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Words Definition
Human respiration
system
Provides an area for gas exchange between the bolld and the
environment.
It allows oxygen acquisition and carbon dioxide elimination.
Breathing (external
respiration)
The gas exchange in lungs which involves the taking in and letting out of
air.
Diaphragm A sheet of muscle which separates the thoracic cavity from the
abdomen.
The breathing
mechanism
Consists of the taking in of air (inhalation) and the letting out of air
(exhalation).
Alveolar air The air that reaches the alveoli which is rich in oxygen and poor in
carbon dioxide.
Diffusion The prosses of gas exchange.
Haemoglobin An oxygen-carrying pigment in red blood cells.
Oxyhaemoglobin The combination of oxygen and haemoglobin.
Carcinogens Substances that cause cancer.
Particulate matter Fine particles in the air
Asthma Caused by the narrowing of the fine airways (bronchi and bronchioles)
due to the contraction of muscles in their walls.
Chronic bronchitis A condition characterised by a recurrent or chronic cough every day
over a period of several months.
Smokers cough An early sign of chronic bronchitis.
Tumours Lumps of cells which interfere with the normal functions of the lungs.
Emphysema A condition in which the structure of the alveoli is broken down by
coughing. This reduces the surface area for gas exchange.
Internal transport system Delivers useful materials to the body cells and remove the waste
materials from them.
Circulatory system Is called the internal transport system because useful materials as well
as waste materials circulate the body.
Circulating fluid Blood transports useful and wasteful materials.
Pumping device Heart. Blood is moved through the body by muscular contractions of the
heart.
Blood vessels A complex network of blood vessels carries materials to the tissues and
back to the heart.
Arteries, veins and capillaries.
Valves Present in some blood vessels to prevent backflow and ensure that
blood flows in one direction only.
Double circulatory
system
In each complete circuit of the body, the blood must flow through the
heart twice.
Pulmonary circulation Transports blood between the heart and the lungs
Systemic circulation Transports blood between the heart and all other parts of the body.
Coronary arteries Supply nutrients and oxygen to the muscles.
Coronary veins Removes waste from the muscles.
Semilunar valves Prevent the backflow of blood into the ventricles.
Chordae tendineae Prevent the valves from turning inside out when the ventricles contract.
Arteries Blood vessels which carry blood away from the heart.
Veins Blood vessels which carry blood back to the heart.
Capillaries Tiny blood cells which connect arteries and veins.
Carbaminohaemoglobin The combination of carbon dioxide with haemoglobin.
Heredity Heredity is the passing of traits to offspring from its parents or ancestor.
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Cardiologist A doctor who has special training and skills in finding, treating and
preventing diseases of the heart and blood vessels.
Centrifugation The process of the separation of the major composition of blood.
Plasma The pale-yellow liquid component of blood that normally holds
the blood cells in whole blood in suspension. It makes up about 55% of
the body's total blood volume.
Nutrients Glucose, amino acids and vitamins
Proteins Antibodies, hormones, enzymes, albumins and fibrinogen
Inorganic ions Sodium, calcium, chlorides and phosphates.
Red blood cells
(erythrocytes)
Bioconcave, disc-shaped cells without nucleus.
Transports oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body.
Bone marrow cells Forms red blood cells and white blood cells.
White blood cells
(leucocytes)
Irregular in shape, colourless, with nucleus and do not contain
haemoglobin.
Platelets (thrombocyctes) Cell fragments produces by large cells in the bone marrow.
The ABO system Classifies the human blood into four main groups called A, B, Ab and O.
Agglutinate Clump together
Universal donors People with blood group O who can safely donate blood, in small
quantities, to anyone.
Universal recipients Group AB people who can safely receive blood from anyone.
Wilting Occurs in non-woody plants when water loss through the aerial parts of
the plant exceeds water absorption by the roots.
Turgidity Stiffness
Transpiration The evaporation of water from the aerial parts of plants.
Guard cells A pair of bean-shaped cells which bound each stomata,
Stomata Pores in the epidermis of the leaves and stems.
Allows gases to diffuse in and out of the leaf.
Xylem Transports water and mineral salts from the roots to the stems and
leaves.
