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Justice
Holmes}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 cautioned that \u8220?the proper derivati
on of general principals in both common and constitutional law ... \line \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex110 arise gradually, in the emergence of a consensus from a mu
ltitude of particularized prior decisions.\u8221?\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [18]\ul0
\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w
/index.php?title=Benjamin_Cardozo }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Judge
}}} \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.w
ikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Cardozo }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5

\f6\fs20 Benjamin Cardozo}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 noted the \u8220?common

law does not work from pre-established truths of universal and inflexible \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 validity to conclusions derived from them de
ductively,\u8221? but \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \u8220?[i]ts method is i
nductive, and it draws its \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb68\sl-218\slmult0 \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex100 generalizations from particulars.\u8221?\ul0\super\cf1\f2\f
s24 [19] \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb75\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex115 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 The common law is more malleable than statutor
y law. First, common law courts are not absolutely bound by \line \up0 \expndtw0
\charscalex106 precedent, but can (when extraordinarily good reason is shown) re
interpret and revise the law, without legislative \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x110 intervention, to adapt to new trends in political, legal and {\field{\*\fld
inst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Social_philosophy }}{\
fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 social philosophy}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\
fs20 . Second, the common law evolves \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 through
a series of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?t
itle=Incrementalism }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 gradual steps}}}\ul
0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , that gradually works out all the details, so that ove
r a decade or more, the law can \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 change substa
ntially but without a sharp break, thereby reducing disruptive effects.\ul0\supe
r\cf1\f2\fs24 [20] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 In contrast to common law \line \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 incrementalism, the legislative process is very diff
icult to get started, as legislatures tend to delay action until a \line \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex107 situation is totally intolerable. For these reasons, legis
lative changes tend to be large, jarring and disruptive \line \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex107 (sometimes positively, sometimes negatively, and sometimes with unint
ended consequences). \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex107 One example of the gradual change that typifies the common law
is the gradual change in liability for negligence. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex104 For example, the traditional common law rule through most of the 19th cen
tury was that a plaintiff could not recover \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 f
or a defendant's negligent production or distribution of a harmful instrumentali
ty unless the two were in {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/
w/index.php?title=Privity_of_contract }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 p
rivity of}}} \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK ht
tp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Privity_of_contract }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\no
supersub\cf5\f6\fs20 contract}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 . Thus, only the imm
ediate purchaser could recover for a product defect, and if a part was built up
out of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 parts from parts manufacturers, the ul
timate buyer could not recover for injury caused by a defect in the part. In an
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 1842 English case, {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERL
INK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Winterbottom_v._Wright }}{\fldrslt
{\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Winterbottom v. Wright}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs
20 ,\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [21] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 the postal service h
ad contracted with Wright to maintain its coaches.
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0}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn lineColor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn lineWidt
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\sv 20}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn lineColor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn lin
eWidth}{\sv 0}}
}}\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart P
g12}{\bkmkend Pg12}\par\pard\li850\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li850\sb109\sl-23
0\slmult0\fi0\tx10855 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex137 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 C
ommon law\tab \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex137 10\par\pard\qj \li1253\sb0\sl-300\slm
ult0 \par\pard\qj\li1253\ri1090\sb44\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113
Winterbottom was a driver for the post. When the coach failed and injured Winte

rbottom, he sued Wright. The \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Winterbottom court rec

ognized that there would be "absurd and outrageous consequences" if an injured p
erson could \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 sue any person peripherally involved, a
nd knew it had to draw a line somewhere, a limit on the causal connection \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex100 between the negligent conduct and the injury. The court l
ooked to the contractual relationships, and held that liability \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex100 would only flow as far as the person in immediate contract ("privit
y") with the negligent party. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \u
p0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 A first exception to this rule arose in an 1852 case
by New York's highest court, Thomas v. Winchester,\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [22] \u
l0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 which \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 held that mislabeli
ng a poison as an innocuous herb, and then selling the mislabeled poison through
a dealer who \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 would be expected to resell it, put "
human life in imminent danger." Thomas used this as a reason to create an \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex103 exception to the "privity" rule. In, 1909, New York held
in Statler v. Ray Mfg. Co.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [23] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs2
0 that a coffee urn manufacturer \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 was liable to a pe
rson injured when the urn exploded, because the urn "was of such a character inh
erently that, when \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 applied to the purposes for whic
h it was designed, it was liable to become a source of great danger to many peop
le if \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 not carefully and properly constructed." \par
\pard\qj \li1253\ri1030\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Yet the
privity rule survived. In Cadillac Motor Car Co. v. Johnson,\ul0\super\cf1\f2\f
s24 [24] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (decided in 1915 by the federal appeals cou
rt \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 for New York and several neighboring state
s), the court held that a car owner could not recover for injuries from a \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 defective wheel, when the automobile owner had a co
ntract only with the automobile dealer and not with the \line \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex116 manufacturer, even though there was "no question that the wheel was m
ade of dead and \u8216?dozy\u8216? wood, quite \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
04 insufficient for its purposes." The Cadillac court was willing to acknowledge
that the case law supported exceptions \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 for "
an article dangerous in its nature or likely to become so in the course of the o
rdinary usage to be contemplated \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 by the vendo
r." However, held the Cadillac court, "one who manufactures articles dangerous o
nly if defectively \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 made, or installed, e.g.,
tables, chairs, pictures or mirrors hung on the walls, carriages, automobiles,
and so on, is not \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 liable to third parties fo
r injuries caused by them, except in case of willful injury or fraud," \par\pard
\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 Finally, in
the famous case of MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co.,\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [25] \ul
0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 in 1916, {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipe
dia.org/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Cardozo }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\f
s20 Judge Benjamin Cardozo}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 for New York's \line \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 highest court pulled a broader principle out of thes
e predecessor cases. The facts were almost identical to Cadillac a \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex104 year earlier: a wheel from a wheel manufacturer was sold to Buic
k, to a dealer, to MacPherson, and the wheel failed, \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
4 injuring MacPherson. Judge Cardozo held: \par\pard\qj \li1753\ri1050\sb61\sl-3
00\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 It may be that Statler v. Ray Mfg. Co. h
ave extended the rule of Thomas v. Winchester. If so, this court is \line \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex112 committed to the extension. The defendant argues that thi
ngs imminently dangerous to life are poisons, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106
explosives, deadly weapons\u8212?things whose normal function it is to injure o
r destroy. But whatever the rule in \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 Thomas v.
Winchester may once have been, it has no longer that restricted meaning. A scaf
fold (Devlin v. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Smith, supra) is not inherent
ly a destructive instrument. It becomes destructive only if imperfectly construc
ted. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 A large coffee urn (Statler v. Ray Mfg.
Co., supra) may have within itself, if negligently made, the potency of \line \u

p0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 danger, yet no one thinks of it as an implement whose

normal function is destruction. What is true of the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsc
alex104 coffee urn is equally true of bottles of aerated water (Torgeson v. Schu
ltz, 192 N. Y. 156). We have mentioned \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 only c
ases in this court. But the rule has received a like extension in our courts of
intermediate appeal. In \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Burke v. Ireland (26
App. Div. 487), in an opinion by CULLEN, J., it was applied to a builder who con
structed \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 a defective building; in Kahner v. O
tis Elevator Co. (96 App. Div. 169) to the manufacturer of an elevator; in \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Davies v. Pelham Hod Elevating Co. (65 Hun, 573; a
ffirmed in this court without opinion, 146 N. Y. 363) to a \line \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex108 contractor who furnished a defective rope with knowledge of the pu
rpose for which the rope was to be used. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 We a
re not required at this time either to approve or to disapprove the application
of the rule that was made in \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 these cases. It
is enough that they help to characterize the trend of judicial thought. \par\pa
rd\qj \li1753\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 We hold, t
hen, that the principle of Thomas v. Winchester is not limited to poisons, explo
sives, and things of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 like nature, to things w
hich in their normal operation are implements of destruction. If the nature of a
thing is \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 such that it is reasonably certain
to place life and limb in peril when negligently made, it is then a thing of \li
ne \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 danger. Its nature gives warning of the conseque
nces to be expected. If to the element of danger there is added \line \up0 \expn
dtw0\charscalex107 knowledge that the thing will be used by persons other than t
he purchaser, and used without new tests then, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
0 irrespective of contract, the manufacturer of this thing of danger is under a
duty to make it carefully. ... There
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{\shp {\*\shpinst\shpleft850\shptop15969\shpright11055\shpbottom15969\shpfhdr0\s
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}}\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart P
g13}{\bkmkend Pg13}\par\pard\li850\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li850\sb109\sl-23
0\slmult0\fi0\tx10855 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex137 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 C
ommon law\tab \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex137 11\par\pard\ql \li1753\sb0\sl-230\slm
ult0 \par\pard\ql\li1753\sb171\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 must
be knowledge of a danger, not merely possible, but probable. \par\pard\qj \li125
3\ri1090\sb73\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Cardozo's new "rule" e
xists in no prior case, but is inferrable as a synthesis of the "thing of danger
" principle stated \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 in them, merely extending
it to "foreseeable danger" even if "the purposes for which it was designed" were
not \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 themselves "a source of great danger." M
acPherson takes some care to present itself as foreseeable progression, not a \l
ine \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 wild departure. Cardozo continues to adhere to
the original principle of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/
w/index.php?title=Winterbottom_v._Wright }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs2
0 Winterbottom}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , that "absurd and outrageous \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 consequences" must be avoided, and he does so by d
rawing a new line in the last sentence quoted above: "There \line \up0 \expndtw0
\charscalex107 must be knowledge of a danger, not merely possible, but probable.
" But while adhering to the underlying principle \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex
111 that some boundary is necessary, {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wik
ipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MacPherson_v._Buick_Motor_Co. }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nos
upersub\cf5\f6\fs20 MacPherson}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 overruled the prio

r common law by rendering the formerly dominant \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1

00 factor in the boundary, that is, the privity formality arising out of a contr
actual relationship between persons, totally \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 irrele
vant. Rather, the most important factor in the boundary would be the nature of t
he thing sold and the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 foreseeable uses that downstr
eam purchasers would make of the thing. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\
slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 This illustrates two crucial principles tha
t are often not well understood by non-lawyers. (a) The law evolves, this \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex106 evolution is in the hands of judges, and judges have "mad
e law" for hundreds of years. (b) The reasons given for a \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex108 decision are often more important in the long run than the outcome in a p
articular case. This is the reason that \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 judicial op
inions are usually quite long, and give rationales and policies that can be bala
nced with judgment in future \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 cases, rather than th
e bright-line rules usually embodied in statutes. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-27
6\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb64\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \
ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs24 Interaction of constitutional, statutory and common l
aw \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb65\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 In common law legal systems ({\field{\*\fldinst {HYP
ERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_law%232._Common_law_lega
l_systems_as_opposed_to_civil_law_legal_systems }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5
\f6\fs20 connotation 2}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ), the common law ({\field{
\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_law%231._
Common_law_as_opposed_to_statutory_law_and_regulatory_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosu
persub\cf5\f6\fs20 connotation 1}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ) is crucial to u
nderstanding almost all \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 important areas of la
w. For example, in {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index
.php?title=English_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 England and Wale
s}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and in most states of the {\field{\*\fldinst {H
YPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States }}{\
fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 United States}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
, the basic law of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPER
LINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Contract }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf5\f6\fs20 contract}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 s, {\field{\*\fldinst {H
YPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tort }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf5\f6\fs20 tort}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 s and property do not exist
in statute, but only in common law (though there may be isolated \line \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex105 modifications enacted by statute). As another example, the
{\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Supreme_
Court_of_the_United_States }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Supreme Cour
t of the United States}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 in 1877,\ul0\super\cf1\f2\
fs24 [26] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 held that \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
08 a {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mic
higan }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Michigan}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6
\fs20 statute that established rules for solemnization of marriages did not abo
lish pre-existing common-law \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 marriage, becaus
e the statute did not affirmatively require statutory solemnization and was sile
nt as to preexisting \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 common law. \par\pard\qj
\li1253\ri1070\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 In almost all a
reas of the law (even those where there is a statutory framework, such as contra
cts for the sale of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 goods,\ul0\super\cf1\f2\f
s24 [27] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 or the criminal law),\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs2
4 [28] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 legislature-enacted statutes generally give
only terse statements of general \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 principle, a
nd the fine boundaries and definitions exist only in the common law ({\field{\*\
fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_law%231._Com
mon_law_as_opposed_to_statutory_law_and_regulatory_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf5\f6\fs20 connotation 1}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ). To find out what
the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 precise law is that applies to a particu
lar set of facts, one has to locate {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wiki

pedia.org/w/index.php?title=Precedent }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 p

recedent}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ial decisions on the topic, and reason \l
ine \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 from those decisions by {\field{\*\fldinst
{HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Analogy }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\n
osupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 analogy}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 . To consider but
one example, the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/in
dex.php?title=First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution }}{\fldrslt {\ul
0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 First Amendment to the United State}}}\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf5\f6\fs20 s \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLI
NK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_Amendment_to_the_United_State
s_Constitution }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Constitution}}}\ul0\nosu
persub\cf5\f6\fs20 states "{\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.or
g/w/index.php?title=United_States_Congress }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\f
s20 Congress}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 shall make no law respecting an esta
blishment of religion, or prohibiting the free \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
3 exercise thereof"\u8212?but interpretation (that is, determining the fine boun
daries, and resolving the tension between the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 "esta
blishment" and "free exercise" clauses) of each of the important terms was deleg
ated by Article III of the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Constitution to the judi
cial branch,\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [29] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 so that the
current legal boundaries of the Constitutional text can only be \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex105 determined by consulting the common law.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [30]
\par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \u
l0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 In common law jurisdictions, legislatures operate unde
r the assumption that {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/in
dex.php?title=Statute }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 statute}}}\ul0\no
supersub\cf5\f6\fs20 s will be interpreted against the \line \up0 \expndtw0\char
scalex109 backdrop of the pre-existing common law and custom. For example, in mo
st U.S. states, the criminal statutes are \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 pri
marily codification of pre-existing common law. ({\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK h
ttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Codification_%28law%29 }}{\fldrslt {\ul
0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Codification}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 is the proc
ess of enacting a statute that collects and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 r
estates pre-existing law in a single document\u8212?when that pre-existing law i
s common law, the common law remains \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 relevant
to the interpretation of these statutes.) In reliance on this assumption, moder
n statutes often leave a number \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 of terms and
fine distinctions unstated\u8212?for example, a statute might be very brief, lea
ving the precise definition of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 terms unstated
, under the assumption that these fine distinctions will be inherited from pre-e
xisting common law. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 (For this reason, many mo
dern American law schools teach the common law of crime as it stood in England i
n 1789, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 because that centuries-old English co
mmon law is a necessary foundation to interpreting modern criminal statutes.) \p
ar\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 With
the transition from English law, which had common law crimes, to the new legal s
ystem under the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.ph
p?title=U.S._Constitution }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 U.S.}}} \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.
org/w/index.php?title=U.S._Constitution }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
Constitution}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , which prohibited {\field{\*\fldins
t {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ex_post_facto_law }}{\fld
rslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ex post facto laws}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs
20 at both the federal and state level, the question was raised whether
{\shp {\*\shpinst\shpleft850\shptop832\shpright11055\shpbottom832\shpfhdr0\shpbx
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{\shp {\*\shpinst\shpleft850\shptop15969\shpright11055\shpbottom15969\shpfhdr0\s

hpbxpage\shpbypage\shpwr3\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz31\shplid1{\sp{\sn shapeType}{
\sv 20}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn lineColor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn lin
eWidth}{\sv 0}}
}}\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart P
g14}{\bkmkend Pg14}\par\pard\li850\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li850\sb109\sl-23
0\slmult0\fi0\tx10855 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex137 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 C
ommon law\tab \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex137 12\par\pard\qj \li1253\sb0\sl-300\slm
ult0 \par\pard\qj\li1253\ri1090\sb44\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108
there could be common law crimes in the United States. It was settled in the ca
se of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Un
ited_States_v._Hudson_and_Goodwin }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Unite
d States v. Hudson and}}} \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 {\field{\*\fldinst
{HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_States_v._Hudson_and
_Goodwin }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Goodwin}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\
f6\fs20 , 11 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?t
itle=United_States_Reports }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 U.S.}}}\ul0\
nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 32 \ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [31] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs
20 (1812), which decided that federal courts had no jurisdiction to define new c
ommon law \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 crimes, and that there must always
be a (constitutional) statute defining the offense and the penalty for it. \par
\pard\qj \li1253\ri1080\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Still,
many states retain selected common law crimes. For example, in Virginia, the def
inition of the conduct that \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 constitutes the c
rime of robbery exists only in the common law, and the robbery statute only sets
the punishment.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [32] \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 {
\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Code_of_V
irginia }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Virginia Code}}}\ul0\nosupersub
\cf5\f6\fs20 section 1-200 establishes the continued existence and vitality of
common law principles and provides \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 that "The
common law of England, insofar as it is not repugnant to the principles of the B
ill of Rights and \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Constitution of this Commonwealth
, shall continue in full force within the same, and be the rule of decision, exc
ept \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 as altered by the General Assembly." \par\pard\
qj \li1253\ri1079\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 By contrast t
o statutory codification of common law, some statutes displace common law, for e
xample to create a \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 new {\field{\*\fldinst {HY
PERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cause_of_action }}{\fldrslt {\
ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 cause of action}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 that d
id not exist in the common law, or to legislatively overrule the common law. An
example \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 is the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tort }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\
f6\fs20 tort}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK htt
p://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wrongful_death }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupers
ub\cf5\f6\fs20 wrongful death}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , which allows certa
in persons, usually a spouse, child or estate, to sue for damages on \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex107 behalf of the deceased. There is no such tort in English
common law; thus, any jurisdiction that lacks a wrongful \line \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex104 death statute will not allow a lawsuit for the wrongful death of a
loved one. Where a wrongful death statute exists, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x100 the compensation or other remedy available is limited to the remedy specifi
ed in the statute (typically, an upper limit \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105
on the amount of damages). Courts generally interpret statutes that create new c
auses of action narrowly - that is, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 limited t
o their precise terms\u8212?because the courts generally recognize the legislatu
re as being supreme in deciding \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 the reach of
judge-made law unless such statute should violate some "second order" {\field{\*
\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_law
}}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 constitutional law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\c
f5\f6\fs20 provision (cf. \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 {\field{\*\fldins
t {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Judicial_activism }}{\fld

rslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 judicial activism}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs2

0 ). \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
4 Where a tort is rooted in common law, all traditionally recognized damages for
that tort may be sued for, whether or \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 not th
ere is mention of those {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/
index.php?title=Damages }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 damages}}}\ul0\
nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 in the current {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.w
ikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Statutory_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6
\fs20 statutory law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 . For instance, a person who s
ustains bodily injury \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 through the {\field{\*\
fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Negligence }}{\fldr
slt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 negligence}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 of an
other may sue for medical costs, pain, suffering, loss of earnings or earning ca
pacity, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 mental and/or emotional distress, los
s of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Qua
lity_of_life }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 quality of life}}}\ul0\nos
upersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , disfigurement and more. These damages need not be set fort
h \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 in statute as they already exist in the tra
dition of common law. However, without a wrongful death statute, most of \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex105 them are extinguished upon death. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1
090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 In the United States, the p
ower of the federal judiciary to review and invalidate unconstitutional acts of
the federal \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 executive branch is stated in the
constitution, Article III sections 1 and 2: "The judicial Power of the United S
tates, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 shall be vested in one supreme Court,
and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and \li
ne \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 establish. ... The judicial Power shall extend t
o all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex108 Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which s
hall be made, under their Authority..." The first famous \line \up0 \expndtw0\ch
arscalex105 statement of "the judicial power" was {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marbury_v._Madison }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\n
osupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Marbury v. Madison}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , 5 {\fie
ld{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_States
_Reports }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 U.S.}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\
fs20 (1 Cranch) 137 \ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [33] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (18
03). Later cases interpreted \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 the "judicial po
wer" of Article III to establish the power of federal courts to consider or over
turn any action of \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 Congress or of any state that c
onflicts with the Constitution. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\par
d\ql\li1253\sb64\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8
\f9\fs24 Overruling precedent\u8212?the limits of stare decisis \par\pard\qj \li
1253\ri1090\sb65\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5
\f6\fs20 The {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?t
itle=Common_law%23United_States_federal_system_.281789_and_1938.29 }}{\fldrslt {
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 United States federal courts}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f
6\fs20 are divided into twelve regional circuits, each with a circuit court of
appeals (plus a \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 thirteenth, the Court of Appe
als for the Federal Circuit, which hears appeals in patent cases and cases again
st the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 federal government, without geographic limit
ation). Decisions of one circuit court are binding on the district courts \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex100 within the circuit and on the circuit court itself, but a
re only persuasive authority on sister circuits. District court \up0 \expndtw-1\
charscalex100 decisions are not binding precedent at all, only persuasive. \par\
pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Most of
the U.S. federal courts of appeal have adopted a rule under which, in the event
of any conflict in decisions of \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 panels (most
of the courts of appeal almost always sit in panels of three), the earlier pane
l decision is controlling, and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 a panel decisi
on may only be overruled by the court of appeals sitting en banc (that is, all a

ctive judges of the court) \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 or by a higher cou

rt.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [34] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 In these courts, the
older decision remains controlling when an issue comes up the third time. \par\p
ard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Other cou
rts, for example, the Court of Customs and Patent Appeals and the Supreme Court,
always sit en banc, and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 thus the later decis
ion controls. These courts essentially overrule all previous cases in each new c
ase, and older cases
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0}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn lineColor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn lineWidt
h}{\sv 0}}
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{\shp {\*\shpinst\shpleft850\shptop15969\shpright11055\shpbottom15969\shpfhdr0\s
hpbxpage\shpbypage\shpwr3\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz31\shplid1{\sp{\sn shapeType}{
\sv 20}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn lineColor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn lin
eWidth}{\sv 0}}
}}\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart P
g15}{\bkmkend Pg15}\par\pard\li850\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li850\sb109\sl-23
0\slmult0\fi0\tx10855 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex137 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 C
ommon law\tab \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex137 13\par\pard\qj \li1253\sb0\sl-300\slm
ult0 \par\pard\qj\li1253\ri1030\sb44\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104
survive only to the extent they do not conflict with newer cases. The interpret
ations of these courts - for example, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Suprem
e Court interpretations of the constitution or federal statutes \up0 \ex
pndtw-6\charscalex100 - are stable only so long as the older \par\pard\q
j \li1253\ri1030\sb1\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 interpretation
maintains the support of a majority of the court. Older decisions persist throug
h some combination of \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 belief that the old decision
is right, and that it is not sufficiently wrong to be overruled. \par\pard\qj \
li1253\ri1098\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 In the UK, since
2009, the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?titl
e=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 S
upreme Court of the United Kingdom}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 has the author
ity to overrule and unify decisions \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 of lower
courts. From 1966 to 2009, this {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedi
a.org/w/index.php?title=Judicial_functions_of_the_House_of_Lords }}{\fldrslt {\u
l0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 power}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 lay with the {\fi
eld{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=House_of_Lor
ds }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 House of Lords}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5
\f6\fs20 , granted by the Practice Statement of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
08 1966.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [35] \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1078\sb61\sl-300\slmu
lt0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Canada's system, de
scribed below, avoids regional variability of federal law by giving national jur
isdiction to both \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 layers of appellate courts. \par
\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb64\sl-276\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex119 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs24 Common law as a foundation
for commercial economies \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb65\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex104 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 The reliance on judicial opini
on is a strength of common law systems, and is a significant contributor to the
robust \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 commercial systems in the United Kingd
om and United States. Because there is common law to give reasonably \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex110 precise guidance on almost every issue, parties (especia
lly commercial parties) can predict whether a proposed \line \up0 \expndtw0\char
scalex104 course of action is likely to be lawful or unlawful. This ability to p
redict gives more freedom to come close to the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex11
2 boundaries of the law.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [36] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
For example, many commercial contracts are more economically efficient, and crea
te \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 greater wealth, because the parties know a
head of time that the proposed arrangement, though perhaps close to the \line \u

p0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 line, is almost certainly legal. Newspapers, taxpayer

-funded entities with some religious affiliation, and political \line \up0 \expn
dtw0\charscalex102 parties can obtain fairly clear guidance on the boundaries wi
thin which their {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.p
hp?title=Freedom_of_speech }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 freedom of e
xpression}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 rights apply. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri10
90\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 In contrast, in non-common-l
aw countries, and jurisdictions with very weak respect for precedent (example, t
he {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unite
d_States_Patent_and_Trademark_Office }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 U.
S.}}} \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en
.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_States_Patent_and_Trademark_Office }}{\f
ldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Patent Office}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
), fine {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=
Question_of_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 questions of law}}}\ul0
\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 are redetermined anew each time they arise, making cons
istency and prediction \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 more difficult, and pr
ocedures far more protracted than necessary because parties cannot rely on writt
en statements \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 of law as reliable guides. In jurisdi
ctions that do not have a strong allegiance to a large body of precedent, partie
s \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 have less a priori guidance and must often leave
a bigger "safety margin" of unexploited opportunities, and final \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex100 determinations are reached only after far larger expenditures on l
egal fees by the parties. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1080\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex114 This is the reason for the frequent choice of the law of
the State of New York in commercial contracts.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [37] \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Commercial contracts al
most always include a "choice of law clause" to reduce uncertainty. Somewhat sur
prisingly, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 contracts throughout the world (fo
r example, contracts involving parties in Japan, France and Germany, and from \l
ine \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 most of the other states of the United States)
often choose the law of New York, even where the relationship of the \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex106 parties and transaction to New York is quite attenuated.
Because of its history as the nation's commercial center, \line \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex111 New York common law has a depth and predictability not (yet) avai
lable in any other jurisdiction. Similarly, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 c
orporations are often formed under Delaware {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http:/
/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corporations_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersu
b\cf5\f6\fs20 corporate law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , and contracts relati
ng to corporate law issues ({\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.or
g/w/index.php?title=Mergers_and_acquisitions }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6
\fs20 merger}}} \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mergers_and_acquisitions }}{\fldrslt
{\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and acquisitions}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 of
companies, rights of shareholders, and so on.) include a Delaware {\field{\*\fld
inst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Choice_of_law }}{\fldr
slt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 choice of law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 cl
ause, because \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 of the deep body of law in Dela
ware on these issues.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [38] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 On
the other hand, some other jurisdictions have sufficiently \line \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex108 developed bodies of law so that parties have no real motivation to
choose the law of a foreign jurisdiction (for \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex11
1 example, England and Wales, and the state of California), but not yet so fully
developed that parties with no \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 relationship
to the jurisdiction choose that law.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [39] \ul0\nosupersub\
cf5\f6\fs20 The common theme in each case is that commercial parties seek \line
\up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 predictability and simplicity in their contra
ctual relations, and frequently choose the law of a common law \line \
up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 jurisdiction with a well-developed body of common l
aw to achieve that result. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0

\expndtw0\charscalex107 Likewise, for litigation of commercial disputes arising

out of unpredictable torts (as opposed to the prospective \line \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex100 choice of law clauses in contracts discussed in the previous paragr
aph), certain jurisdictions attract an unusually high \line \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex109 fraction of cases, because of the predictability afforded by the depth
of decided cases. For example, {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia
.org/w/index.php?title=London }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 London}}}
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 is \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 considered th
e pre-eminent centre for litigation of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.w
ikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Admiralty_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6
\fs20 admiralty}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 cases.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [40]
\par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \u
l0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 This is not to say that common law is better in every
situation. For example, civil law can be clearer than case law \line \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex100 when the legislature has had the foresight and diligence to ad
dress the precise set of facts applicable to a particular \line \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex100 situation. For that reason, civil law statutes tend to be somewhat
more detailed than statutes written by common law
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{\shp {\*\shpinst\shpleft850\shptop15969\shpright11055\shpbottom15969\shpfhdr0\s
hpbxpage\shpbypage\shpwr3\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz31\shplid1{\sp{\sn shapeType}{
\sv 20}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn lineColor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn lin
eWidth}{\sv 0}}
}}\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart P
g16}{\bkmkend Pg16}\par\pard\li850\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li850\sb109\sl-23
0\slmult0\fi0\tx10855 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex137 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 C
ommon law\tab \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex137 14\par\pard\qj \li1253\sb0\sl-300\slm
ult0 \par\pard\qj\li1253\ri1090\sb44\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100
legislatures - but, conversely, that tends to make the statute more difficult t
o read (the United States tax code is an \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 example).\
ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [41] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Nonetheless, as a practic
al matter, no civil law legislature can ever address the full spectrum of factua
l \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 possibilities in the breadth, depth and detail of
the case law of the common law courts of even a smaller jurisdiction, \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex100 and that deeper, more complete body of law provides addition
al predictability that promotes commerce. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-322\slmult
0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb60\sl-322\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 \ul0\nosu
persub\cf7\f8\fs28 History \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb57\sl-300\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex113 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 The term "common law" origin
ally derives from the reign of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia
.org/w/index.php?title=Henry_II_of_England }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\f
s20 Henry II of England}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , in the 1150s and 1160s.
The \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 "common law" was the law that emerged as
"common" throughout the realm (as distinct from the various legal codes \line \u
p0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 that preceded it, such as {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLI
NK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mercia }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub
\cf5\f6\fs20 Mercian law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , the {\field{\*\fldinst
{HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Danelaw }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\n
osupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Danelaw}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and the law of Wess
ex)\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [42] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 as the king's judges
followed each \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 other's decisions to create a u
nified common law throughout England. The doctrine of precedent developed during
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 12th and 1
3th centuries,\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [43] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 as the co
llective judicial decisions that were based in {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK htt
p://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tradition }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf

5\f6\fs20 tradition}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLIN

K http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Custom_%28law%29 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\n
osupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 custom}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and \line \up0 \expn
dtw0\charscalex105 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index
.php?title=Precedent }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 precedent}}}\ul0\n
osupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 .\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [44] \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\s
b61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 The
form of reasoning used in common law is known as {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK h
ttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Casuistry }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\
cf5\f6\fs20 casuistry}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 or {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPE
RLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Case-based_reasoning }}{\fldrslt
{\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 case-based reasoning}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
. The common law, as \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 applied in {\field{\*\f
ldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Civil_case }}{\fldrs
lt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 civil case}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 s (as
distinct from {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Criminal_case }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 criminal case}}}\ul
0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 s), was devised as a means of compensating someone for
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 wrongful acts known as {\field{\*\fldinst {HY
PERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tort }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf5\f6\fs20 tort}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 s, including both {\field{\*\
fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intentional_tort }}
{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 intentional tort}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6
\fs20 s and torts caused by negligence, and as developing the \line \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex109 body of law recognizing and regulating {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPE
RLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Contract }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosup
ersub\cf5\f6\fs20 contract}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 s. The type of {\field{
\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Legal_procedure
}}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 procedure}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
practiced in common law courts is known \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 as
the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adve
rsarial_system }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 adversarial system}}}\ul
0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ; this is also a development of the common law. \par\pa
rd\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb64\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex124 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs24 Medieval English common law \p
ar\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb65\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 \ul0\
nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 In the late 800s, {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en
.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alfred_the_Great }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\c
f5\f6\fs20 Alfred the Great}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 assembled the {\field
{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doom_book }}{\f
ldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Doom book}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (no
t to be confused with the more-famous Domesday \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
7 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domesd
ay_Book }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Book}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\f
s20 from 200 years later), which collected the existing laws of Kent, Wessex, a
nd Mercia, and attempted to blend \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 in the Mosa
ic code, Christian principles, and old Germanic customs.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [
45] \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1057\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Before the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.
wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Norman_conquest }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5
\f6\fs20 Norman conquest}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 in 1066, justice was adm
inistered primarily by what is today known as the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=County_courts }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf5\f6\fs20 county}}} \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 {\field{\*\fldinst
{HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=County_courts }}{\fldrslt
{\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 courts}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (the modern "
{\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Counties
_of_the_United_Kingdom }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 counties}}}\ul0\
nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 " were referred to as "Shires" in pre-Norman times), pres
ided by the diocesan bishop \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and the {\field{

\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sheriff }}{\fldr

slt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 sheriff}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , exercis
ing both {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title
=Ecclesiastical_jurisdiction }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ecclesiast
ical}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and civil jurisdiction.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs2
4 [46] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Trial by jury began in these courts.\ul0\supe
r\cf1\f2\fs24 [46] \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex112 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 In 1154, {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLI
NK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Henry_II_of_England }}{\fldrslt {\u
l0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Henry II}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 became the fir
st {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plant
agenet }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Plantagenet}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf
5\f6\fs20 king. Among many achievements, Henry institutionalized common \line \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 law by creating a unified system of law "common" to
the country through incorporating and elevating local custom \line \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex100 to the national, ending local control and peculiarities, elimina
ting arbitrary remedies and reinstating a {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://e
n.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jury }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
jury}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 system -\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 c
itizens sworn on oath to investigate reliable criminal accusations and civil cla
ims. The jury reached its {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/
w/index.php?title=Verdict }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 verdic}}}\ul0
\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 t \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 through evaluating
common {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=T
raditional_knowledge }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 local knowledge}}}
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , not necessarily through the presentation of {\fiel
d{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_%28la
w%29 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 evidence}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\
fs20 , a distinguishing \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 factor from today's c
ivil and criminal court systems. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Henry II developed the practice of sending judges
from his own central court to hear the various disputes throughout \line \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex105 the country. His judges would resolve disputes on an {\fie
ld{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ad_hoc }}{\fl
drslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ad hoc}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 basis a
ccording to what they interpreted the customs to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex
104 be. The king's judges would then return to London and often discuss their ca
ses and the decisions they made with the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 othe
r judges. These decisions would be recorded and filed. In time, a rule, known as
{\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stare_d
ecisis }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 stare decisis}}}\ul0\nosupersub\
cf5\f6\fs20 (also commonly \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 known as preceden
t) developed, whereby a judge would be bound to follow the decision of an earlie
r judge; he was \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 required to adopt the earlier
judge's interpretation of the law and apply the same principles promulgated by
that \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 earlier judge if the two cases had simil
ar facts to one another. Once judges began to regard each other's decisions to \
line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 be binding precedent, the pre-Norman system of
local customs and law varying in each locality was replaced by a \line \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex106 system that was (at least in theory, though not always in p
ractice) common throughout the whole country, hence the \line \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex106 name "common law." \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \u
p0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Henry II's creation of a powerful and unified court s
ystem, which curbed somewhat the power of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://e
n.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Canon_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\
fs20 canonical}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (church) \line \up0 \expndtw0\char
scalex107 courts, brought him (and England) into conflict with the church, most
famously with {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Thomas_Becket }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Thomas Becket}}}\ul
0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia

.org/w/index.php?title=Archbishop_of_Canterbury }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5

\f6\fs20 Archbishop}}} \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 {\field{\*\fldinst {HY
PERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Archbishop_of_Canterbury }}{\f
ldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 of Canterbury}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
. Eventually, Becket was murdered inside {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK ht
tp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Canterbury_Cathedral }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\n
osupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Canterbury Cathedral}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 by
four knights who believed \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 themselves to be
acting on Henry's behalf. Whether Henry actually intended to bring about the as
sassination of
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eWidth}{\sv 0}}
}}\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart P
g17}{\bkmkend Pg17}\par\pard\li850\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li850\sb109\sl-23
0\slmult0\fi0\tx10855 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex137 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 C
ommon law\tab \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex137 15\par\pard\qj \li1253\sb0\sl-300\slm
ult0 \par\pard\qj\li1253\ri1090\sb44\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104
Becket is debatable, but there is no question that at the time of the murder, t
he two men were embroiled in a bitter \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 dispute
regarding the power of Royal Courts to exercise jurisdiction over former clergy
men. The murder of the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 Archbishop gave rise t
o a wave of popular outrage against the King. Henry was forced to repeal the dis
puted laws \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 and to abandon his efforts to hold
church members accountable for secular crimes (see also {\field{\*\fldinst {HY
PERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constitutions_of_Clarendon }}{
\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Constitutions o}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\f
s20 f \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en
.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constitutions_of_Clarendon }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\no
supersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Clarendon}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ). \par\pard\qj \li
1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 Judge-made common l
aw operated as the primary source of law for several hundred years, before {\fie
ld{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parliament_of
_England }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Parliamen}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf
5\f6\fs20 t \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 acquired legislative powers to cr
eate {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sta
tutory_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 statutory law}}}\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf5\f6\fs20 . It is important to understand that common law is the older and
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 more traditional source of law, and legislat
ive power is simply a layer applied on top of the older common law \line \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex106 foundation. Since the 12th century, courts have had parall
el and co-equal authority to make law\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [47] \ul0\nosupersub
\cf5\f6\fs20 -- "legislating \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 from the bench"
is a traditional and essential function of courts, which was carried over into t
he U.S. system as an \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 essential component of t
he "judicial power" specified by Article III of the U.S. constitution.\ul0\super
\cf1\f2\fs24 [48] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Justice {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERL
INK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oliver_Wendell_Holmes%2C_Jr. }}{\f
ldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Olive}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 r \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.o
rg/w/index.php?title=Oliver_Wendell_Holmes%2C_Jr. }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\c
f5\f6\fs20 Wendell Holmes, Jr.}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 observed in 1917 t
hat "judges do and must legislate."\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [49] \ul0\nosupersub\c
f5\f6\fs20 There are legitimate debates on how \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex11

0 the powers of courts and legislatures should be balanced. However, a view that
courts lack law-making power is \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 historically inacc
urate and constitutionally unsupportable. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-276\slmult
0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb64\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 \ul0\nosu
persub\cf8\f9\fs24 Influences of foreign legal systems \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\
sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb12\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex
138 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Roman law \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb73\sl-30
0\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 The term "common law" ({\field{\*\fldins
t {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_law%232._Common_la
w_legal_systems_as_opposed_to_civil_law_legal_systems }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupers
ub\cf5\f6\fs20 connotation 2}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ) is often used as a
contrast to Roman-derived "civil law", and the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
00 fundamental processes and forms of reasoning in the two are quite
different. Nonetheless, there has been \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 c
onsiderable cross-fertilization of ideas, while the two traditions and sets of f
oundational principles remain distinct. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\
slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 By the time of the rediscovery of the {\fie
ld{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_law }}{
\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Roman law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 i
n Europe in the 12th and 13th centuries, the common law had \line \up0 \expndtw0
\charscalex110 already developed far enough to prevent a Roman law reception as
it occurred on the continent.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [50] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\
fs20 However, the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 first common law scholars,
most notably {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?t
itle=Ranulf_de_Glanvill }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Glanvill}}}\ul0
\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.o
rg/w/index.php?title=Henry_de_Bracton }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 B
racton}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , as well as the early royal common law jud
ges, had \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 been well accustomed with Roman law.
Often, they were clerics trained in the Roman canon law.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24
[51] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 One of the first \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x113 and throughout its history one of the most significant treatises of the com
mon law, Bracton\u8217?s De Legibus et \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 Consue
tudinibus Angliae (On the Laws and Customs of England), was heavily influenced b
y the division of the law \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 in Justinian\u8217?
s {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corpus
_Juris_Civilis }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Institutes}}}\ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf5\f6\fs20 .\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [52] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 The im
pact Roman law had decreased sharply after the age of Bracton, but the Roman \li
ne \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 divisions of actions into {\field{\*\fldinst {HY
PERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=In_rem }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosup
ersub\cf5\f6\fs20 in rem}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (typically, actions agai
nst a thing or property for the purpose of gaining title to that \line \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex100 property; must be filed in a court where the property is loc
ated) and {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?titl
e=In_personam }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 in personam}}}\ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf5\f6\fs20 (typically, actions directed against a \line \up0 \expndtw0\ch
arscalex100 person; these can affect a person's rights and, since a person often
owns things, his property too) used by Bracton had \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex102 a lasting effect and laid the groundwork for a return of Roman law struct
ural concepts in the 18th and 19th centuries. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109
Signs of this can be found in Blackstone\u8217?s Commentaries on the Laws of En
gland,\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [53] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and Roman law idea
s regained \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 importance with the revival of aca
demic law schools in the 19th century.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [54] \ul0\nosupersu
b\cf5\f6\fs20 As a result, today, the main systematic \line \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex100 divisions of the law into property, contract, and tort (and to some ext
ent {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unju
st_enrichment }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 unjust enrichment}}}\ul0\
nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ) can be found in the civil \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscal

ex100 law as well as in the common law.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [55] \par\pard\ql