Provides support to the plants.
Lignin Lignin or lignen is a complex polymer of aromatic alcohols known
as monolignols. It is most commonly derived from wood, and is an
integral part of the secondary cell walls of plants and some algae.
Phloem Transports synthesized food substances from one part of the plant to
another.
Sieve tubes Living cells without nucleus. The walls of sieve tubes are composed
largely of cellulose.
Sieve plates Transverse walls of sieve tubes which are perforated by pores.
Companion cell Each sieve tube has a companion cell beside it.
Girdling The technique of the cutting off a complete ring of bark including the
phloem and cambium from the stem just above ground level. The xylem
tissue is left intact.
Metabolism Refers to all the chemical processes that take place in the body which
may result in the production of waste products which are often toxic.
Excretion The elimination of metabolic waste products from the body which is
done by excretory organs.
Defacation Not excretion because faeces contain undigested food which has not
been absorbed into the cells or taken part in metabolism.
Skin Has many sweat flands which leads to a sweat duct which opens on the
skin surface as a sweat pore.
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Lungs During cell respiration, the cells produce carbon dioxide and water as
waste products.
Kidneys The main organs in the excretory system.
Filters blood and produce urine.
Keep water and mineral contents in our body in balance.
Control the amount of mineral salts in the body fluid.
Help to maintain the pH of blood and tissue fluid.
Urine A yellowish liquid that contains water, mineral salts and urea.
Waste products and excess substances are converted into urine.
Renal artery Carries blood to each kidney
Renal vein Carries blood away from each kidney.
Ureter Carries urine from the kidnetys to the urinary bladder.
Urinary bladder Stores urine and gradually expands like a balloon.
Urethra Expells urine to the exterior
Urinary tract The system of tubes leading from the kidney to the exterior.
Urologist A doctor who is concerned with diseases of the urinary tract.
Cortex The dark-red outer region of the kidneys
Medulla The pale-red inner region of the kidneys
Pyramids The medulla is filled with cone shaped tissues called pyramids.
Pelvis The apices of the pyramids open into a funnel shaped cavity called the
pelvis which drains urine into the ureter.
Nitrogenous waste
products
Urea, excess water and mineral substances
Dialysis machine/ kidney
machine
Works in similar ways to the real kidneys.
Dialysis tube A long cellophane tube which allows blood to flow through in the
machine.
Dialysate Surrounds the dialysis tube. Contains dissolved sugar and salts just like
plasma. Does not contain urea.
Diffusion The passing of urea and excess salts from the blood flowing within the
tube into the dialysate. The dialsate is discarded.
Kidney transplant A kidney from a suitable donor can be transplanted into the patient.
Reproduction The production of a new generation of individuals (offspring) from pre-
existing ones (parents) to ensure the continuity or perpetuation of the
species.
Asexual reproduction A rapid method of increasing the number of new individuals which are
formed from one parent and they are genetically identical to each other
and the parent.
Binary fission The unicellular organism divides into two equal parts (daughter).
Budding The parent produces an outgrowth or bud which detaches to become a
new individual.
Spore formation Formed in sporangium. Each spore can develop into a new individual.
Sporangium A spore-bearing structure.
Vegetative reproduction Part of a plant (root, stem, leaf or bud) detaches and grows into a new
plant.
Runner A slender shoot that arises in the axil of a leaf and grows horizontally on
the surface of the ground. The runner bears roots and becomes
independent before the parent plant dies.
Bulb Short stem and fleshy leaves containing food (mainly sugar)
New shoots arise from buds in axils of the fleshy leaves.
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Rhizome A horizontally growing underground stem wich stores food.
It produces lateral buds, some of which develop into shoots.
When the old rhizone dies, the new shoots become independent plants.
Corm A short, vertical, underground stem which stores food. It is protected by
scaly leaves. Buds are located at the axils of these leaves.
Stem tuber The swollen ends of underground stems. New shoots sprout out from
axillary buds or eyes.
Rejuvenation The replacement of parts of an organism that are lost due to injury.
Vegetative propagation Rejuvenation in plants. Whole plants can be grown from cuttings and
grafts.
Sexual reproduction The production of offspring by the fusion of specialised sex cells or
gametes.