\li1253\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb64\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex116 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs24 Propagation of the common law to the
colonies and Commonwealth by reception statutes \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-230
\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb12\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 \u
l0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Initial reception of English common law into new colon
ies, and adoption of common law on decolonization \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb
73\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 In {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Commentaries_on_the_Laws_of_England }}
{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Commentaries on the Laws of England}}}\ul
0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (Bk I, ch.4, pp 106-108), Sir {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPE
RLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Blackstone }}{\fldrslt {
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 William Blackstone}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 de
scribed the process by \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 which English common l
aw followed English colonization: \par\pard\qj \li1753\ri1590\sb61\sl-300\slmult
0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Plantations or colonies, in distant countries, ar
e either such where the lands are claimed by right of \line \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex109 occupancy only, by finding them {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en
.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Terra_nullius }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\
f6\fs20 desert and uncultivated}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , and peopling the
m from the mother-country; \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 or where, when alr
eady cultivated, they have been either gained by {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK h
ttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Conquest_%28military%29 }}{\fldrslt {\u
l0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 conquest}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , or ceded to u
s by {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tre
aty }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 treaties}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\f
s20 . \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 And both these rights are founded upon
the law of nature, or at least upon that of nations. But there is a \line \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex100 difference between these two species of colonies, with re
spect to the laws by which they are bound. For
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{\shp {\*\shpinst\shpleft850\shptop15969\shpright11055\shpbottom15969\shpfhdr0\s
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}}\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart P
g18}{\bkmkend Pg18}\par\pard\li850\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li850\sb109\sl-23
0\slmult0\fi0\tx10855 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex137 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 C
ommon law\tab \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex137 16\par\pard\qj \li1753\sb0\sl-300\slm
ult0 \par\pard\qj\li1753\ri1590\sb44\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103
it hath been held, that if an uninhabited country be discovered and planted by
English subjects, all the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 English laws then i
n being, which are the birthright of every subject, are immediately there in for
ce... \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 But in conquered or ceded countries, th
at have already laws of their own, the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.w
ikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_British_monarchs }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf5\f6\fs20 king}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 may indeed alter and \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 change those laws; but, till he does actually chang
e them, the ancient laws of the country remain, unless \up0 \expndtw-1\charscale
x100 such as are against the law of God, as in the case of an infidel country. \
par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 In o
ther words, if an 'uninhabited' or 'infidel' territory is colonized by Britain,
then the English law automatically \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 applies in
this territory from the moment of colonization; however if the colonized territ
ory has a pre-existing legal \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 system, the nati
ve law would apply (effectively a form of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://e

n.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indirect_rule }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5

\f6\fs20 indirect rule}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ) until formally superseded
by the English law, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 through {\field{\*\fldin
st {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Royal_Prerogative }}{\fl
drslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Royal Prerogative}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs
20 subjected to the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/ind
ex.php?title=Westminster_Parliament }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Wes
tminster Parliament}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 . \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\
sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 As colonies gained independence
from Britain, in most cases the newly independent countries adopted {\field{\*\
fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=English_common_law
}}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 English}}} \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex108 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=E
nglish_common_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 common law precedent}
}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 as of the date independence as the default law to
carry forward into the new nation, to the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 ex
tent not explicitly rejected by the newly freed colony's founding documents or g
overnment. In some cases, the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 carry-forward w
as simply understood, with no express provision in either the new independence c
onstitution or \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 legislation. In other cases, t
he new legislature felt it necessary to "dot i's and cross t's" by enacting an e
xpress \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 reception statute, even if common law
had been received during the colonial period. Examples of both patterns are \lin
e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 described below. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-230\
slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb68\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Rec
eption statutes in the United States \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1080\sb73\sl-300\slm
ult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 For example, following the {\field{\*\fldinst
{HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_Revolution }}{\fld
rslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 American Revolution}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\f
s20 in 1776, one of the first legislative acts undertaken by each of the \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 newly independent states was to adopt a "{\field{\*
\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reception_statute
}}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 reception statute}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5
\f6\fs20 " that gave legal effect to the existing body of English \line \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex106 common law to the extent that American legislation or the {
\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constitut
ion }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Constitution}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\
f6\fs20 had not explicitly rejected English law.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [56] \li
ne \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Some states enacted
reception statutes as legislative statutes, while other states received the Engl
ish common law \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 through provisions of the stat
e's constitution, and some by court decision. British traditions such as the {\f
ield{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Monarchy }}
{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 monarchy}}} \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 were rejected by the U.S. Constitution, but ma
ny English common law traditions such as {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en
.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Habeas_corpus }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\
f6\fs20 habeas corpus}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERL
INK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jury_trials }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosu
persub\cf5\f6\fs20 jury trials}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , \line \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex103 and various other {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wiki
pedia.org/w/index.php?title=Civil_liberties }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\
fs20 civil liberties}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 were adopted in the United S
tates. Significant elements of English common law prior \line \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex105 to 1776 still remain in effect in many jurisdictions in the United St
ates, because they have never been rejected by \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 Amer
ican courts or legislatures.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [57] \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb1
18\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 For e
xample, the New York Constitution of 1777\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [58] \ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf5\f6\fs20 provides that: \par\pard\qj \li1753\ri1090\sb73\sl-300\slmult0

\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 [S]uch parts of the common law of England, and of t

he statute law of England and Great Britain, and of the \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x104 acts of the legislature of the colony of New York, as together did form the
law of the said colony on the 19th \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 day of April, i
n the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and seventy-five, shall be and
continue the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 law of this State, subject to such al
terations and provisions as the legislature of this State shall, from time to \u
p0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 time, make concerning the same. \par\pard\qj \li1253
\ri1030\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYP
ERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Hamilton }}{\fldrslt
{\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Alexander Hamilton}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 e
mphasized in {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?t
itle=The_Federalist }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 The Federalist}}}\u
l0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 that this New York constitutional provision expressly
made the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 common law subject "to such alterat
ions and provisions as the legislature shall from time to time make concerning \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 the same."\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [59] \ul0\nosupersu
b\cf5\f6\fs20 Thus, even when reception was effected by a constitution, the comm
on law was still subject to \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 alteration by a legisl
ature's statute. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex103 One could note a certain irony: one of the first acts of many of t
he newly independent states was to adopt the law of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex112 the foreign sovereign from whom independence had just been gained. But th
is is one more demonstration of the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 point men
tioned above ({\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Common_law%23Common_law_as_a_foundation_for_commercial_economies }}{\fldrs
lt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Commercial economies}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs
20 ), that the newly independent states recognized the importance of a \line \up
0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 predictable and established body of law to govern the
conduct of citizens and businesses, and therefore adopted the \up0 \expndtw-1\ch
arscalex100 richest available source of law. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1070\sb61\sl
-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 The {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http
://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Northwest_Ordinance }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosu
persub\cf5\f6\fs20 Northwest Ordinance}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , which was
approved by the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.p
hp?title=Congress_of_the_Confederation }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
Congress of the Confederation}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 in 1787, guaranteed
"judicial \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 proceedings according to the cours
e of the common law." {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/in
dex.php?title=Nathan_Dane }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Nathan Dane}}
}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , the primary author of the Northwest \line \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex103 Ordinance, viewed this provision as a default mechanism in
the event that federal or territorial statutes were silent \line \up0 \expndtw2\charscalex100 about a particular matter; he wrote that if "a statute makes an
offence, and is silent as to the mode of trial, it shall be
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0}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn lineColor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn lineWidt
h}{\sv 0}}
}}
{\shp {\*\shpinst\shpleft850\shptop15969\shpright11055\shpbottom15969\shpfhdr0\s
hpbxpage\shpbypage\shpwr3\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz31\shplid1{\sp{\sn shapeType}{
\sv 20}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn lineColor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn lin
eWidth}{\sv 0}}
}}\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart P
g19}{\bkmkend Pg19}\par\pard\li850\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li850\sb109\sl-23
0\slmult0\fi0\tx10855 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex137 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 C
ommon law\tab \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex137 17\par\pard\qj \li1253\sb0\sl-300\slm
ult0 \par\pard\qj\li1253\ri1090\sb44\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107
by jury, according to the course of the common law."\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [60]

\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 In effect, the provision operated as a reception st

atute, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 giving legal authority to the establis
hed common law in the vast territories where no states had yet been established.
\par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Ov
er time, as new states were formed from federal territories, these territorial r
eception statutes became {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w
/index.php?title=Obsolete }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 obsolete}}}\u
l0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 were re-enacte
d as state law. For example, a reception statute enacted by legislation in the s
tate of Washington \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 requires that "[t]he commo
n law, so far as it is not inconsistent with the Constitution and laws of the Un
ited States, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 or of the state of Washington no
r incompatible with the institutions and condition of society in this state, sha
ll be the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 rule of decision in all the courts
of this state."\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [61] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 In this w
ay, the common law was eventually incorporated into the \line \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex105 legal systems of every state except {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK htt
p://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louisiana }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf
5\f6\fs20 Louisiana}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (which inherited a {\field{\*
\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Civil_law_%28syste
m%29 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 civil law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6
\fs20 system from its French colonizers before \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
05 the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=L
ouisiana_Purchase }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Louisiana Purchase}}}
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 of 1803, adopting a code similar to but not directl
y based on the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php
?title=Napoleonic_code }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Napoleonic Code}
}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 of 1804). \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-230\slmult0
\par\pard\ql\li1253\sb68\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 Reception
in Canada \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb73\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex102 The Canadian colonies received the common law and English statut
es under Blackstone's principles for the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110
establishment of the legal system of a new colony. In five of the Canadian prov
inces, English law was received \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 automatically
, under the principle of a settled colony inheriting English law. In the other f
ive provinces and the three \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 territories, rece
ption was governed by reception statutes. The reception of English law occurred
long before Canada \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 became fully independent,
and reception statutes in Canada were not part of the decolonisation process. \p
ar\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 When
Canada achieved formal independence with the passage of the {\field{\*\fldinst {
HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Canada_Act_1982 }}{\fldrslt
{\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Canada Act 1982}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , no
reception statutes were \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 necessary for the dec
olonialisation process. English law had already been received in the various Can
adian provinces \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 and territories by legislation and
judicial decisions over the previous two centuries. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl
-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb68\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex11
1 Atlantic Provinces \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb73\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex117 In the four Atlantic provinces (Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, P
rince Edward Island, and Newfoundland and \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Labrador)
, the reception of English law was automatic, under the principle set out by Bla
ckstone relating to settled \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 colonies. British colon
ists were considered to have brought English common law as well as applicable En
glish \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 statutes with them. No reception statute was
necessary. The reception date for New Brunswick is 1660; for Nova \up0 \expndtw0
\charscalex110 Scotia and Prince Edward Island, 1758; and for Newfoundland and L
abrador, 1825. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb68\
sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex137 Quebec \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\s
b73\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Quebec was settled as a French c

olony, and originally operated under the French civil law system, using the cotum
e \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 de Paris. Upon the transfer of the colony t
o British control, the British government issued the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLI
NK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Royal_Proclamation_of_1763 }}{\fldr
slt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Royal Proclamation of}}} \line \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex113 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?t
itle=Royal_Proclamation_of_1763 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 1763}}}
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , which imposed English common law on the colony, un
der the principle set out in Blackstone relating to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex106 captured colonies. However, in 1774, the British Parliament passed the {\
field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quebec_Act
}}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Quebec Act}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs
20 , which restored the French civil \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 law for
matters of private law (e.g., contracts, property, successions), while keeping t
he English common law as the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 basis for public
law in the colony, notably the criminal law. Subsequently, with the passage of
the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Civi
l_Code_of_Lower_Canada }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Civil Code of}}}
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wiki
pedia.org/w/index.php?title=Civil_Code_of_Lower_Canada }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf5\f6\fs20 Lower Canada}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 in 1866, Quebec's ci
vil law became entirely statute based, using the civil law system for matters \l
ine \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 within provincial jurisdiction. Public law in Q
uebec continues to have its origin in the common law. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\s
l-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb68\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
23 Ontario \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb73\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charsc
alex110 The territory now forming Ontario was originally part of Quebec, and thu
s was under the civil law. When Quebec \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 was di
vided into the two provinces of Upper and Lower Canada by the {\field{\*\fldinst
{HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Act_of_1791
}}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Constitutional Act of 1791}}}\ul0\nosu
persub\cf5\f6\fs20 , the first Act \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 passed by
the Legislature of Upper Canada was to adopt the law of England for all purposes
, replacing the civil \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 law.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [6
2] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 This statute adopted both the English common law
and English statute law. The foundation for the operation \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex101 of the common law in Ontario traces back to that reception statute.
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h}{\sv 0}}
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{\shp {\*\shpinst\shpleft850\shptop15969\shpright11055\shpbottom15969\shpfhdr0\s
hpbxpage\shpbypage\shpwr3\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz31\shplid1{\sp{\sn shapeType}{
\sv 20}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn lineColor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn lin
eWidth}{\sv 0}}
}}\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart P
g20}{\bkmkend Pg20}\par\pard\li850\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li850\sb109\sl-23
0\slmult0\fi0\tx10855 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex137 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 C
ommon law\tab \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex137 18\par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-230\slm
ult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb171\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 The N
orth-West Territories, Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta \par\pard\qj \li1253\r
i1090\sb73\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 The new Dominion of Canad
a acquired the territories of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.
org/w/index.php?title=Rupert%27s_Land }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 R
upert's Land}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLIN
K http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=North-Western_Territory }}{\fldrslt
{\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 North-Western Territory}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs
20 from the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 Hudson's Bay Company in 1870. Th
ese territories were considered to have been settled by British colonists, and \

line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 therefore the reception of English law was aut
omatic. However, given the long history of control by the Hudson's \line \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex106 Bay Company, there was some uncertainty as to the date of
reception. To resolve this uncertainty, various statutes \line \up0 \expndtw0\ch
arscalex100 were passed to set the date of reception as July 15, 1870, the date
of the transfer of these two territories to Canada. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex112 The Province of Manitoba set this date for the reception of English law f
or matters coming within provincial \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 jurisdict
ion. The Legislature of the North-West Territories passed an Ordinance adopting
the same date for matters \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 coming within terri
torial jurisdiction. The federal Parliament eventually enacted a provision adopt
ing this date for all \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 matters in the North-We
st Territories.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [63] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 That pro
vision was carried forward in the provinces of Alberta and \line \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex111 Saskatchewan, when they were created by the {\field{\*\fldinst {HY
PERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alberta_Act }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\
nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Alberta Act}}}\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [64] \ul0\nosupersub
\cf5\f6\fs20 and the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/ind
ex.php?title=Saskatchewan_Act }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Saskatche
wan Act}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 .\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [65] \ul0\nosupers
ub\cf5\f6\fs20 The same provision is \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 the basi
s for the reception date of English law in the Northwest Territories, Yukon and
Nunavut. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb68\sl-230
\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 British Columbia \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri10
90\sb73\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 British Columbia was conside
red to be a settled colony and therefore received English law automatically, und
er the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 principle set out by Blackstone. \par\pard\q
l \li1253\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb68\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex122 Reception in Hong Kong \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb73\sl-300
\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 When Hong Kong was handed over to {\field{
\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=People%27s_Repub
lic_of_China }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 China}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf
5\f6\fs20 in 1997, Hong Kong retained the common law through a reception \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 statute in Chapter I, Article 8 of the {\field{\*\f
ldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Basic_Law_of_Hong_Ko
ng }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Basic Law of Hong Kong}}}\ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf5\f6\fs20 :\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [66] \par\pard\qj \li1753\ri1090\sb61\s
l-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 The laws
previously in force in Hong Kong, that is, the common law, rules of equity, ordi
nances, subordinate \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 legislation and customary law s
hall be maintained, except for any that contravene this Law, and subject to any
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 amendment by the legislature of the Hong Kong Speci
al Administrative Region. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\l
i1253\sb68\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Reception in other Britis
h colonies \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb73\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charsc
alex114 The pattern was repeated in many other former British colonies as they g
ained independence from the United \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 Kingdom. {
\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Republic_
of_Ireland }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Ireland}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf
5\f6\fs20 , {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?ti
tle=Australia }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Australia}}}\ul0\nosupers
ub\cf5\f6\fs20 , New Zealand, India, Belize, and various Caribbean and African n
ations have adopted \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 English common law throug
h reception statutes although they do not inevitably continue to copy English Co
mmon \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Law; later cases can often draw on decisions i
n other Common Law jurisdictions. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\p
ard\ql\li1253\sb64\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \ul0\nosupersub\c
f8\f9\fs24 Decline of Latin maxims, and adding flexibility to stare decisis \par
\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb65\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 \ul0\no
supersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Well into the 19th century, ancient maxims played a large r

ole in common law adjudication. Many of these maxims \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsc
alex106 had originated in Roman Law, migrated to England before the introduction
of Christianity to the British Isles, and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 we
re typically stated in Latin even in English decisions. Many examples are famili
ar in everyday speech even today, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 "One cannot
be a judge in one's own cause" (see {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wik
ipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dr._Bonham%27s_Case }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf
5\f6\fs20 Dr. Bonham's Case}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ), rights are reciproc
al to obligations, and the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 like. Judicial dec
isions and treatises of the 17th and 18th centuries, such at those of Lord Chief
Justice {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title
=Edward_Coke }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Edward Coke}}}\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf5\f6\fs20 , \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 presented the common law as
a collection of such maxims. See also {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.w
ikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Jefferson }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5
\f6\fs20 Thomas Jefferson}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 's letter to Thomas Coop
er. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105
Reliance on old maxims and rigid adherence to precedent, no matter how old or i
ll-considered, was under full attack \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 by the l
ate 19th century. {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.
php?title=Oliver_Wendell_Holmes%2C_Jr. }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 in his famous article,
"The Path of the Law",\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [67] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 c
ommented, "It \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 is revolting to have no better
reason for a rule of law than that so it was laid down in the time of Henry IV.
It is still \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 more revolting if the grounds up
on which it was laid down have vanished long since, and the rule simply persists
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 from blind imitation of the past." Justice H
olmes noted that study of maxims might be sufficient for "the man of the \line \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 present," but "the man of the future is the man of s
tatistics and the master of economics." In an 1880 lecture at \line \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex107 Harvard, he wrote: \par\pard\qj \li1753\ri1590\sb61\sl-300\slmu
lt0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 The life of the law has not been logic; it has
been experience. The felt necessities of the time, the \line \up0 \expndtw0\char
scalex107 prevalent moral and political theories, intuitions of public policy, a
vowed or unconscious, even the
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0\slmult0\fi0\tx10855 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex137 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 C
ommon law\tab \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex137 19\par\pard\qj \li1753\sb0\sl-300\slm
ult0 \par\pard\qj\li1753\ri1590\sb44\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116
prejudices which judges share with their fellow men, have had a good deal more
to do than the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Syllogism }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub
\cf5\f6\fs20 syllogism}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 in determining the rules b
y which men should be governed. The law embodies the story of a \line \up0 \expn
dtw0\charscalex108 nation's development through many centuries, and it cannot be
dealt with as if it contained only the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 {\fie
ld{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Axiom }}{\fld
rslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 axiom}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 s and coro
llaries of a book of mathematics. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult

0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 In the early 20th century, {\field{\*\fldinst {HY

PERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louis_Brandeis }}{\fldrslt {\u
l0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Louis Brandeis}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , later a
ppointed to the United States Supreme Court, became noted for his \line \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex100 use of policy-driving facts and economics in his {\field{\*
\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brandeis_Brief }}{
\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 briefs}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , and
extensive appendices presenting facts that lead a judge to \line \up0 \expndtw0
\charscalex100 the advocate's conclusion. By this time, briefs relied more on fa
cts than on Latin maxims. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1040\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex115 Reliance on old maxims is now deprecated.\ul0\super\cf1\f
2\fs24 [68] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Common law decisions today reflect both
precedent and policy \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 judgment drawn from economics,
the social sciences, business, decisions of foreign courts, and the like. The d
egree \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 to which these external factors should influe
nce adjudication is the subject of active debate, but that judges do draw \up0 \
expndtw-2\charscalex100 of learning from other fields and jurisdictions is a fac
t of modern legal life. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1
253\sb64\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs24
1870 through 20th century, and the procedural merger of law and equity \par\par
d\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb65\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf5\f6\fs20 As early as the 15th century, it became the practice that litig
ants who felt they had been cheated by the common-law \line \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex108 system would petition the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikip
edia.org/w/index.php?title=Monarch }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 King
}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 in person. For example, they might argue that an
award of damages (at {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/in
dex.php?title=Common_law%233._Law_as_opposed_to_equity }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf5\f6\fs20 common law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ) \line \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex103 was not sufficient redress for a trespasser occupying their land,
and instead request that the trespasser be evicted. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex106 From this developed the system of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en
.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Equity_%28law%29 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\c
f5\f6\fs20 equity}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , administered by the {\field{\*
\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lord_Chancellor }}
{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Lord Chancellor}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\
fs20 , in the courts of chancery. By their \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 na
ture, equity and law were frequently in conflict and litigation would frequently
continue for years as one court \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 countermande
d the other,\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [69] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 even though
it was established by the 17th century that equity should prevail. A famous \lin
e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 example is the fictional case of {\field{\*\fldin
st {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jarndyce_and_Jarndyce }}
{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Jarndyce and Jarndyce}}}\ul0\nosupersub\c
f5\f6\fs20 in {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php
?title=Bleak_House }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Bleak House}}}\ul0\n
osupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , by Charles Dickens.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [70] \par\pard
\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 \ul0\nosuper
sub\cf5\f6\fs20 In England, courts of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wi
kipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_law%233._Law_as_opposed_to_equity }}{\fldrs
lt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and equity we
re combined by the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index
.php?title=Judicature_Acts }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Judicature A
cts}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 of 1873 and 1875, with equity being \line \up
0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 supreme in case of conflict.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [70
] \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \
ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 In the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipe
dia.org/w/index.php?title=United_States }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
United States}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , parallel systems of {\field{\*\fl
dinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_law%233._Law_a

s_opposed_to_equity }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 law}}}\ul0\nosupers

ub\cf5\f6\fs20 (providing money damages, with cases heard by a jury upon either
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 party's request) and equity (fashioning a re
medy to fit the situation, including injunctive relief, heard by a judge) \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 survived well into the 20th century. The {\field{\*
\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_States_fede
ral_courts }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 United States federal courts
}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 procedurally separated law and equity: the same
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 judges could hear either kind of case, but a
given case could only pursue causes in law or in equity, and the two \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex106 kinds of cases proceeded under different procedural rule
s. This became problematic when a given case required both \line \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex110 money damages and injunctive relief. In 1937, the new {\field{\*\f
ldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Federal_Rules_of_Civ
il_Procedure }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Federal Rules of Civil Pro
cedure}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 combined {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK htt
p://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_law%233._Law_as_opposed_to_equity
}}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and
equity \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 into one form of action, the "civil ac
tion." Fed.R.Civ.P. 2. The distinction survives to the extent that issues that w
ere \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 "{\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.
wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_law%233._Law_as_opposed_to_equity }}{\fld
rslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 common law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 " as
of 1791 (the date of adoption of the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wik
ipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution
}}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Seventh Amendment}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf
5\f6\fs20 ) are still subject to the right of either \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsc
alex100 party to request a jury, and "equity" issues are decided by a judge.\ul0
\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [71] \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex108 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/ind
ex.php?title=Alabama }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Alabama}}}\ul0\nos
upersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/in
dex.php?title=Delaware }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Delaware}}}\ul0\
nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , Mississippi, New Jersey, Tennessee still have separate
courts of law and equity, for example, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 the {\
field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Delaware_C
ourt_of_Chancery }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Court of Chancery}}}\u
l0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 . In many {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wiki
pedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S._states }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
states}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 there are separate divisions for law and
equity within one court. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li
1253\sb64\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs2
4 Common law pleading and its abolition in the early 20th century \par\pard\qj \
li1253\ri1090\sb65\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 \ul0\nosupersub\c
f5\f6\fs20 For centuries, through the 19th century, the common law recognized on
ly specific causes of action, and required \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 ve
ry careful drafting of the opening pleading to slot into one of them: Debt, Deti
nue, Covenant, Special Assumpsit, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 General Ass
umpsit, Trespass, Trover, Replevin, Case (or Trespass on the Case), and Ejectmen
t.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [72] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 To initiate a law \lin
e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 suit, a pleading had to be drafted to meet myriad
technical requirements: correctly categorizing the case into the \line \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex104 correct legal pigeonhole (pleading in the alternative was n
ot permitted), and using specific "magic words" encrusted \line \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex103 over the centuries. Under the old common law pleading standards, a
suit by a pro se ("for oneself," without a lawyer) \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex103 party was all but impossible, and there was often considerable procedural
jousting at the outset of a case over minor \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 w
ording issues. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\ch
arscalex107 One of the major reforms of the late 19th century and early 20th cen

tury was the abolition of common law pleading \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104
requirements.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [73] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 A plaintif
f can initiate a case by giving the defendant "a short and plain statement" of f
acts that \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 constitute an alleged wrong. This r
eform moved the attention of courts from technical scrutiny of words to a more
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{\shp {\*\shpinst\shpleft850\shptop15969\shpright11055\shpbottom15969\shpfhdr0\s
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eWidth}{\sv 0}}
}}\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart P
g22}{\bkmkend Pg22}\par\pard\li850\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li850\sb109\sl-23
0\slmult0\fi0\tx10855 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex137 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 C
ommon law\tab \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex137 20\par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-230\slm
ult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb171\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 ratio
nal consideration of the facts, and opened access to justice far more broadly. \
par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-322\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb72\sl-322\slmult0 \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs28 Contrasts between common
law and civil law systems \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb276\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex108 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs24 Adversarial system vs. inquisitori
al system \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb65\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Common law courts tend to use an {\field{\*\f
ldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adversarial_system }
}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 adversarial system}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5
\f6\fs20 , in which two sides present their cases to a neutral judge. In \line \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 contrast, in civil law systems, {\field{\*\fldinst {
HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Inquisitorial_system }}{\fld
rslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 inquisitorial system}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\
fs20 proceedings, where an examining magistrate serves two roles by \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex104 developing the evidence and arguments for one and the ot
her side during the investigation phase. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300
\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 The examining magistrate then presents the
dossier detailing his or her findings to the president of the bench that will \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 adjudicate on the case where it has been decided tha
t a trial shall be conducted. Therefore the president of the bench's \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex103 view of the case is not neutral and may be biased while conduc
ting the trial after the reading of the dossier. Unlike \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x107 the common law proceedings, the president of the bench in the inquisitorial
system is not merely an umpire and is \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 entitled to
directly interview the witnesses or express comments during the trial, as long a
s he or she does not express \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 his or her view on th
e guilt of the accused. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex112 The proceeding in the inquisitorial system is essentially b
y writing. Most of the witnesses would have given \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 e
vidence in the investigation phase and such evidence will be contained in the do
ssier under the form of police \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 reports. In the same
way, the accused would have already put his or her case at the investigation ph
ase but he or she \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 will be free to change her or his
evidence at trial. Whether the accused pleads guilty or not, a trial will be co
nducted. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 Unlike the adversarial system, the convict
ion and sentence to served (if any) will be released by the trial jury \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex100 together with the president of the trial bench, following th
eir common deliberation. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1030\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex106 There are many exceptions in both directions. For example,
most proceedings before U.S. federal and state agencies \up0 \expndtw-2\charsca
lex100 are inquisitorial in nature, at least the initial stages (e.g., a patent

examiner, a social security hearing officer, and so \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10

0 on.) even though the law to be applied is developed through common law process
es. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb64\sl-276\slmu
lt0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs24 Contrasting role of
treatises and academic writings in common law and civil law systems \par\pard\q
j \li1253\ri1036\sb65\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersu
b\cf5\f6\fs20 The role of the legal academy presents a significant "cultural" di
fference between common law ({\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.o
rg/w/index.php?title=Common_law%232._Common_law_legal_systems_as_opposed_to_civi
l_law_legal_systems }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 connotation 2}}}\ul
0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ) and \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 civil law jur
isdictions. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex104 In common law jurisdictions, legal treatises compile common law decisio
ns, and state overarching principles that (in \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100
the author's opinion) explain the results of the cases. However, in common law
jurisdictions, treatises are not the law, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 and
lawyers and judges tend to use these treatises as only "finding aids" to locate
the relevant cases. In common law \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 jurisdicti
ons, scholarly work is seldom cited as authority for what the law is.\ul0\super\
cf1\f2\fs24 [74] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 When common law courts rely on \lin
e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 scholarly work, it is almost always only for fact
ual findings, policy justification, or the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://
en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Legal_history }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf
5\f6\fs20 history and evolution of the}}} \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 {\f
ield{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Legal_histo
ry }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ,
but the court's legal conclusion is reached through analysis of relevant statute
s and common law, seldom \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 scholarly commentary
. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 I
n contrast, in civil law jurisdictions, the writings of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPE
RLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_school }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nos
upersub\cf5\f6\fs20 law professors}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 are given sign
ificant weight by courts. In part, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 this is be
cause civil law decisions traditionally were very brief, sometimes no more than
a paragraph stating who \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 wins and who loses. T
he rationale has to come from somewhere else, and the academy often filled that
role. As civil \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 law court decisions move in th
e direction of common law reasoning, it is possible that this balance may shift.
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a28a2800a28a2800a28a2800a28a2800a28a2800a28a2803ffd9}}}}}\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmks
tart Pg23}{\bkmkend Pg23}\par\pard\li850\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li850\sb109
\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx10855 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex137 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\
fs20 Common law\tab \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex137 21\par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-3
22\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb83\sl-322\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115
\ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs28 Common law legal systems in the present day \par\par
d\ql \li1253\sb174\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 \ul0\nosupersub\c
f5\f6\fs20 The common law constitutes the basis \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri7326\sb13
\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 of the legal systems of: {\field{\*
\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=English_law }}{\fl
drslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 England and}}} \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x103 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eng
lish_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Wales}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6
\fs20 , {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?titl
e=Northern_Ireland_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Northern Irela
nd}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , Ireland, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100
federal law in the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/inde
x.php?title=U.S._law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 United States}}}\u
l0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 law of ind
ividual {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=
U.S._state }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 U.S. state}}}\ul0\nosupersub
\cf5\f6\fs20 s (except \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 {\field{\*\fldinst {H
YPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_law }}{\fldrslt {\u
l0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Louisiana}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ), federal l
aw throughout \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Canadian_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf5\f6\fs20 Canada}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and the law of the individ
ual \par\pard\li1253\sb74\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx3826 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103
{\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Provinc
es_and_territories_of_Canada }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 provinces
and territories}}}\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\f
s20 (except\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw4737\colsr160\colno2\co
lw6863\colsr160\ql \li1253\sb70\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 {\fi
eld{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Quebe
c }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Quebec}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
), {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_

of_Australia }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Australia}}} \up0 \expndtw

-1\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (both federal and\par\pard\ql \li
1253\sb70\sl-230\slmult0\tx3180 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 individual
stat
es),\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex121 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wi
kipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Kenya }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\f
s20 Kenya}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ,
{\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http:
//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_New_Zealand }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf5\f6\fs20 N}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ew\par\pard\ql \li1253\sb70\sl230\slmult0\tx2269\tx3949 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPER
LINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_New_Zealand }}{\fldrslt {\
ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Zealand}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ,\tab \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex108 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/inde
x.php?title=Law_of_South_Africa }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 South
Africa}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ,\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 {\fie
ld{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_India
}}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 India}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ,\p
ar\pard\ql \li1253\sb70\sl-230\slmult0\tx2432\tx3816 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex11
1 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of
_Malaysia }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Malaysia}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf
5\f6\fs20 ,\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http:
//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Bangladesh }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf5\f6\fs20 Bangladesh}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ,\tab \up0 \expndtw0\ch
arscalex108 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?ti
tle=Law_of_Brunei }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Brunei}}}\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf5\f6\fs20 ,\par\pard\column \ql \li4897\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \l
i4897\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li20\sb114\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Legal Systems of the World Civil law Commo
n law Bijuridical (Civil and Common\par\pard\ql \li2012\sb56\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex100 law) ShariaIslamic law \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone \qj \li
1253\ri1090\sb5\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 {\field{\*\fldinst {
HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Pakistan }}{\fldrslt
{\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Pakistan}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , {\field{\*
\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Singapore }
}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Singapore}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
, Hong Kong, Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, The Bahamas, Belize, Dominica, Grena
da, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 Jamaica, St. Vincent and the Granadines,
Saint Kitts and Nevis, Trinidad and Tobago, and many other generally \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex111 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/
index.php?title=English-speaking_countries }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\f
s20 English-speaking countries}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 or {\field{\*\f
ldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Commonwealth_of_Nati
ons }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Commonwealth}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\
f6\fs20 countries \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 (except {\field{\*\fldinst {H
YPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scots_Law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\n
osupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Scotland}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , which is {\fie
ld{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bijuridicial_
law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 bijuridicial}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\
f6\fs20 , and Malta). \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb1\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex108 Essentially, every country that was colonised at some time b
y England, {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?tit
le=Kingdom_of_Great_Britain }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Great Brita
in}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , or the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://e
n.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_Kingdom }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf
5\f6\fs20 United Kingdom}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 uses \line \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex109 common law except those that were formerly colonised by other na
tions, such as {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php
?title=Law_of_Quebec }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Quebec}}}\ul0\nosu
persub\cf5\f6\fs20 (which follows the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.w
ikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bijuridicial_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5
\f6\fs20 law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10

8 France in part), {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index

.php?title=South_Africa }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 South Africa}}}
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikiped
ia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Sri_Lanka }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs
20 Sri Lanka}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (which follow Roman Dutch law), wher
e the prior civil law system was \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 retained to
respect the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?ti
tle=Civil_rights }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 civil rights}}}\ul0\no
supersub\cf5\f6\fs20 of the local colonists. {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http
://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=India }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\
fs20 India}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 uses common law except in the state of
Goa which \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 retains the Portuguese {\field{\*\
fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Civil_code }}{\fldr
slt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 civil code}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 . Guya
na and Saint Lucia have mixed Common Law and Civil Law systems. \par\pard\ql \li
1253\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb204\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex119 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs24 Scotland \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\s
b85\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK ht
tp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scotland }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf
5\f6\fs20 Scotland}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 is often said to use the civil
law system but it has {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/i
ndex.php?title=Scots_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 a unique syste
m}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 that combines elements of an uncodified \line \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 civil law dating back to the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYP
ERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corpus_Juris_Civilis }}{\fldrsl
t {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Corpus Juris Civilis}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs2
0 with an element of common law long predating the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLIN
K http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Act_of_Union_%281707%29 }}{\fldrslt
{\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Treaty of Union}}} \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
05 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 with England in 1707 (see {\field{\*\fldinst {HYP
ERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Legal_institutions_of_Scotland_
in_the_High_Middle_Ages }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Legal instituti
ons of Scotland in the High Middle Ages}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ). Scots c
ommon law differs in that \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 the use of preceden
ts is subject to the courts' seeking to discover the principle that justifies a
law rather than \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 searching for an example as a
precedent, and principles of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.
org/w/index.php?title=Natural_justice }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 n
atural justice}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and fairness have always played a
role in \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Scots Law. Comparable {\field{\*\fldi
nst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Legal_systems_of_the_wo
rld%23Pluralistic_systems }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 pluralistic (
or 'mixed') legal systems}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 operate in {\field{\*\f
ldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quebec }}{\fldrslt {
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Quebec}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , Louisiana and
South Africa. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb44\
sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs24 States o
f the United States (1600s on) \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard
\ql\li1253\sb32\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\
f6\fs20 New York (1600's) \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb73\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex104 The state of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wiki
pedia.org/w/index.php?title=New_York }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Ne
w York}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , which also has a civil law history from i
ts {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dutch
_colonization_of_the_Americas }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Dutch col
onial}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 days, also began a codification of \line \u
p0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 its law in the 19th century. The only part of this co
dification process that was considered complete is known as the \line \up0 \expn
dtw0\charscalex109 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index
.php?title=Field_Code }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Field Code}}}\ul0

\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 applying to {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wik

ipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Civil_procedure }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6
\fs20 civil procedure}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 . The original colony of New
Netherlands was settled by the Dutch and the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107
law was also Dutch. When the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.
org/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_England }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs2
0 English}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 captured pre-existing colonies they con
tinued to allow the local settlers to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 keep th
eir civil law. However, the Dutch settlers revolted against the English and the
colony was {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?tit
le=Second_Anglo-Dutch_War }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 recaptured}}}
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 by the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 Dutch. Wh
en the English finally regained control of New Netherland they forced, as a puni
shment unique in the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 history of the British E
mpire, the English common law upon all the colonists, including the Dutch. This
was \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 problematic, as the {\field{\*\fldinst {H
YPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Patroon }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nos
upersub\cf5\f6\fs20 patroon}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 system of land holdin
g, based on the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.ph
p?title=Feudalism }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 feudal system}}}\ul0\
nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and civil law, continued to operate in \line \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex105 the colony until it was abolished in the mid-19th century. The
influence of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Roman_Dutch_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Roman Dutch law}}
}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 continued in the colony \line \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex103 well into the late 19th century. The codification of a law of general o
bligations shows how remnants of the civil law \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
3 tradition in {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php
?title=New_York }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 New York}}}\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf5\f6\fs20 continued on from the Dutch days. \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\pap
erw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg24}{\bkmkend Pg24}\par\pard\li
850\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li850\sb109\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx10855 \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex137 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Common law\tab \dn3 \expndtw0\ch
arscalex137 22\par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb171\
sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 Louisiana (1700's) \par\pard\qj \li1
253\ri1090\sb73\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Instead of common la
w, the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U
.S._state }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 U.S. state}}}\ul0\nosupersub\
cf5\f6\fs20 of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.ph
p?title=Louisiana }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Louisiana}}}\ul0\nosu
persub\cf5\f6\fs20 uniquely uses a system based on the Napoleonic code, remaini
ng \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 true to the state's French and Spanish roo
ts, which predate the U.S. annexation of the Louisiana territory in 1803. \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex107 Historically notable among the code's differences from th
e more typically implemented system of common law is the \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex105 role of property rights among women, particularly in inheritance gained by
widows. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb68\sl-230
\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 California (1850's) \par\pard\qj \li1253\r
i1090\sb73\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 The {\field{\*\fldinst {H
YPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S._state }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\
nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 U.S. state}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 of {\field{\*\f
ldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=California }}{\fldrs
lt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 California}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 has a
system based on common law, but it has codified the law in the manner of the civ
il \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 law jurisdictions. The reason for the enac
tment of the codes in California in the 19th century was to replace a \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex109 pre-existing system based on {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERL
INK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spain }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub
\cf5\f6\fs20 Spanish}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 civil law with a system base
d on common law, similar to that in most other \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10