Fertilisation The process of the fusion of the male gamete (sperm) with the female
gamete (ovum or egg) which results in the formation of a zygote.
Zygote The result of fertilisation which will develop into a new individual.
Internal fertilisation Sperms are deposited in the female reproductive tract and fertilisation
occurs within the body of the female. The zygote develops internally and
live individuals are born.
External fertilisation (aquatic organisms) Sperms and eggs are shed into the water in great
numbers simultaneously. Only small number of the eggs are fertilised
by the sperms.
Testes (singular: testis) Produce sperms
Scrotum Holds the testes outside the body.
Protects the testes.
Penis Places sperms in the vagina during sexual intercourse.
Epididymis Stores sperms
Sperm ducts Carry sperms from the testes to the urethra.
Urethra Carries sperms and urine out of the body.
Seminal vessicle Secretes fluid that provides nourishment to the sperms.
Prostate gland Secretes fluid that neutralises the acidity of urine and the female vagina.
Cowpers gland Secretes a lubricating fluid that aids sperm movement.
Sperms The male gametes consisting of a head, a middle piece and a long tail.
Swims towards the female gamete (ovum) and fuse with it to form a
zygote which will develop into an adult individual.
Larynx Voice box
Ovary Produces ovum (egg)
Fallopian tube (oviducts) Carries ovum from the ovary to the uterus
Uterus Place where the embryo develops
Cervix Secretes mucus that enhances sperm movements into the uterus.
Prevents large foreign bodies from entering the uterus.
Vagina Place where sperms are deposited.
Birth canal.
Ovum The female gamete, a spherical shaped cell which fuses with the sperm
to form a zygote during fertilisation.
Stores some food in its cytoplasm which is used to nourish the embryo
which develops from the zygote.
Menstrual cycle The repeated cycle of events which occur every 28 days from puberty
(when ovum production begins) to menopause (when ovum production
stops). To provide a favourable environment in the uretus for the
development of the zygote.
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Menstruation phase (1-5) The discharge of the uterus lining, unfertilised egg and blood through
the vagina.
Repair phase (6-11) Rebuilding and thickening of the uterus lining.
Ovulation (14) Fertile
phase (12-16)
Release of ovum from the ovary.
Premenstrual phase (17-
28)
Continued thickening of the uterus lining by increasing blood supply and
tissue. It gets ready for implantation of embryo, if fertilisation is
successful. If not, the uterus lining begins to break down and the nexy
cycle begins.
Fertile period The period around the time of ovulation when a woman can become
pregnant if she has an intercourse. (11-17)
Sanitary pads Sanitary towels are worn as a lining on the underwear to absorb the
menstrual discharge. This will prevent the discharge from staining the
clothes.
Tampons Inserted into the vagina to absorb menstrual disharge by means of an
applicator.
Fertilisation The process whereby the sperm fuses with the ovum to form the zygote.
It occurs in the upper part of the Fallopian tube.
Pregnancy The rapid growth and development of a baby between the zygote stage
and birth.
Embryo A ball of cells formed from a zygote.
Implantation The process of the embedding of the embryo in the tissues of the uterus
lining about seven days after fertilisation.
Placenta A large disc which is formed from the firm binding of of the surfaces of
the embryo and the uterus lining.
Nourishes the embryo.
Foetus By eight weeks after fertilisation, the developing embryo becomes
clearly human and is called a foetus.
Umbilical cord Attaches the foetus to the placenta.
Umbilical artery Carries carbon dioxide and other wastes from the foetus to the placenta.
Umbilical vein Carries blood containing oxygen and food from the placenta to the
foetus.
Amnion A membrane which completely covers the foetus and is filled with
amniotic fluid.
Amniotic fluid Protects the embryo and later the foetus by cushioning it from physical
damage.
Gestation period The time for the full development of a foetus, which is forty weeks.

Birth Occurs in three stages:
- The expansion of the cervix so that the babys head can pass
into the vagina.
- The strong contractions of the uterus which push the baby out
of the mothers body.
- Further contractions of the uterus to expel the umbilical cord
and placenta from the mothers body.