7 states. California and a number of other {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://

en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Western_United_States }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosup
ersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Western states}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , however, have r
etained the concept of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/i
ndex.php?title=Community_property }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 commu
nity property}}} \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
derived from civil law. The California courts have treated portions of the codes
as an extension of the common-law \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 tradition,
subject to judicial development in the same manner as judge-made common law. (M
ost notably, in the case \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 {\field{\*\fldinst {
HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Li_v._Yellow_Cab_Co. }}{\fld
rslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Li v. Yellow Cab Co.}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\
fs20 , 13 Cal.3d 804 (1975), the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikiped
ia.org/w/index.php?title=California_Supreme_Court }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\c
f5\f6\fs20 California Supreme Court}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 adopted the p
rinciple of comparative \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 {\field{\*\fldinst {H
YPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Comparative_negligence }}{\fl
drslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 negligence}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 in
the face of a {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=California_Civil_Code }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 California
Civil Code}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 provision codifying the traditional co
mmon-law doctrine of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPE
RLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Contributory_negligence }}{\fldr
slt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 contributory negligence}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f
6\fs20 .) \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb64\sl-27
6\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs24 United States
federal system (1789 and 1938) \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb65\sl-300\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 The {\field{\*\fldinst
{HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_States }}{\fldrslt {
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 United States}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 federal
government (as opposed to the states) has a variant on a common law system. {\f
ield{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_Stat
es_federal_courts }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 United}}} \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex100 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/
index.php?title=United_States_federal_courts }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6
\fs20 States federal courts}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 only act as interpret
ers of statutes and the constitution by elaborating and precisely defining the \
line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 broad language ({\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_law%231._Common_law_as_opposed_
to_statutory_law_and_regulatory_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 con
notation 1(b)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 above), but, unlike state courts, d
o not act as an independent source of common \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104
law ({\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Com
mon_law%231._Common_law_as_opposed_to_statutory_law_and_regulatory_law }}{\fldrs
lt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 connotation 1(a)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
above). \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x108 Before 1938, the federal courts, like almost all other common law courts, d
ecided the law on any issue where the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 relevant legi
slature (either the U.S. Congress or state legislature, depending on the issue),
had not acted, by looking \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 to courts in the same sy
stem, that is, other federal courts, even on issues of state law, and even where
there was no \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 express grant of authority from Congr
ess or the Constitution. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1030\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex110 In 1938, the U.S. Supreme Court in {\field{\*\fldinst {HYP
ERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erie_Railroad_Co._v._Tompkins }
}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins}}}\ul0\nos
upersub\cf5\f6\fs20 304 U.S. 64, 78 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://casela
w.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=304&page=64 }}{\fldr
slt {\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [75]}}}\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f
6\fs20 (1938), overruled earlier \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 precedent,\u

l0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [76] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and held "There is no fede

ral general common law," thus confining the federal courts to act only as \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 interpreters of law originating elsewhere. E.g., Te
xas Industries v. Radcliff, 451 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedi
a.org/w/index.php?title=United_States_Reports }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f
6\fs20 U.S.}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 630 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK htt
ps://supreme.justia.com/us/451/630/case.html }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24
[77]}}}\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (1981) (without an \
line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 express grant of statutory authority, federal
courts cannot create rules of intuitive justice, for example, a right to \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex100 contribution from co-conspirators). Post-1938, federal cou
rts deciding issues that arise under state law are required to \up0 \expndtw-2\c
harscalex100 defer to state court interpretations of state statutes, or reason w
hat a state's highest court would rule if presented with \up0 \expndtw-4\charsca
lex100 the issue, or to certify the question to the state's highest court for re
solution. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1080\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex100 Later courts have limited Erie slightly, to create a few situations where
{\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_
States_federal_courts }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 United States fed
eral courts}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 are permitted to \line \up0 \expndtw0
\charscalex103 create {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/in
dex.php?title=Federal_common_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 federa
l common law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 rules without express statutory auth
ority, for example, where a federal rule of decision is \line \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex100 necessary to protect uniquely federal interests, such as foreign affa
irs, or financial instruments issued by the federal \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex108 government. See, e.g., {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.
org/w/index.php?title=Clearfield_Trust_Co._v._United_States }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\no
supersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Clearfield Trust Co. v. United States}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5
\f6\fs20 , 318 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php
?title=United_States_Reports }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 U.S.}}}\ul
0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 363 \ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [78] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6
\fs20 (1943) (giving federal courts the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 autho
rity to fashion common law rules with respect to issues of federal power, in thi
s case {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=N
egotiable_instrument }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 negotiable instrum
ent}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 s \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 backed by
the federal government); see also {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikip
edia.org/w/index.php?title=International_News_Service_v._Associated_Press }}{\fl
drslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 International News Service v. Associated Pres
s}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , 248 U.S. 215 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK htt
p://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=248&page=2
15 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [79}}}\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 ] \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex103 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (1918) (creating a cause of
action for misappropriation of "hot news" that lacks any statutory grounding, b
ut that is \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 one of the handful of federal common law
actions that survives today); National Basketball Association v. Motorola, \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex109 Inc., 105 F.3d 841, 843-44, 853 (2d Cir. 1997) (noting
continued vitality of INS "hot news" tort under New York \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex104 state law, but leaving open the question of whether it survives under fede
ral law). Except on Constitutional issues, \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 Congress
is free to legislatively overrule federal courts' common law.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\
fs24 [80]
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b2aff82807fe238fff008655fa0145007e7fff00c37dff00d5957fc1403ff11c7ffc32a3fe1beffe
acabfe0a01ff0088e3ff00e1957e8051401f9fff00f0df7ff5655ff0500ffc471fff000ca8ff0086
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71ff00f0ca8ff86fbffab2aff82807fe238fff008655fa0145007e7fff00c37dff00d5957fc1403f
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fc471fff000ca8ff0086fbff00ab2aff0082807fe238ff00f8655fa0145007e7ff00fc37dffd5957
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8655fa0145007e7fff00c37dff00d5957fc1403ff11c7ffc32a3fe1beffeacabfe0a01ff0088e3ff
00e1957e8051401f9fff00f0df7ff5655ff0500ffc471fff000ca8ff0086fbff00ab2aff0082807f
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b2aff82807fe238fff008655fa0145007e7fff00c37dff00d5957fc1403ff11c7ffc32a3fe1beffe
acabfe0a01ff0088e3ff00e1957e8051401f9fff00f0df7ff5655ff0500ffc471fff000ca8ff0086

fbff00ab2aff0082807fe238ff00f8655fa0145007e7ff00fc37dffd5957fc1403ff0011c7ff00c3
2a3fe1beff00eacabfe0a01ff88e3ffe1957e8051401f9ff00ff000df7ff005655ff000500ff00c4
71ff00f0ca8ff86fbffab2aff82807fe238fff008655fa0145007e7fff00c37dff00d5957fc1403f
f11c7ffc32a3fe1beffeacabfe0a01ff0088e3ff00e1957e8051401f9fff00f0df7ff5655ff0500f
fc471fff000ca8ff0086fbff00ab2aff0082807fe238ff00f8655fa0145007e7ff00fc37dffd5957
fc1403ff0011c7ff00c32a3fe1beff00eacabfe0a01ff88e3ffe1957e8051401f9ff00ff000df7ff
005655ff000500ff00c471ff00f0ca8ff86fbffab2aff82807fe238fff008655fa0145007e7fff00
c37dff00d5957fc1403ff11c7ffc32a3fe1beffeacabfe0a01ff0088e3ff00e1957e8051401e77f0
abe222fc54f03e93e375f04fc44f874755935189bc21f157c2d2f837c71a5369fa8dd69f9d5b4196
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05145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140
05145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140
05145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140
05145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140
05145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140
05145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140
05145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140
05145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140
05145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140
05145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140
05145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140
05145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140
05145140051451400514514005145140051451401fffd9}}}}}\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart P
g25}{\bkmkend Pg25}\par\pard\li850\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li850\sb109\sl-23
0\slmult0\fi0\tx10855 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex137 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 C
ommon law\tab \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex137 23\par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-276\slm
ult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb127\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 \ul0\
nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs24 India (19th century and 1948) \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri4756
\sb125\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 I
ndian Law is largely based on {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.
org/w/index.php?title=English_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Engli
sh}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 common law because of the \line \up0 \expndtw0
\charscalex110 long period of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.
org/w/index.php?title=British_Empire }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Br
itish colonial influence}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 during the period of the
\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wik
ipedia.org/w/index.php?title=British_India }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\f
s20 British Raj}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 . \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb138\sl-23
0\slmult0\tx5516 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 After the failed {\field{\*\fl
dinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indian_Rebellion_of_1
857 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 rebellion}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\
fs20 against the British in \tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1857, the
{\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=British_
Parliament }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Britis}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5
\f6\fs20 h \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri4696\sb13\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charsc
alex109 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=
British_Parliament }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Parliament}}}\ul0\no
supersub\cf5\f6\fs20 took over the reign of India from the {\field{\*\fldinst {
HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=British_East_India_Company }
}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 British East India}}} \line \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex109 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.p
hp?title=British_East_India_Company }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Com
pany}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , and {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en
.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=British_India }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\
f6\fs20 British India}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 came under the direct rule
of the Crown. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 The British Parliament passed t
he {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gover
nment_of_India_Act_1858 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Government of I
ndia Act of 1858}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 to \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charsca

lex100 this effect, which set up the structure of British government in India. I
t \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 established in {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLIN
K http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=England }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub
\cf5\f6\fs20 England}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 the office of the {\field{\*
\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Secretary_of_State
_for_India }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Secretary of State for India
}}} \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 through whom
the Parliament would exercise its rule, along with a \line \up0 \expndtw-5\chars
calex100 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title
=Council_of_India }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Council of India}}}
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 to aid him. It also established the office
of the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http:/
/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Governor-General_of_India }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\
nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Governor-General of India}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
along with an Executive Council in India, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 whi
ch consisted of high officials of the British Government. \par\pard\ql \li1253\s
b198\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 Much of contemporary Indian law
shows substantial European and \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb70\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex102 American influence. Various legislations first introduced
by the British\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw7172\colsr160\colno2
\colw4428\colsr160\ql \li1253\sb83\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 a
re still in effect in their modified forms today. During the drafting of\par\par
d\qj \li1253\ri138\sb13\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 the {\field{
\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indian_Constitut
ion }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Indian Constitution}}}\ul0\nosupers
ub\cf5\f6\fs20 , laws from {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org
/w/index.php?title=Ireland }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Ireland}}}\u
l0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , the United States, Britain, \line \up0 \expndtw-1\ch
arscalex100 and {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.ph
p?title=France }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 France}}}\ul0\nosupersub
\cf5\f6\fs20 were all synthesized to get a refined set of Indian laws, as it \l
ine \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 currently stands. Indian laws also adhere
to the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?titl
e=United_Nations }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 United Nation}}}\ul0\
nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 s\par\pard\column \ql \li119\sb4\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 The {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLIN
K http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_India }}{\fldrslt {\
ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Constitution of India}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16
is the longest written\par\pard\qj \li20\ri1169\sb10\sl-240\slmult0\tx303 \up0 \
expndtw-2\charscalex100 constitution for a country, containing 395 articles, \li
ne\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 12 schedules, numerous amendments and\par\pa
rd\ql \li1124\sb47\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 117,369 words. \p
ar\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone \qj \li1253\ri1061\sb8\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex112 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 guidelines on {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPE
RLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_rights_law }}{\fldrslt {\u
l0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 human rights law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and th
e {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Enviro
nmental_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 environmental law}}}\ul0\no
supersub\cf5\f6\fs20 . Certain international trade laws, such as those on \line
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.
org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\
fs20 intellectual property}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , are also enforced in
India. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb121\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x109 Indian {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?ti
tle=Family_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 family law}}}\ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf5\f6\fs20 is complex, with each religion adhering to its own specific la
ws. In most states, registering \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 marriages and
divorces is not compulsory. There are separate laws governing {\field{\*\fldins
t {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hindu }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\n
osupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Hindu}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 s, {\field{\*\fldinst

{HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muslim }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\no

supersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Muslim}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 s, Christians, Sikhs \
line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 and followers of other religions. The exceptio
n to this rule is in the state of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipe
dia.org/w/index.php?title=Goa }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Goa}}}\ul
0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , where a {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikip
edia.org/w/index.php?title=Portugal }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Por
tuguese uniform civil}}} \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 {\field{\*\fldinst {
HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Uniform_civil_code }}{\fldrs
lt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 code}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 is in place,
in which all religions have a common law regarding marriages, divorces and adop
tion. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1020\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
03 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Histo
ry_of_India }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Ancient India}}}\ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf5\f6\fs20 represented a distinct tradition of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERL
INK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\c
f5\f6\fs20 law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , and had an historically independe
nt school of legal theory and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 practice. The {
\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arthashas
tra }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Arthashastra}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\
f6\fs20 , dating from 400 BCE and the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wi
kipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manusmriti }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs2
0 Manusmriti}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , from 100 CE, were influential treat
ises in \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 India, texts that were considered aut
horitative legal guidance.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [81]\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
{\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manu_%
28Hinduism%29 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Manu}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf
5\f6\fs20 's central philosophy was tolerance and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x104 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plu
ralism_%28political_philosophy%29 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 plura
lism}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , and was cited across {\field{\*\fldinst {HY
PERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Southeast_Asia }}{\fldrslt {\u
l0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Southeast Asia}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 .\ul0\sup
er\cf1\f2\fs24 [82] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Early in this period, which fina
lly culminated in the creation of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 the Gupta
Empire, relations with ancient Greece and Rome were not infrequent. T
he appearance of similar \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 fundamental insti
tutions of international law in various parts of the world show that they are in
herent in international \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 society, irrespective
of culture and tradition.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [83] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs2
0 Inter-State relations in the pre-Islamic period resulted in clear-cut \line \u
p0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 rules of warfare of a high humanitarian standard, in
rules of neutrality, of treaty law, of customary law embodied in \line \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex111 religious charters, in exchange of embassies of a temporary
or semi-permanent character.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [84] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\f
s20 When India became \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 part of the {\field{\*\
fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=British_Empire }}{\
fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 British Empire}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs2
0 , there was a break in tradition, and Hindu and Islamic law were supplanted by
the common \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 law.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [85] \
ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 As a result, the present judicial system of the count
ry derives largely from the British system and has little \up0 \expndtw-5\charsc
alex100 correlation to the institutions of the pre-British era.\ul0\super\cf1\f2
\fs24 [86] \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb118\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
9 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 There are 1160 laws as on September 2007\ul0\super
\cf1\f2\fs24 [87] \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl240{\bkmkstart Pg26}{\bkmkend Pg26}\par\pard\li850\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\l
i850\sb109\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx10855 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex137 \ul0\nosupers
ub\cf5\f6\fs20 Common law\tab \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex137 24\par\pard\ql \li125
3\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb127\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\cha

rscalex123 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs24 Canada (1867) \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1030

\sb65\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Al
l but one of the provinces of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.
org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Canada }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Can
ada}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 use a common law system (the exception being
{\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Q
uebec }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Quebec}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\f
s20 , which uses a civil \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 law system for issue
s arising within provincial jurisdiction, such as property ownership and contrac
ts). Criminal law, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 which is uniform throughou
t Canada, is based on the common law as interpreted by the {\field{\*\fldinst {H
YPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_Canada }}{\f
ldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Supreme Court of Canada}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf
5\f6\fs20 . \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 The mid-tier {\field{\*\fldinst {
HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Federal_Court_of_Appeal_%28C
anada%29 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Federal Court of Appeal}}}\ul0
\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 is a single court that sits and hears cases in multiple
cities, and thus mid-tier \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 decisions have pre
cedential value throughout Canada (that is, unlike the United States, Canada is
not divided into \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 appellate circuits).\ul0\super\cf1
\f2\fs24 [88] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Canadian federal statutes\ul0\super\cf
1\f2\fs24 [89] \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 must use the terminology of both the
common law and civil law \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 for those matters; this i
s referred to as legislative bijuralism.\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [90] \par\pard\ql
\li1253\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb64\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex126 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs24 Nicaragua \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri10
90\sb65\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
Nicaragua's legal system also is a mixture of the English Common Law and the Civ
il Law through the influence of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 British admin
istration of the Eastern half of the country from the mid-17th century until abo
ut 1905, the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?t
itle=William_Walker_%28filibuster%29 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Wi
lliam}}} \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http:/
/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Walker_%28filibuster%29 }}{\fldrslt
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bout 1855 through 1857, USA interventions/occupations during the period from 190
9 to 1933, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 the influence of USA instituti
ons during the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.
php?title=Somoza_family }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Somoza family}
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33 through \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 1979) and the \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb
58\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 considerable importation between
1979 and the present of USA culture and institutions. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\s
l-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb76\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
05 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs24 Israel (1948) \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb65\sl
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n.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Israel }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5
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and civil law. While {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/ind
ex.php?title=Israeli_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Israeli law}}}
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 is undergoing codification, its basic \line \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex108 principles are inherited from the law of the {\field{\*\fl
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lestine }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 British Mandate of Palestine}}}
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and thus resemble those of British and \line \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex110 American law, namely: the role of courts in creating the
body of law and the authority of the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wik
ipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_Israel }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersu
b\cf5\f6\fs20 supreme court}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 in \line \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex108 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.p

hp?title=Judicial_review }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 reviewing}}}\u

l0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and if necessary overturning legislative and executiv
e decisions, as well as employing the adversarial \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x102 system. One of the primary reasons that the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK h
ttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_Israel }}{\fldrslt {\ul
0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Israeli constitution}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 rem
ains {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unw
ritten_constitution }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 unwritten}}}\ul0\no
supersub\cf5\f6\fs20 is the fear by whatever party holds \line \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex113 power that creating a written constitution, combined with the commo
n-law elements, would severely limit the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 powe
rs of the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?titl
e=Knesset }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Knesset}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5
\f6\fs20 (which, following the doctrine of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http:/
/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parliamentary_sovereignty }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\
nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 parliamentary sovereignty}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ,
holds near-unlimited power).\ul0\super\cf1\f2\fs24 [91] \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb
0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb64\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex138 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs24 Roman Dutch Common law \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri
1090\sb65\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs2
0 Roman Dutch Commons law is a bijuridical or mixed system of law similar to the
common law system in {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/in
dex.php?title=Scotland }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Scotland}}} \lin
e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and {\field{\*\fldin
st {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louisiana }}{\fldrslt {\
ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Louisiana}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 . Roman Dut
ch common law jurisdictions include {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en
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b\cf5\f6\fs20 South Africa}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , Botswana, Lesotho,
Namibia, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http
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b\cf5\f6\fs20 Sri-Lanka}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and Zimbabwe. Many of the
se jurisdictions recognise customary law, and in some, such as \line \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex110 South Africa the Constitution requires that the common law be
developed in accordance with the Bill of Rights. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex
123 Roman Dutch common law is a development of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK htt
p://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_Dutch_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf5\f6\fs20 Roman Dutch law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 by courts in the
Roman Dutch common law \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 jurisdictions. During
the Napoleonic wars the Kingdom of the Netherlands adopted the French code civil
in 1809, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 however the Dutch colonies in the C
ape of Good Hope and Sri Lanka, at the time called Ceylon, were seized by the \l
ine \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 British to prevent them being used as bases by
the French Navy. The system was developed by the courts and spread \line \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex108 with the expansion of British colonies in Southern Africa.
Roman Dutch common law relies on legal principles set \line \up0 \expndtw0\char
scalex105 out in Roman law sources such as Justinian's Institutes and Digest, an
d also on the writing of Dutch jurists of the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100
15th century such as {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/in
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51450014514500145145007fffd9}}}}}\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg27}{\bkmkend Pg27
}\par\pard\li850\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li850\sb109\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx10
855 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex137 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Common law\tab \dn3
\expndtw0\charscalex137 25\par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\
li1253\sb127\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\
fs24 Alternatives to common law systems \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb65\sl-300\
slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 The main altern
ative to the common law system is the civil law system, which is used in {\field
{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Continental_Eur
ope }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Continental Europe}}}\ul0\nosupersu
b\cf5\f6\fs20 , and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 most of the rest of the w
orld. The contrast between civil law and common law legal systems has become inc
reasingly \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 blurred, with the growing importanc
e of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jur
isprudence }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 jurisprudence}}}\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf5\f6\fs20 (similar to {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.o
rg/w/index.php?title=Case_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 case law}
}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 but not binding) in civil law countries, \line \u
p0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 and the growing importance of statute law and codes i

n common law countries. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \ex

pndtw0\charscalex106 Examples of common law being replaced by statute or codifie
d rule in the United States include criminal law (since \line \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex108 1812, U.S. courts have held that criminal law must be embodied in sta
tute if the public is to have fair notice), \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 {
\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Commercia
l_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 commercial law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\
cf5\f6\fs20 (the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.
php?title=Uniform_Commercial_Code }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Unifo
rm Commercial Code}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 in the early 1960s) and proced
ure (the Federal Rules of Civil \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 {\field{\*\fl
dinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Federal_Rules_of_Civi
l_Procedure }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Procedure}}}\ul0\nosupersub
\cf5\f6\fs20 in the 1930s and the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikip
edia.org/w/index.php?title=Federal_Rules_of_Evidence }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersu
b\cf5\f6\fs20 Federal Rules of Evidence}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 in the 19
70s). But note that in each case, the statute sets \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex103 the general principles, but the common law process determines the scope an
d application of the statute. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb61\sl-300\slmult0 \u
p0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 An example of convergence from the other direction is
shown in Srl CILFIT and Lanificio di Gavardo SpA v \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex110 Ministry of Health (Corte suprema di Cassazione, Italy, 1982) \ul0\supe
r\cf1\f2\fs24 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ
/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:61981J0283:EN:NOT }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\f
s16 [92]}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , in which Italy's Supreme Court held tha
t \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 questions it has already answered need not
be resubmitted. This brought in a distinctly common law principle into an \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex104 essentially civil law jurisdiction. The Italian courts co
ntinue to follow this precedent and assume that the Supreme \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex100 Court's rulings have precedential value. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri3983\sb
11\sl-360\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 The former {\field{\*\fldinst {HY
PERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Soviet_Bloc }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\
nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Soviet Bloc}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and other Soci
alist countries used a {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/i
ndex.php?title=Socialist_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Socialist
law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 system. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Mu
ch of the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?titl
e=Muslim_world }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Muslim world}}}\ul0\nosu
persub\cf5\f6\fs20 uses {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w
/index.php?title=Sharia }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Sharia}}}\ul0\n
osupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (also called Islamic law). \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-32
2\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb50\sl-322\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 \
ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs28 Scholarly works \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri4730\sb117\sl300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Lord Chief
Justice {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=
Edward_Coke }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Edward Coke}}}\ul0\nosupers
ub\cf5\f6\fs20 , a 17th-century {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikiped
ia.org/w/index.php?title=England }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Englis
h jurist}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 {
\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Member_of
_Parliament }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Member of Parliament}}}\ul0
\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , wrote several legal texts that formed the basis \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 for the modern common law, with lawyers in
both England and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 America learning their law
from his {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?titl
e=Institutes_of_the_Lawes_of_England }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 In
stitutes}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and Reports until the end \line \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex109 of the 18th century. His works are still cited by common la
w courts \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 around the world. \par\pard\qj \li12
53\ri4730\sb121\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 The next definitiv

e historical treatise on the common law is \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale

x108 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Com
mentaries_on_the_Laws_of_England }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Commen
taries on the Laws of England}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , written by
Sir {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wi
lliam_Blackstone }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Willia}}}\ul0\nosupers
ub\cf5\f6\fs20 m \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLIN
K http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Blackstone }}{\fldrslt {\ul0
\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Blackstone}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 and first publ
ished in 1765 - 1769. Since 1979, a facsimile \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108
edition of that first edition has been available in four paper-bound \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex114 volumes. Today it has been superseded in the English pa
rt of the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http:
//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_Kingdom }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub
\cf5\f6\fs20 United Kingdom}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 by {\field{\*\fldinst
{HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Halsbury%27s_Laws_of_Engla
nd }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Halsbury's Laws of England}}}\ul0\no
supersub\cf5\f6\fs20 that covers both \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 common
and statutory English law. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb158\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expn
dtw0\charscalex109 While he was still on the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http:
//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Massachusetts_Supreme_Judicial_Court }}{\fl
drslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court}}}\ul0\n
osupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , and \par\pard\li1253\sb83\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx7571 \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex108 before being named to the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S._Supreme_Court }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\
nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 U.S. Supreme Court}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , Justic
e {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oliver
_Wendell_Holmes%2C_Jr. }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Oliver Wendell}}
}\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex108 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikip
edia.org/w/index.php?title=Sir_William_Blackstone }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\c
f1\f2\fs16 Sir William Blackstone}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 as illustrated
in his\par\pard\li1253\sb37\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx7678 \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex1
08 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Olive
r_Wendell_Holmes%2C_Jr. }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Holmes, Jr.}}}\
ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 published a short volume called {\field{\*\fldinst {
HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Common_Law }}{\fldrslt {
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 The Common Law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , which
\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipe
dia.org/w/index.php?title=Commentaries_on_the_Laws_of_England }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\
nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Commentaries on the Laws of England}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1
\f2\fs16 .\par\pard\ql \li1253\sb90\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 remains a classic in the field. Unlike Blackstone an
d the Restatements, \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb13\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex115 Holmes' book only briefly discusses what the law is; rather, Ho
lmes describes the common law process. Law \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 pr
ofessor {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=
John_Chipman_Gray }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 John Chipman Gray}}}\
ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 's The Nature and Sources of the Law, an examination
and survey of the common law, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 is also still c
ommonly read in {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.ph
p?title=Law_school_in_the_United_States }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
U.S. law schools}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 . \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1090\sb
121\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 In the United States, {\field{\*
\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Restatement_of_the
_Law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Restatements}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5
\f6\fs20 of various subject matter areas (Contracts, Torts, Judgments, and so o
n.), edited \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 by the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERL
INK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_Law_Institute }}{\fldrslt
{\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 American Law Institute}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs
20 , collect the common law for the area. The ALI Restatements are often cited b

y \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 American courts and lawyers for proposition

s of uncodified common law, and are considered highly persuasive \line \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex111 authority, just below binding precedential decisions. The {\
field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corpus_Jur
is_Secundum }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Corpus Juris Secundum}}}\ul
0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 is an encyclopedia whose main \line \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex103 content is a compendium of the common law and its variations througho
ut the various state jurisdictions. \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh
16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg28}{\bkmkend Pg28}\par\pard\li850\sb0\sl-230\
slmult0\par\pard\li850\sb109\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx10855 \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x137 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Common law\tab \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex137 26\
par\pard\qj \li1253\sb0\sl-300\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1253\ri1090\sb44\sl-300\sl
mult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 Scots common law covers matters including mur
der and theft, and has sources in custom, in legal writings and \line \up0 \expn
dtw0\charscalex104 previous court decisions. The legal writings used are called
Institutional Texts and come mostly from the 17th, 18th \line \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex107 and 19th centuries. Examples include Craig, Jus Feudale (1655) and St
air, The Institutions of the Law of Scotland \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107
(1681). \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-322\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb60\sl-322\
slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs28 References \par
\pard\ql \li1253\sb132\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 \ul0\nosupers
ub\cf1\f2\fs16 [1] Duhaime's Law Dictionary, "Definition of Common Law" {\field
{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://www.duhaime.org/LegalDictionary/C/CommonLaw.aspx }
}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0
\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs1
6 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 duhaime.\ul0\nosu
persub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 org/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2
\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 LegalDictionary/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\n
osupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 C/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16
CommonLaw.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 aspx)}}} \pa
r\pard\qj \li1253\ri1915\sb10\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107
\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 [2] Washington Probate, "Estate Planning & Probate
Glossary", Washington (State) Probate, s.v. "common law", [htm], 8 Dec. 2008: \
line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 <http://www.wa-probate.com/Intro/Estate-Pr
obate-Glossary.htm>, retrieved on 7 November 2009. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb47\sl184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 [3] Charles Arnold-Baker, The Companio
n to British History, s.v. "English Law" (London: Loncross Denholm Press, 2008),
484. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb56\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 [4]
Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. 137 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://caselaw.lp.
findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=5&page=137 }}{\fldrslt {\
ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\c
f1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 caselaw.\ul
0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 lp.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10
\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 findlaw.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosu
persub\cf1\f2\fs16 com/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16
scripts/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 getcase.\ul0\no
supersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 pl?navby=CASE&\ul0\nosupersub\
cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 court=US&\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \
ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 vol=5&\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf
1\f2\fs16 page=137)}}} \par\pard\ql \li1493\sb56\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (1803) ("It is emphatically the provinc
e and duty of the judicial department to say what the law is. Those who apply th
e rule to particular \par\pard\ql \li1253\ri1131\sb10\sl-240\slmult0\fi240\tx149
3\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 cases, must of necessity expound and inter
pret that rule. If two laws conflict with each other, the courts must decide on
the operation of each.") \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 [5] {\field{\*\fldi
nst {HYPERLINK http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/188090/English-law }}{\
fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nos
upersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 ww
w.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 britannica.\ul0\nosup

ersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 com/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2

\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 EBchecked/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupers
ub\cf1\f2\fs16 topic/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 18
8090/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 English-law}}}\ul0
\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 ; British History: Middle Ages "Common Law - Henry II a
nd the \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Birth of a State" {\field{\*\fldi
nst {HYPERLINK http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/middle_ages/henryii_law_01.s
html }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2
\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\
f2\fs16 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 bbc.\ul0\no
supersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 co.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2
\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 uk/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf
1\f2\fs16 history/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 briti
sh/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 middle_ages/\ul0\nos
upersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 henryii_law_01.\ul0\nosupersub\
cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 shtml)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 .
BBC. . Retrieved 2009-07-23. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 [6] "India, bei
ng a common law country" {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://supremecourtofindi
a.nic.in/new_links/Abu_Dhabi__as_delivered.pdf }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\
f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\no
supersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 supremecourtofindia.\ul0\nosup
ersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 nic.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2
\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 in/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\
f2\fs16 new_links/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Abu_D
habi__as_delivered.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 pdf)
}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (PDF). . Retrieved \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex107 2010-05-30. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri2371\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493 \up
0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 [7] "...."in a common law jurisdiction such as ours""
(http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersu
b\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0
\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 supremecourt.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersu
b\cf1\f2\fs16 gov.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 pk/\u
l0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 web/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f
10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 user_files/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0
\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 File/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2
\fs16 REVIEW_P_46& \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 {\field{\*\fldinst {H
YPERLINK http://www.supremecourt.gov.pk/web/user_files/File/REVIEW_P_46&47_2011_
full.pdf }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 47_2011_full.\ul0\nosupersub\c
f9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 pdf)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (PDF
). . Retrieved 2012-02-22. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri2484\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 [8] "The Common Law in the World: the Australian
Experience" {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://w3.uniroma1.it/idc/centro/publi
cations/43finn.pdf }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupers
ub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\n
osupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 w3.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs1
6 uniroma1.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 it/\ul0\nosu
persub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 idc/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2
\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 centro/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub
\cf1\f2\fs16 publications/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs
16 43finn.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 pdf)}}}\ul0\n
osupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 . \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 W3.uniroma1.it.
. Retrieved 2010-05-30. \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1584\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493 \u
p0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 [9] "Parliament of Barbados: one of the oldest Const
itutions in the Commonwealth" {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://www.barbadosp
arliament.com/the_parliament.php }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:
/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f
10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf1\f2\fs16 barbadosparliament.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub
\cf1\f2\fs16 com/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 the_pa
rliament.}}} \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLI

NK http://www.barbadosparliament.com/the_parliament.php }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupe

rsub\cf1\f2\fs16 php)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 . . Retrieved 2011-11-06. \p
ar\pard\ql \li1253\ri4477\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 [10]
Garner 2001, p. 177 \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 [11] Salmond 1907, p. 32 \
line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 [12] Garner 2001, p. 178 \par\pard\ql \li1253\
ri1534\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 [13] "5. T
he judges are forbidden to pronounce, by way of general and legislative determin
ation, on the causes submitted to them." Code of \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex109 Napoleon, Decree of March 5, 1803, Law 5 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK
http://www.napoleon-series.org/research/government/code/book1/c_preliminary.html
}}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \u
l0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\f
s16 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 napoleon-series
.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 org/\ul0\nosupersub\cf
9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 research/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul
0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 government/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub
\cf1\f2\fs16 code/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 book1
/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 c_preliminary.\ul0\nos
upersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 html)}}} \line \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex104 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 [14] Federal Rule of Civil Procedure,
Rule 2 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://www.law.cornell.edu/rules/frcp/Rule2
.htm }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2
\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\
f2\fs16 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 law.\ul0\no
supersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 cornell.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f1
0\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 edu/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosuper
sub\cf1\f2\fs16 rules/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 f
rcp/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Rule2.\ul0\nosupers
ub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 htm)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16
("There is one form of action\u8212?the civil \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex101 action.") (1938) \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb47\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex101 [15] Friedman 2005, p. xix \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1520\sb10\sl-240\
slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 [16] "In Suits at common law ... th
e right of {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?tit
le=Jury_trial }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 trial by jury}}}\ul0\nosu
persub\cf1\f2\fs16 shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be oth
erwise reexamined in any \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Court of the Un
ited States, than according to the rules of the common law." \par\pard\qj \li125
3\ri1252\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 [17] e.g., Ex p
arte Holt, 19 USPQ2d 1211, 1214 (Bd. Patent App. & Interf. 1991) (explaining the
hierarchy of precedent binding on tribunals of \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex101 the United States Patent Office) \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri5015\sb0\sl-240\s
lmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 [18] Frederic R. Kellog, Law, Morals, and J
ustice Holmes, 69 Judicature 214 (1986). \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 [19] Benj
amin N. Cardozo, The Nature of the Judicial Process 22-23 (1921). \par\pard\ql \
li1253\ri1278\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493\tx1493\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
04 [20] The beneficial qualities of the common law's incrementalist evolution w
as most eloquently expressed by the future {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://
en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lord_Mansfield }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\c
f1\f2\fs16 Lord Mansfield}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 , then \line \tab \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex103 Solicitor General Murray, in the case of Omychund v. Bark
er, who contended that "a statute very seldom can take in all cases; therefore t
he \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 common law, that works itself pure by
rules drawn from the fountain of justice, is for that reason superior to an {\f
ield{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Act_of_Parl
iament }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 act of parliament}}}\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf1\f2\fs16 ." I Atk. 21, \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 33, 26 Eng
. Rep. 15, 22-23 (Ch. 1744) \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb47\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex113 [21] Winterbottom v. Wright, 10 M&W 109, 152 Eng.Rep. 402, 18
42 WL 5519 (Exchequer of pleas 1842) \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri2361\sb10\sl-240\slm

ult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 [22] Thomas v. Winchester {\field{\*\fldinst

{HYPERLINK http://www.courts.state.ny.us/reporter/archives/thomas_winchester.htm
}}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \u
l0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\f
s16 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 courts.\ul0\nos
upersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 state.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\f
s2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 ny.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\
cf1\f2\fs16 us/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 reporter
/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 archives/\ul0\nosupers
ub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 thomas_winchester.\ul0\nosupersub\cf
9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 htm)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 , 6 N.
Y. 397 (N.Y. 1852) \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 [23] Statler v. Ray Mfg.
Co., 195 N.Y. 478, 480 (N.Y. 1909) \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb47\sl-184\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex105 [24] Cadillac Motor Car Co. v. Johnson, 221 F. 801 (2n
d Cir. 1915) \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1733\sb10\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex107 [25] MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co. {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLI
NK http://www.courts.state.ny.us/reporter/archives/macpherson_buick.htm }}{\fldr
slt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 www.\
ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 courts.\ul0\nosupersub\c
f9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 state.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\
nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 ny.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs
16 us/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 reporter/\ul0\nos
upersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 archives/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f1
0\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 macpherson_buick.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2
\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 htm)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 , 217 N.Y. 382,
111 N.E. \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1050 (N.Y. 1916) \par\pard\qj \
li1253\ri1428\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 [26] Meist
er v. Moore, 96 U.S. 76 (1877) ("No doubt a statute may take away a common law r
ight, but there is always a presumption that the \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\chars
calex100 legislature has no such intention unless it be plainly expressed.") \pa
r\pard\ql \li1253\sb47\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 [27] E.g., U
niform Commercial Code, Article 2, on Contracts for the Sales of Goods {\field{\
*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://www.law.cornell.edu/ucc/2/ }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16
/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf
9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 law.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nos
upersub\cf1\f2\fs16 cornell.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\
fs16 edu/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 ucc/\ul0\nosup
ersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 2/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \u
l0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 )}}} \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1521\sb10\sl-240\slmult0 \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 [28] {\field{\*\fldinst
{HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Model_Penal_Code }}{\fldrs
lt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Model Penal Code}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16
as adopted in several states, for example, New York's Penal Law {\field{\*\fldin
st {HYPERLINK http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/nycodes/c82.html }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\n
osupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2
\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 caselaw.\ul0\nos
upersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 lp.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2
\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 findlaw.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersu
b\cf1\f2\fs16 com/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 nycod
es/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 c82.\ul0\nosupersub\
cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 html)}}} \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 [29] Graham Hughes, Common Law Systems, VII, M
orrison 1996, pp. 23-24 \par\pard\ql \li1253\ri1219\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493\tx1
493\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 [30] To consider one example, Lemon v.
Kurtzman, 403 U.S. 602 (1971), resolves one part of the tension between the "est
ablishment" and "free \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 exercise" clauses o
f the First Amendment with a three part test: a government-sponsored message vio
lates the Establishment Clause if: (1) it \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10