Foetal Alcohol syndrome
(FAS)
FAS babies have mental retardation, small brains, poor muscle bone, low
birth weight and behavioural problems such as hyperactivity poor
concentration. Caused if the mother drinks heavily during pregnancy.
Sterility/ infertility The failure of a couple to procreate despite seriously attempting to do
so for at least 12 months.
Procreate To reproduce
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L-arginine Necessary to maintain a normal sperm count.
Hormone treatment The injection of small amounts of specific female sex hormones into the
body to stimulate the eggs to mature and to induce ovulation.
In-vitro fertilisation (IVF) test-tube baby treatment.
Catheter Transfers one or more embryos from a petri dish in an incubator into the
womans uterus for implantation to take place.
Family planning/ birth
control
Most coules have the idea of planning for an ideal family size.
Rhythm (natural) Using cervical mucus changes and body temperature measurements to
estimate the time of ovulation and avoiding intercourse during the
fertile period.
Condom (Mechanical) Thin, disposable latex sheath placed over the penis prior to intercourse
to prevent sperm from entering vagina.
Intrauterine
contraceptive device
(ICUD) (Mechanical)
Small plastic or copper device that is placed into the uterus by a doctor
to prevent implantation.
Contraceptive pills
(Hormonal)
Pills containing specific hormones which prevent ovulation.
Spermicides (Chemical) Foams, jellies or creams placed in vagina prior to intercourse that
chemically kill sperms.
Vasectomy (Surgical) Sperms ducts are cut and tied to prevent sperms from leaving the ducts.
Tubal ligation (Surgical) Fallopian tubes are cut and tied to prevent ovum from leaving the tubes.
Diaphragm with
spermicide (Mechanical
and chemical)
Dome-shaped rubber disk with a flexible rim that covers the cervix so
that sperm cannot reach the uterus. A spermicide is applied to the
diaphragm before insertion.
Injection (Depo-Provera)
(Hormonal)
Injection of specific hormone progestin that inhibits ovulation, prevents
sperm from reaching the egg, and prevents the fertilised egg from
implanting in the uterus.
Flowers The sexual reproductive organs of plants.
Unisexual flowers Contain either the stamens (male flowers) or the pistils (female flowers).
Bisexual flowers Contian both the stamens and the pistils.
Pollen grains Carriers of the male gametes of the plant.
Receptacle Supports the flower
Sepals Protect the young flower when it is in the budding stage.
Petals Attract animal pollinators through their colour and scent.
Stigma Recieves pollen grains
Style Connects the stigma to the ovary
Ovary Protects the ovules. After fertilisation, the ovule develops into a seed.
Ovule Contains the female gamete (egg cell). After fertilisation, the ovule
develops into a seed.
Anther Produces male gametes (in pollen grains)
Filament Supports the anther
Pollination The transfer of pollen grains from anthers to stigmas.
Agents of pollination Transports pollen grains.
Self-pollination The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same
flower, or from the anther to the stigma of a different flower in the
same plant.
Cross-pollination The transfer of pollen grains fron the anther of one plant to the stigma
of another plant of the same species.
Cross breeding To produce offspring with desirable characteristics of each parent.
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Pollen tube Sugary secretion on the stigma causes the pollen grain to germinate and
producea pollen tube.
Micropyle The pollen tube grows down through the style and enters the ovule
through a tiny hole calle the microplye. Lies above the hilum.
Absorps water for the seed.
Fertilisation The fusion of the male gamete in the pollen tube with the female
gamete (egg) through a tiny hole called the microplye.
Seed A fertilised ovule develops into a seed
Fruit The ovary of a fertilised ovule as a whole develops into a fruit.
Pericarp The wall of the fruit which develops from the wall of the ovary.
Succulent fruits Juicy fruits
Testa The protective covering of a seed.
Radicle A young root
Plumule A young shoot
Cortyledons Seed leaves
Dicotyledonous seeds Seeds with two cotyledons
Monocotyledonous seeds Seeds with one cotyledon.
Endosperm Food for the embryo is deposited either inside the cotyledons or the
endosperm.
Hilum The point where the seed is attached to the ovary wall (on the testa).
Pericarp The fruit wall which protects the seeds.
Germination The growth of the seed into a seedling.