0 does not have a secular purpose; (2) its principal or primary effect advances
or inhibits religion; or (3) it creates an excessive entanglement of \line \tab
\up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 the government with religion.. \par\pard\ql \li125
3\sb47\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 [31] {\field{\*\fldinst {HYP
ERLINK https://supreme.justia.com/us/11/32/case.html }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersu
b\cf1\f2\fs16 https:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\
ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 supreme.\ul0\nosupersub\
cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 justia.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul
0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 com/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2
\fs16 us/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 11/\ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 32/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \u
l0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 case.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\
f2\fs16 html}}}
{\shp {\*\shpinst\shpleft850\shptop832\shpright11055\shpbottom832\shpfhdr0\shpbx
page\shpbypage\shpwr3\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz6\shplid0{\sp{\sn shapeType}{\sv 2
0}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn lineColor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn lineWidt
h}{\sv 0}}
}}
{\shp {\*\shpinst\shpleft850\shptop15969\shpright11055\shpbottom15969\shpfhdr0\s
hpbxpage\shpbypage\shpwr3\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz31\shplid1{\sp{\sn shapeType}{
\sv 20}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn lineColor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn lin
eWidth}{\sv 0}}
}}\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart P
g29}{\bkmkend Pg29}\par\pard\li850\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li850\sb109\sl-23
0\slmult0\fi0\tx10855 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex137 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 C
ommon law\tab \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex137 27\par\pard\qj \li1253\sb0\sl-240\slm
ult0 \par\pard\qj\li1253\ri5396\sb133\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex11
0 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 [32] Johnson v. Commonwealth, 209 Va. 291, 293, 1
63 S.E.2d 570, ___ (1968) \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 [33] {\field{\*\fl
dinst {HYPERLINK https://supreme.justia.com/us/5/137/case.html }}{\fldrslt {\ul0
\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 https:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\
f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 supreme.\ul0\n
osupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 justia.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f1
0\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 com/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosuper
sub\cf1\f2\fs16 us/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 5/\u
l0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 137/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f
10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 case.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosup
ersub\cf1\f2\fs16 html}}} \par\pard\ql \li1253\ri1138\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493\
tx1493\tx1493\tx1493\tx1493\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 \ul0\nosupersub\
cf1\f2\fs16 [34] E.g., South Corp. v. United States, 690 F.2d 1368 (Fed. Cir. 1
982) (en banc in relevant part) (explaining order of precedent binding on the \l
ine\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 United States Court of Appeals for the Fede
ral Circuit); Bonner v. City of Prichard, Alabama, 661 F.2d 1206 (11th Cir. 1981
) (en banc) (after \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 the Eleventh Circuit
was split off from the Fifth Circuit, adopting precedent of Fifth Circuit as bin
ding until overruled by the Eleventh Circuit \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x100 en banc: "The [pre-split] Fifth followed the absolute rule that a prior dec
ision of the circuit (panel or en banc) could not be overruled by a \line \tab \
up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 panel but only by the court sitting en banc. The El
eventh Circuit decides in this case that it chooses, and will follow, this rule.
"); Ex parte \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Holt, 19 USPQ2d 1211, 1214
(Bd. Patent App. & Interf. 1991) (explaining the hierarchy of precedent binding
on tribunals of the United States \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Patent
Office). \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb47\sl-184\slmult0\tx1616 \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex106 [35] \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 83 Cr App R 191, 73 Cr App R 266 \
par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1309\sb10\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
10 [36] See, e.g., Yeo Tiong Min, " A Note on Some Differences in English Law,
New York Law, and Singapore Law {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://www.singapo
relaw.sg/content/SomeDifferences.html }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (
http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\

cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\n

osupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 singaporelaw.}}} \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 {
\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://www.singaporelaw.sg/content/SomeDifferences.
html }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 sg/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \u
l0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 content/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\c
f1\f2\fs16 SomeDifferences.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\f
s16 html)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 " (2006). \par\pard\ql \li1253\ri1134\sb
0\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493\tx1493\tx1493\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 [37]
Theodore Eisenberg & Geoffrey P. Miller, The Flight to New York: An Empirical St
udy of Choice of Law and Choice of Forum Clauses in \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\ch
arscalex108 Publicly-Held Companies\u8217? Contracts (2008). New York University
Law and Economics Working Papers. Paper 124, {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http
://lsr.nellco.org/nyu_lewp/124 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 http:/\u
l0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\
fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 lsr.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersu
b\cf1\f2\fs16 nellco.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 or
g/}}} \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http
://lsr.nellco.org/nyu_lewp/124 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 nyu_lewp
/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 124}}}\ul0\nosupersub\
cf1\f2\fs16 (based on a survey of 2882 contracts, "New York law plays a role fo
r major corporate contracts similar to the role Delaware \line \tab \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex100 law plays in the limited setting of corporate governance disput
es. ... New York\u8217?s dominance is striking. It is the choice of law in appro
ximately \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 46 percent of contracts," and i
f merger contracts excluded, over half) \par\pard\ql \li1253\ri1267\sb0\sl-240\s
lmult0\tx1493\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 [38] Eisenberg & Miller at 19
-20 (Delaware is chosen in about 15% of contracts, "Delaware dominates for one t
ype of contract - [merger] trust \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 agreemen
ts. ... The dominance of Delaware for this specialized type of contract is appar
ently due to the advantages and flexibility which \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-1\cha
rscalex100 Delaware\u8217?s business trust statute.") \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri149
2\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 [39] Eisenberg & Mille
r at 19, only about 5% of commercial contracts designate California choice of la
w, where nearly 50% designate New \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 York) \
par\pard\ql \li1253\ri1348\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493\tx1493\tx1493\tx1493 \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex107 [40] Osley, Richard (2008-11-23). "London becomes litiga
tion capital of the world" {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://www.independent.
co.uk/news/uk/home-news/london-becomes-litigation-capital-of-the-world-1031231.h
tml }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2
\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f
2\fs16 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 independent.
\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 co.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\
f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 uk/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf1\f2\fs16 news/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 u
k/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 home-news/}}} \line \
tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://www.indepe
ndent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/london-becomes-litigation-capital-of-the-world-103
1231.html }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 london-becomes-litigation-cap
ital-of-the-world-1031231.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs
16 html)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 . The Independent (London). .. London is
also forum for many defamation \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 cases, be
cause U.K. law is more plaintiff-friendly--in the United States, the First Amend
ment protection for freedom of the press allows for \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\ch
arscalex102 statements concerning public figures of questionable veracity, where
in the U.k., those same statements support a judgment for libel. \line \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex105 [41] U.S. Internal Revenue Service, Taxpayer Advocate Serv
ice, 2008 Report to Congress, {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://www.irs.gov/p
ub/irs-utl/08_tas_arc_msp_1.pdf }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 http:/\
ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10
\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupers

ub\cf1\f2\fs16 irs.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 gov/

\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 pub/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9
\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 irs-utl/}}} \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\char
scalex105 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-utl/08_tas_ar
c_msp_1.pdf }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 08_tas_arc_msp_1.\ul0\nosup
ersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 pdf}}} \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb40\
sl-192\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 [42] Ou
tside the law {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/p
athways/citizenship/citizen_subject/law.htm }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\
fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosup
ersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2
\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 nationalarchives.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\n
osupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 gov.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs
16 uk/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 pathways/\ul0\nos
upersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 citizenship/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9
\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 citizen_subject/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs
2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 law.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\
cf1\f2\fs16 htm) The National Archives}}} \par\pard\ql \li1253\ri1393\sb9\sl-240
\slmult0\tx1493\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16
[43] Jeffery, Clarence Ray (1957). "The Development of Crime in Early English S
ociety". Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police \line\tab \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex107 Science (The Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police S
cience, Vol. 47, No. 6) 47 (6): 647-666. doi:10.2307/1140057. \line \tab \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex107 JSTOR 1140057. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb47\sl-184\slmult0 \up
0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 [44] Winston Chruchill, A History of the English Spea
king Peoples, Chapter 13, The English Common Law \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1431\sb1
0\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 [45] see {\field{\*\fldins
t {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oliver_Wendell_Holmes%2C_
Jr. }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.}}}\ul0\n
osupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 , The Common Law, Lecture I, sec. 2, "In Massachusetts tod
ay...there are some (rules) which can only be \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex105 understood by reference to the infancy of procedure among the German tribe
s." \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb47\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 [46]
"{\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encycloped
ia_(1913)/Common_Law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Common Law}}}\ul0\
nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 ". {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/
w/index.php?title=Catholic_Encyclopedia }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16
Catholic Encyclopedia}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 . New York: Robert Appleton
Company. 1913. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb56\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex105 [47] William Burnham, Introduction to the Law and Legal System of the Uni
ted States, 4th ed. (St. Paul, Thomson West, 2006), 42. \par\pard\ql \li1253\ri1
122\sb10\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493\tx1493\tx1493\tx1493\tx1493\tx1493\tx1493\tx1493
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 [48] E.g., MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co., 217 N.Y.
382, 111 N.E. 1050 (N.Y. 1916) (discussed above, adjudicating the tort of negli
gence that \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 existed in no statute, and ex
panding the law to cover parties that had never been addressed by statute); Hadl
ey v Baxendale (1854) 9 Exch 341 \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 (defini
ng a new rule of contract law with no basis in statute); Marbury v. Madison, 137
5 U.S. 137 (1803) ("It is emphatically the province and \line \tab \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex108 duty of the judicial department to say what the law is."); Alex
ander Hamilton, THE FEDERALIST, Nos. 78 and 81 (J. Cooke ed. 1961), \line \tab \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 521-530, 541-55 ("The interpretation of the laws is
the proper and peculiar province of the courts. A constitution, is, in fact, and
must be \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 regarded by the judges, as a fu
ndamental law. It therefore belongs to them to ascertain its meaning, as well as
the meaning of any particular act \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 proce
eding from the legislative body."); see {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.
wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rule_against_perpetuities }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosu
persub\cf1\f2\fs16 rule against perpetuities}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 for
a judicially created law originating in 1682 that governs the validity of \line

\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 trusts and {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http

://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Future_interests }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf1\f2\fs16 future interests}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 in {\field{\*\fl
dinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Real_property }}{\fld
rslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 real property}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 ,
Rule in Shelley's Case for a rule created by judges in 1366 or before, and life
estate and fee simple \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 for rules of real
property ownership that were judicially created in the late 1100's as the crown
began to give law-making power to courts. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 [49
] Southern Pacific Co. v. Jensen, 244 U.S. 205, 221 (1917) (Holmes, J., dissent
ing). \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri5029\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
9 [50] E.g., R. C. van Caenegem, The Birth of the English Common Law 89-92 (198
8). \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 [51] E.g., {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter_Birks }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf1\f2\fs16 Peter Birks}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 , Grant McLeod, Justin
ian's Institutes 7 (1987). \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1217\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 [52] E.g., George E. Woodbine (ed.), Samuel E. Th
orne (transl.), Bracton on the Laws and Customs of England, Vol. I (Introduction
) 46 (1968); \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Carl Gterbock, Bracton and hi
s Relation to the Roman Law 35-38 (1866). \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1680\sb0\sl-240
\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 [53] Stephen P. Buhofer, Structuri
ng the Law: The Common Law and the Roman Institutional System, Swiss Review of I
nternational and \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 European Law (SZIER/RSD
IE) 5/2007, 24 (download at {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://www.szier.ch }}
{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\n
osupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16
www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 szier.\ul0\nosupers
ub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 ch}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 archive). \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1289\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex103 [54] Peter Stein, Continental Influences on English Legal thought,
1600 - 1900, in Peter Stein, The Character and Influence of the Roman Civil \li
ne\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Law 223 et seq. (1988). \par\pard\qj \li1253
\ri1902\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 [55] See general
ly Stephen P. Buhofer, Structuring the Law: The Common Law and the Roman Institu
tional System, Swiss Review of \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 Internati
onal and European Law (SZIER/RSDIE) 5/2007 (download at {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPE
RLINK http://www.szier.ch }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 http:/\ul0\no
supersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2
\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1
\f2\fs16 szier.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 ch}}}\ul
0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 - archive). \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1564\sb0\sl-240\slm
ult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 [56] Lammi, Glenn G.; Chang, James (De
cember 17, 2004). "Michigan High Court Ruling Offers Positive Guidance on Challe
nges to Tort \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 Reform Laws" {\field{\*\fld
inst {HYPERLINK http://www.wlf.org/upload/121704LBChang.pdf }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\no
supersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\
fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 www.\ul0\nosupers
ub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 wlf.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul
0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 org/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2
\fs16 upload/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 121704LBCh
ang.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 pdf)}}}\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf1\f2\fs16 . Legal Backgrounder ({\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wi
kipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Washington_Legal_Foundation }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosu
persub\cf1\f2\fs16 Washington Legal Foundation}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 ) 1
9 (46).
{\shp {\*\shpinst\shpleft850\shptop832\shpright11055\shpbottom832\shpfhdr0\shpbx
page\shpbypage\shpwr3\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz6\shplid0{\sp{\sn shapeType}{\sv 2
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{\shp {\*\shpinst\shpleft850\shptop15969\shpright11055\shpbottom15969\shpfhdr0\s
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g30}{\bkmkend Pg30}\par\pard\li850\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li850\sb109\sl-23
0\slmult0\fi0\tx10855 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex137 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 C
ommon law\tab \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex137 28\par\pard\ql \li1493\sb0\sl-184\slm
ult0 \par\pard\ql\li1493\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1493\sb51\sl-184\slmu
lt0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 ISBN 10563059. . \pa
r\pard\ql \li1253\ri1330\sb10\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charsc
alex108 [57] Milestones! 200 Years of American Law: Milestones in Our Legal His
tory By Jethro Koller Lieberman Published by West, 1976 Original \line \tab \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex108 from the University of California Digitized Jun 11, 200
8 ISBN 0-19-519881-6, ISBN 978-0-19-519881-2, pg. 16 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLI
NK http://books.google.com/books?id=i_2wAAAAIAAJ&pgis=1 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16
/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 books.\ul0\nosupersub
\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 google.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \u
l0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 com/}}} \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 {\fiel
d{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://books.google.com/books?id=i_2wAAAAIAAJ&pgis=1 }}{
\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 books?id=i_2wAAAAIAAJ&\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\
f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 pgis=1)}}} \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1978\sb0\
sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 [58] Ne
w York Constitution of 1777 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://www.yale.edu/la
wweb/avalon/states/ny01.htm }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0
\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs
2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\
cf1\f2\fs16 yale.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 edu/\u
l0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 lawweb/\ul0\nosupersub\cf
9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 avalon/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\
nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 states/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f
2\fs16 ny01.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 htm)}}}\ul0
\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 via Avalon Project at {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK htt
p://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yale }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\
fs16 Yale}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Law School. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsc
alex105 [59] Alexander Hamilton, Federalist 84 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK ht
tp://www.constitution.org/fed/federa84.htm }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\f
s16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \
ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 constitution.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf1\f2\fs16 org/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 fe
d/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 federa84.\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 htm)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16
(1788). \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb47\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 [
60] Nathan Dane, 6 General Abridgment and Digest of American Law 182, art. 5, 23
0 (Cummings, Hilliard & Co. 1823). \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri2023\sb10\sl-240\slmul
t0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 [61] Washington Legal Foundation v. Lega
l Foundation of Washington, 271 F.3d 835 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://la
ws.lp.findlaw.com/getcase/9th/case/9835154&exact=1 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\
cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul
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10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 lp.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosuper
sub\cf1\f2\fs16 findlaw.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16
com/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 getcase/\ul0\nosup
ersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 9th/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2
\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 case/}}} \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 {\f
ield{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://laws.lp.findlaw.com/getcase/9th/case/9835154&e
xact=1 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 9835154&\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\
fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 exact=1)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (9th Ci

r. 2001). \par\pard\ql \li1253\ri1329\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493\tx1493 \up0 \exp

ndtw0\charscalex102 [62] An Act to repeal certain parts of an Act passed in the
Fourteenth Year of His Majesty's Reign, intituled an Act for making more effect
ual \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Provision for the Government of the P
rovince of Quebec in North America; and to introduce the English Law, as the Rul
e of Decision in all \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 matters of controve
rsy relative to Property and Civil Rights, S.U.C. 1792 (32 Geo. III), c. 1. \par
\pard\ql \li1253\ri1675\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 [
63] The North-West Territories Act {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://www.qp.
gov.sk.ca/documents/english/statutes/historical/NWT.pdf }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16
/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 www.\ul0\nosupersub\c
f9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 qp.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nos
upersub\cf1\f2\fs16 gov.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16
sk.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 ca/\ul0\nosupersub\
cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 documents/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2
\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 english/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub
\cf1\f2\fs16 statutes/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 h
istorical/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 NWT.\ul0\nosu
persub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 pdf)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs
16 , R.S.C.1885, c. 50, s. 11. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 [64] Alberta
Act {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://www.solon.org/Constitutions/Canada/Engl
ish/aa_1905.html }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub
\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nos
upersub\cf1\f2\fs16 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16
solon.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 org/\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Constitutions/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f
10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Canada/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nos
upersub\cf1\f2\fs16 English/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\
fs16 aa_1905.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 html)}}}\u
l0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 , S.C. 1905, c. 3, s. 16. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex103 [65] Saskatchewan Act {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://www.qp.gov.sk
.ca/documents/english/statutes/historical/SK%20Act.pdf }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16
/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf
9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 qp.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosu
persub\cf1\f2\fs16 gov.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16
sk.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 ca/\ul0\nosupersub\c
f9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 documents/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \
ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 english/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\
cf1\f2\fs16 statutes/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 hi
storical/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 SK Act.\ul0\no
supersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 pdf)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\
fs16 , S.C. 1905, c. 42, s. 16. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 [66] "Chapte
r I, Section 8 of Hong Kong Basic Law" {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://www.
basiclaw.gov.hk/en/basiclawtext/chapter_1.html }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\
f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\no
supersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs
2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 basiclaw.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf1\f2\fs16 gov.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 hk
/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 en/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9
\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 basiclawtext/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2
\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 chapter_1.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupers
ub\cf1\f2\fs16 html)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 . Basiclaw.gov.hk. \line \tab
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 2008-03-17. . Retrieved 2010-05-30. \par\pard\qj \
li1253\ri1428\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 [67] Holme
s, Jr., Oliver Wendell (1897). "The Path of the Law" {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLI
NK http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/2373 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16
(http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersu
b\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0

\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 gutenberg.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\c

f1\f2\fs16 org/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 ebooks/\
ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 2373)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\
cf1\f2\fs16 . Harvard Law Review 10 (8): 457, \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex107 469. doi:10.2307/1322028. . \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri4960\sb0\sl-240\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 [68] Acree v. Republic of Iraq, 370 F.3d 41 (D.C.
Cir. 2004) (Roberts, J., concurring). \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 [69] Salmon
d 1907, p. 34 \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1257\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex106 [70] Lobban, M. (2004). "Preparing for Fusion: Reforming the Ni
neteenth-Century Court of Chancery, Part II" {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http:
//www.historycooperative.org/journals/lhr/22.3/forum_lobban.html#FOOT142 }}{\fld
rslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosup
ersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 www.
\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 historycooperative.}}}
\line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://www
.historycooperative.org/journals/lhr/22.3/forum_lobban.html#FOOT142 }}{\fldrslt
{\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 org/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf
1\f2\fs16 journals/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 lhr/
\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 22.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\
f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 3/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosuper
sub\cf1\f2\fs16 forum_lobban.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2
\fs16 html#FOOT142)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 . Law and History Review. {\fi
eld{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=University_o
f_Illinois }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 University of Illinois}}}\ul
0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 . . \par\pard\ql \li1253\ri1114\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx14
93\tx1493\tx1493\tx1493\tx1493\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 [71] E.g., M
arkman v. Westview Instruments, Inc., 517 U.S. 370, 376 (1996) ("[W]e [the U.S.
Supreme Court] have understood that the right of \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex107 trial by jury thus preserved is the right which existed under the Engli
sh {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Commo
n_law%233._Law_as_opposed_to_equity }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 com
mon law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 when the Amendment was adopted. In keepin
g with our \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 longstanding adherence to th
is 'historical test,' we ask, first, whether we are dealing with a cause of acti
on that either was tried at {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.or
g/w/index.php?title=Common_law%233._Law_as_opposed_to_equity }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\n
osupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 at the \line \tab \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex100 time of the founding or is at least analogous to one tha
t was. If the action in question belongs in the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK ht
tp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_law%233._Law_as_opposed_to_equity
}}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 cat
egory, we then ask whether the \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 particul
ar trial decision must fall to the jury in order to preserve the substance of th
e {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common
_law%233._Law_as_opposed_to_equity }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 comm
on-law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 right as it existed in 1791." citations an
d \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 quotations omitted, holding that inter
pretation of the scope of a patent had no analogy in 1790, and is thus a questio
n to be decided by a judge, \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 not a jury)
\par\pard\ql \li1253\sb47\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 [72] Joh
n Jay McKelvey, Principles of Common Law Pleading (1894). \par\pard\qj \li1253\r
i1526\sb10\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 [73] Note that th
e remainder of the "common law" discussed in the rest of the article remained in
tact; all that was abolished were the highly \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex
100 technical requirements for language of the paper provided by the plaintiff t
o the defendant to initiate a case. \par\pard\ql \li1253\ri1158\sb0\sl-240\slmul
t0\tx1493\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 [74] At least in the U.S., practi
cing lawyers tend to use "law professor" or "law review article" as a pejorative
to describe a person or work that is \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 ins
ufficiently grounded in reality or practicality - every young lawyer is admonish

ed repeatedly by senior lawyers not to write "law review \line \tab \up0 \expndt
w-1\charscalex100 articles," but instead to focus on the facts of the case and t
he practical effects of a given outcome. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb47\sl-184\slmult
0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 [75] {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://casela
w.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=304&page=64 }}{\fldr
slt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosuper
sub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 casela
w.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 lp.\ul0\nosupersub\cf
9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 findlaw.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0
\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 com/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\
fs16 scripts/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 getcase.\u
l0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 pl?navby=CASE&\ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 court=US&\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\f
s2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 vol=304&\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf1\f2\fs16 page=64}}} \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb56\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex109 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 [76] Swift v. Tyson, 41 U.S. 1 {\
field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?nav
by=CASE&court=US&vol=41&page=1 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\
ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10
\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 caselaw.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosu
persub\cf1\f2\fs16 lp.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 f
indlaw.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 com/\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 scripts/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2
\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 getcase.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupers
ub\cf1\f2\fs16 pl?navby=CASE&\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2
\fs16 court=US&\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 vol=41&\
ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 page=1)}}}\ul0\nosupersu
b\cf1\f2\fs16 (1842). In \par\pard\ql \li1493\ri1192\sb10\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex102 Swift, the {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipe
dia.org/w/index.php?title=United_States_Supreme_Court }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupers
ub\cf1\f2\fs16 United States Supreme Court}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 had he
ld that federal courts hearing cases brought under their {\field{\*\fldinst {HYP
ERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_jurisdiction }}{\fldr
slt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 diversity jurisdiction}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2
\fs16 (allowing them to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 hear cases between p
arties from different states) had to apply the statutory law of the states, but
not the common law developed by state \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 courts.
Instead, the Supreme Court permitted the federal courts to make their own commo
n law based on general principles of law. Erie v. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x112 Tompkins, 304 U.S. 64 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://caselaw.lp.findl
aw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=304&page=64 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\
nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f
2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 caselaw.\ul0\no
supersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 lp.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2
\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 findlaw.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupers
ub\cf1\f2\fs16 com/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 scri
pts/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 getcase.\ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 pl?navby=CASE&\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\
f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 court=US&\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\
nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 vol=304&\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\
f2\fs16 page=64)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (1938). Erie \line \up0 \expndtw
-1\charscalex100 over-ruled Swift v. Tyson, and instead held that federal courts
exercising diversity jurisdiction had to use all of the same {\field{\*\fldinst
{HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Substantive_law }}{\fldrsl
t {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 substantive law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 as
the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 courts of the states in which they were
located. As the Erie Court put it, there is no "general federal common law", the
key word here being \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 general. This history is
elaborated in {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php
?title=Federal_common_law }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 federal commo

n law}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 . \par\pard\ql \li1253\ri3570\sb0\sl-240\slm

ult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 [77] {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK https://su
preme.justia.com/us/451/630/case.html }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 h
ttps:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\
cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 supreme.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \u
l0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 justia.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf
1\f2\fs16 com/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 us/\ul0\n
osupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 451/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\f
s2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 630/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub
\cf1\f2\fs16 case.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 html}
}} \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 [78] {\field{
\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK https://supreme.justia.com/us/318/363/case.html }}{\fldrsl
t {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 https:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupers
ub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 supreme
.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 justia.\ul0\nosupersub
\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 com/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\
nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 us/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs
16 318/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 363/\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 case.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \
ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 html}}} \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb47\sl-184\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex114 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 [79] {\field{\*\fldinst {H
YPERLINK http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vo
l=248&page=215 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf
9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf1\f2\fs16 caselaw.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs1
6 lp.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 findlaw.\ul0\nosup
ersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 com/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2
\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 scripts/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub
\cf1\f2\fs16 getcase.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 pl
?navby=CASE&\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 court=US&\u
l0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 vol=248&\ul0\nosupersub\c
f9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 page=215}}} \par\pard\ql \li1253\ri1887\
sb10\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493\tx1493\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 \ul0\nosup
ersub\cf1\f2\fs16 [80] City of Boerne v. Flores, 521 U.S. 507 {\field{\*\fldins
t {HYPERLINK http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=521&i
nvol=507 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10
\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\
cf1\f2\fs16 caselaw.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 lp.
\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 findlaw.\ul0\nosupersub
\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 com/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\
nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 scripts/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\
f2\fs16 getcase.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 pl?cour
t=us&\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 vol=521&\ul0\nosup
ersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 invol=507)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\
f2\fs16 (1997) \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 (invalidating the {\fiel
d{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Religious_Free
dom_Restoration_Act }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Religious Freedom R
estoration Act}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 , in which Congress had attempted t
o redefine the court's jurisdiction to decide \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex104 constitutional issues); Milwaukee v. Illinois, 451 U.S. 304 {\field{\*\fld
inst {HYPERLINK http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=45
1&invol=304 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\
f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupers
ub\cf1\f2\fs16 caselaw.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16
lp.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 findlaw.\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 com/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \u
l0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 scripts/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\c
f1\f2\fs16 getcase.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 pl?c
ourt=us&\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 vol=451&}}} \li
ne \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://casela

w.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=451&invol=304 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0

\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 invol=304)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (1981) \par\pa
rd\ql \li1253\ri4526\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 [81] Glenn
2000, p. 255 \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 [82] Glenn 2000, p. 276 \par\par
d\qj \li1253\ri2062\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 [83]
Alexander, C.H. (July 1952). "International Law in India". The International an
d Comparative Law Quarterly 1 (3): 289-300. \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
06 ISSN 0020-5893. \par\pard\ql \li1253\ri3234\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex104 [84] Viswanatha, S.T., International Law in Ancient India, 1925 \
line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 [85] Glenn 2000, p. 273 \par\pard\ql \li1253\s
b47\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 [86] Jain 2006, p. 2
{\shp {\*\shpinst\shpleft850\shptop832\shpright11055\shpbottom832\shpfhdr0\shpbx
page\shpbypage\shpwr3\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz6\shplid0{\sp{\sn shapeType}{\sv 2
0}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn lineColor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn lineWidt
h}{\sv 0}}
}}
{\shp {\*\shpinst\shpleft850\shptop15969\shpright11055\shpbottom15969\shpfhdr0\s
hpbxpage\shpbypage\shpwr3\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz31\shplid1{\sp{\sn shapeType}{
\sv 20}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn lineColor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn lin
eWidth}{\sv 0}}
}}\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart P
g31}{\bkmkend Pg31}\par\pard\li850\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li850\sb109\sl-23
0\slmult0\fi0\tx10855 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex137 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 C
ommon law\tab \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex137 29\par\pard\qj \li1253\sb0\sl-240\slm
ult0 \par\pard\qj\li1253\ri3137\sb133\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
6 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 [87] "Indian Legislation" {\field{\*\fldinst {HYP
ERLINK http://www.commonlii.org/in/legis/num_act/ }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\c
f1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0
\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10
\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 commonlii.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\no
supersub\cf1\f2\fs16 org/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs1
6 in/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 legis/\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 num_act/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2
\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 )}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 . Commonlii.org. .
Retrieved 2010-05-30. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 [88] {\field{\*\fldin
st {HYPERLINK http://www.fca-caf.gc.ca/index_e.shtml }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersu
b\cf1\f2\fs16 http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\u
l0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f
10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 fca-caf.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\no
supersub\cf1\f2\fs16 gc.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16
ca/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 index_e.\ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 shtml}}} \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri12
15\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2
\fs16 [89] The division of jurisdiction between the federal and provincial Parl
iaments is specified in the Canadian constitution. Constitution Act, 1867 \line
\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://laws.just
ice.gc.ca/eng/Const/page-5.html#anchorbo-ga:s_91-gb:s_91 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosup
ersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs1
6 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 laws.\ul0\nosupersub
\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 justice.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \
ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 gc.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f
2\fs16 ca/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 eng/\ul0\nosu
persub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Const/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs
2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 page-5.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupers
ub\cf1\f2\fs16 html#anchorbo-ga:s_91-gb:s_91)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 , s.
91(10), (18) \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1529\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex100 [90] "Canadian Legislative Bijuralism Site At the Crossroads o
f our Legal Diversity" {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://canada.justice.gc.ca
/eng/bijurilex/index.html }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (http:/\ul0\n
osupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2

\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 canada.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub

\cf1\f2\fs16 justice.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 gc
.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 ca/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9
\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 eng/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosu
persub\cf1\f2\fs16 bijurilex/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2
\fs16 index.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 html)}}}\ul
0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 . \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Canada.justic
e.gc.ca. 2009-08-05. . Retrieved 2010-05-30. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb47\sl-184\sl
mult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 [91] {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en
.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gregory_Mahler }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1
\f2\fs16 Mahler, Gregory S.}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 (2004). Politics and
Government in Israel: The Maturation of a Modern State. {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPE
RLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=New_York_City }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\
nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 New York}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 : Rowman & Littlef
ield. \par\pard\ql \li1493\sb56\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 p. 12
6. ISBN 0-7425-611-3. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb56\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex115 [92] {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriSe
rv/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:61981J0283:EN:NOT }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2
\fs16 http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 /\ul0\nosup
ersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 eur-lex.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\f
s2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 europa.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosuper
sub\cf1\f2\fs16 eu/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 LexU
riServ/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 LexUriServ.\ul0\
nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 do?uri=CELEX:61981J0283:EN:N
OT}}} \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-322\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb40\sl-322\sl
mult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs28 Further reading \
par\pard\ql \li1253\sb114\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 \ul0\nosup
ersub\cf5\f6\fs20 \u8226? Friedman, Lawrence Meir (2005). A History of American
Law {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://books.google.com/books?id=JndnEiydTiYC
&pg=PR19 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10
\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\
cf5\f6\fs20 books.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 googl
e.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 com/}}} \par\pard\ql
\li1493\sb70\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYP
ERLINK http://books.google.com/books?id=JndnEiydTiYC&pg=PR19 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\n
osupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 books?id=JndnEiydTiYC&\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\no
supersub\cf5\f6\fs20 pg=PR19)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (3rd ed.). New York
: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-8258-1. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb70\sl-230\sl
mult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 \u8226? Garner, Bryan A. (2001). A Dictionar
y of Modern Legal Usage {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=35dZpfMmxqsC&pg=PA178 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (http:/\ul
0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\f
s2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 books.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupers
ub\cf5\f6\fs20 google.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 c
om/}}} \par\pard\qj \li1493\ri2496\sb13\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex
116 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://books.google.com/books?id=35dZpfMmxqsC&
pg=PA178 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 books?id=35dZpfMmxqsC&\ul0\nos
upersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 pg=PA178)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5
\f6\fs20 (2nd, revised ed.). New York: {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.
wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oxford_University_Press }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf5\f6\fs20 Oxford University Press}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 . \line \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 ISBN 978-0-19-514236-5. \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb58\sl230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 \u8226? Morrison, Alan B. (1996). Fund
amentals of American Law {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=Si0lupMPrEoC&pg=PA23 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (http:/\ul
0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\f
s2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 books.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupers
ub\cf5\f6\fs20 google.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 c
om/}}} \par\pard\ql \li1493\sb70\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 {\f
ield{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://books.google.com/books?id=Si0lupMPrEoC&pg=PA23

}}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 books?id=Si0lupMPrEoC&\ul0\nosupersub\

cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 pg=PA23)}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
. New York: {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?ti
tle=Oxford_University_Press }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Oxford Univ
ersity Press}}}\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 . ISBN 978-0-19-876405-2. \par\pard\qj
\li1253\ri2340\sb13\sl-300\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 \u8226?
{\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Wi
lliam_Salmond }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Salmond, John William}}}\
ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (1907). Jurisprudence: The Theory of the Law {\field
{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://books.google.com/books?id=i2gaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA32 }}{
\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\n
osupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
books.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 google.\ul0\nosup
ersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 com/}}} \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0
\charscalex108 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://books.google.com/books?id=i2
gaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA32 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 books?id=i2gaAAAAYAA
J&\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 pg=PA32)}}}\ul0\nosup
ersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (2nd ed.). London: Stevens and Haynes. OCLC 1384458. \par\pard
\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-322\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb60\sl-322\slmult0 \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex109 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs28 External links \par\pard\ql \li1
253\sb106\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs2
0 \u8226? The Common Law {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://biotech.law.lsu.e
du/Books/Holmes/claw_c.htm }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (http:/\ul0\
nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 biotech.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupers
ub\cf5\f6\fs20 law.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 lsu.
\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 edu/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9
\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Books/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\no
supersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Holmes/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\
fs20 claw_c.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 htm)}}}\ul0
\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 by {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.or
g/w/index.php?title=Oliver_Wendell_Holmes%2C_Jr. }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf
5\f6\fs20 Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.}}} \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb69\sl-230\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 \u8226? The Common La
w by Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://www.gutenber
g.org/etext/2449 }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub
\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nos
upersub\cf5\f6\fs20 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
gutenberg.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 org/\ul0\nos
upersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 etext/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\f
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\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Project_Gutenber
g }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Project Gutenberg}}} \par\pard\qj \li
1253\ri2070\sb13\sl-300\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 \ul0\nosuper
sub\cf5\f6\fs20 \u8226? The History of the Common Law of England by Matthew Hal
e {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://www.bdlawservice.com/books/the_history.pd
f }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \
ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\
fs20 www.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 bdlawservice.\
ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 com/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\
f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 books/}}} \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex102 {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://www.bdlawservice.com/books/the_histo
ry.pdf }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 the_history.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\
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mult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 \u8226? The Aust
ralian Institute of Comparative Legal Systems {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http
://ausicl.com }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf
9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 /\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf5\f6\fs20 ausicl.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20
com)}}} \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb70\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \

ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 \u8226? The International Institute for Law and Stra

tegic Studies (IILSS) {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://www.iilss.org }}{\fld
rslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosup
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\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 iilss.\ul0\nosupersub\c
f9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 org)}}} \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb70\sl-230
\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 \u8226? New S
outh Wales Legislation {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://legislation.nsw.gov.
au }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2
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ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 gov.\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\
f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 au)}}} \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1583\sb13\sl300\slmult0\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 \u82
26? Historical Laws of Hong Kong Online {\field{\*\fldinst {HYPERLINK http://xm
l.lib.hku.hk/gsdl/db/oelawhk/search.shtml }}{\fldrslt {\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs
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\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 db/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf
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sub\cf5\f6\fs20 - University of \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 Hong Ko
ng Libraries, Digital Initiatives \par\pard\qj \li1253\ri1511\sb1\sl-300\slmult0
\tx1493 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 \u8226? Maxims of Common Law {\field{\*\fl
dinst {HYPERLINK http://www.lawfulpath.com/ref/bouvier/maxims.shtml }}{\fldrslt
{\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 (http:/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub
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nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 lawfulpath.\ul0\nosupersub\c
f9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 com/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\no
supersub\cf5\f6\fs20 ref/\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs2 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs2
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f6\fs20 from Bouvier's 1856 Law \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 Diction
ary
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\li1253\sb373\sl-506\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7
\fs44 Article Sources and Contributors \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-160\slmult0 \
par\pard\ql\li1253\ri1215\sb40\sl-160\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\
nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs12 Civil law (legal system) Source: http://en.wikipedia.or
g/w/index.php?oldid=498882580 Contributors: 000peter, 4chanwakka, A E Francis, A
.R., AGK, Accurizer, AdultSwim, Aeonx, Ahebert, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
10 Aille, Alex Bakharev, Algamarga, Allan1993, Allens, Allstarecho, Andershalden
, Andrew Gwilliam, Andy Marchbanks, Angel ivanov angelov, Ann Stouter, Annietinv
a, Anyo Niminus, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 Aquarius Rising, Arun, Astat
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BenBildstein, BenKovitz, Blaylockjam10, Bless sins, Bluszczokrzew, Bob \line \u

p0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 Burkhardt, Bookandcoffee, Boundlessly, Brisvegas, Bri
tishWatcher, Bryan Derksen, Caceo, CapitalR, Capricorn42, CarlosPatio, Cars10, Ca
ssowary, Centrx, Charles Matthews, Chart123, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112
Chazz88, Chochopk, Chrism, Christian118218, Christian75, Christopherlin, Ckatz,
Clarince63, Colby Farrington, Coolcaesar, Cybermud, D.c.camero, D123456789, DART
H SIDIOUS 2, Dale \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Arnett, Danutz, Dave souza,
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ov, Dojarca, Donarreiskoffer, Doulos Christos, Dpr, Dsmurat, Dunnsworth, \line \
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JKJIS775, Flamarande, Flibjib8, Foreverarear, Gidonb, Gilgamesh, Giojohn, Global
solidarity, Good Olfactory, Gpvos, Grahamdubya, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
10 Grampion76, Hairy Dude, HalJor, Headbomb, Herr Lennartz, Hmains, Homealone199
0, HouseCleaningTime, IGeMiNix, Igiffin, ImperfectlyInformed, Instantnood, Int21
h, Irrer, Isaaccp, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Itaqallah, Itzar, J.delano
y, JWaters, Jac16888, Jagged 85, James500, Japanese Searobin, Jbruin152, Jihinot
enshi, Jimmaths, Jnallen, JoeOnSunset, John, Jorge331, Joseph Solis in Australia
, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 Joshyd123, Karl Stas, Kenyon, Kevin Murray,
Kevs, Kkm010, KnightRider, Koliadee, Kostja, Ksenon, Lacrimosus, Leandrod, LeoD
V, Leolaursen, Leonardo Alves, Little Mountain 5, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x115 Lockesdonkey, Louisiana Lawyer, LukeSurl, MJM74, MSTCrow, Marc Lacoste, Mar
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tchie, Michael \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 Hardy, Micov, Microtony, Mike
hayes, Mimihitam, Mistermartin75, Molinari, Mondeo, MooingLemur, Mopelia, MrDolo
mite, Mrmuk, Munci, NawlinWiki, NetRolller 3D, NikkiT, Nodar \line \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex105 Kherkheulidze, Nonexistant User, Nskinsella, Nurg, OC Ripper, Of
ficiallyover, Orion11M87, Ottre, Pax85, Peter Grey, Peter Horn, Petri Krohn, Pha
raoh of the Wizards, Phil1988, Pierpietro, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 Pi
kiwyn, Pikolas, Poetaris, PrestonH, PullUpYourSocks, Pdraic MacUidhir, RJC, Rando
m User 937494, Recurring dreams, RemiCogan, Rizome, Rmashhadi, Roadrunner, RobHa
r, Robert K S, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 Robertgreer, Roodog2k, RoyBoy,
Rror, Rrreese, Rumping, Ruslik0, Rymich13, SDC, SET, Salam32, Sam Blacketer, Sa
meboat, Satandud, SchfiftyThree, Schneelocke, Scientes, Scott Paeth, \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex107 Sdirector, Sean.hoyland, Seattle Skier, Sebastiantomac,
ShadowRangerRIT, Shadowjams, Shlomke, Silarius, Skybon, Slw2014, Smartastic, Sol
darat, StanZegel, Stephenb, Stevertigo, Suffusion \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x113 of Yellow, Sunray, Swampyank, Swarm, Syvanen, Tartaros, Thomas Ruefner, Tmh
, Tobby72, Torvalu4, Tpbradbury, Tumacama, Turgan, UberScienceNerd, Ukexpat, Ulf
larsen, Umschattiger, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 Varlagas, Velho, Vkreso
, Vuo, Walshga, Warut, Wavelength, Wayne Slam, Woohookitty, Xaerun, Xantares, Xe
roalltima, Xmasterg, Yakoo, Yehoshua2, Zakuragi, Zenohockey, Zocky, Zzuuzz, \lin
e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 470 anonymous edits \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb0\sl-1
38\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1253\sb1\sl-138\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 C
ommon law Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=498683523 Contributo
rs: "Country" Bushrod Washington, 203.109.250.xxx, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, 66.41.12
5.xxx, 7, \par\pard\ql \li1253\sb22\sl-138\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111
8charlie0, A Train, A.R., ABCD, AaronSw, Abductive, Acsenray, Acwilson9, Adamjac
kson77, Adjusting, Aeromix, Agnosticaphid, Agradman, Ahoerstemeier, Akjar13, Aks
is, Alaniaris, \par\pard\ql \li1253\ri1155\sb4\sl-160\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex114 Alex756, AlexaxelA, Amaher, Andonic, Andre Engels, Andres, Andrew Gwi
lliam, Andy4226uk, Andy85719, AndyJones, Andycjp, Angrynative, Aniloadam, AnnaFr
ance, Antandrus, Anthonzi, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 Antigravityece, An
ton Diaz, Anythingyouwant, Arch dude, Arch8887, Arthur Rubin, Ascrivens, Aude, A
xSkov, Axlrosen, BD2412, BMF81, Barneyg, Basalisk, BaseTurnComplete, \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex109 Basejumper9, BasilSorbie, Bblurkin, Bcappella, Bcorr, Be
nder235, Benwing, Bkonrad, Black85ball, Blaxthos, Blaylockjam10, Bless sins, Ble
tch, Blue-Haired Lawyer, Boldymumbles, Boleyn, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex11
0 Bongwarrior, Bookish.blogger, Bornintheguz, Bostonian Mike, Boundlessly, Brian
Crawford, Brighterorange, BritishWatcher, Brock, Bryan Derksen, Brycen, Btwied,
Bwmcmaste, Calanen, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Calvin 1998, Can't sleep

, clown will eat me, Canjth, CanonLawJunkie, CapitalR, Capricorn42, Cardiffchest

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