Amylase Breaks down the stored starch to maltose
Proteases Break down the protein molecules to amino acids.
Maltose and amino acids Diffuse to the embryo which are used to form new cells.
Epigeal germination The cotyledons rise above the ground
Hypogeal germination The cotyledons remain below the ground.
Vegetative reproduction Any method of reproduction in which a specialised or unspecialised part
of the parent body separates from the parent and subsequently gives
rise to a new individual without involving fusion of gametes.
Cutting A commonly used method of vegetative reproduction.
Biotechnology The application of biological processes to improve human health and
food production.
Plant tissue culture The test-tube method of culturing whole plant asexually from very small
pieces of tissue cut from the parent plant.
Horticulturist An agricultural scientist dedicated to finding better ways to grow,
harvest, store, process and ship fruits, vegetables and ornamental plants
Growth The permanent and irreversible change in shape, and increase in mass
and size aqquired by an organism in the course of its development.
Infancy Encompasses the first two years of life. Rapid growth
Childhood The period of growth and deveploment, extending from infancy to
adolescene. Slower growth
Adolescene The stage where a person passes from childhood to a sexually mature
adult. It is a period of rapid physical growth and development.
Adulthood Starts from about 20 years of age. Early adulthood= the peak of our
physical potential.
Senescence/ aging Negative growth (a loss in height) because tissues break down more
quickly than they can be repaired.
Puberty The stage of early adolescence when the secondary sex characteristics
become noticeable and the sexual organs become functional.
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Nutrients Chemical substances which organisms need for releasing energy, for
warmth, for growth and repair, and to carry out all life processes.
Minerals Essential substances which are required to regulate the metabolism of
the body.
Diet The food we eat.
Dietician Works in hospitals, institutions, schools, restaurants and hotels. They
help in planning menus. They may act as food counsellors. A dietician
advises individuals on how to plan their melas so that their diets contain
proper nutritional value.
Earths resources Materials found in nature that are useful or necessary to living things.
Minerals Elements or compounds which occur naturally in the Earths crust.
Natural compounds Formed when elements combine chemically.
Copper carbonate A mineral formed from the combination of oxygen, carbon and copper.
Natural elements Pure carbon such as gold, silver ad diamonds.
Oxides The chemical combination of oxygen and metals.
Metal + oxygen = Metal oxide
Carbonates Compounds that contain oxygen, carbon and metals
Metal + oxygen + carbon = Metal carbonate
Sulphides Formed from the combination of metals and sulphides.
Metal + sulfur = Metal sulphide
Silicates Formed when metals combine with oxygen and silicon chemically.
Metal + silicon + oxygen = metal silicate
Hardness of minerals The ability of minerals to resist being scratched.
Diamond The hardest mineral.
Mined for their beauty.
Geologist A scientist who studies the Earth, including its origin and history and the
way the rocks and soil have changed since the Earth was formed.
Acidified potassium
dichromate (VI) solution
Used to identify the prescence of sulphur dioxide gas. Orange potassium
dichromate (VI) solution green.
Metals Extracted from the minerals ores found within the Earths crust.
Malleable Can be hammered into various shapes
Ductile Can be drawn into wires
Tarnishing Most metals combine with oxygen in the air to form a surface film of
metal oxide. This reaction is called tarnishing.
Silicon An element, a metalloid, a shiny, blusih-gray, brittle metalloid with a
high melting point.
Does not occur freely in nature.
One of the most abundant elements in the Earths crust.
Metalloid An element with both the metal and non-metal properties
Silicon compounds Formed when silicon combines with other elements.
Natural silicon compounds: Silica and silicate
Silica Is formed when silicon combines chemically with oxygen.
Stable compounds
Quarts, flint, and sand.
Silicate Formed when silicon combines chemically with oxygen and metal.
Stable compounds.
Abestos, mica, talc and clay.
Stable compounds Do not dissolve in water, do not react with acids and are able to
withstand heat.
Will remain in the Earths crust for a long time.
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Calcium A reactive metal. It does not exist in its pure form in nature.
Tends to combine with other elements to form compounds.
Calcium carbonate A compound of calcium, oxygen and carbon.
Fairly stable compound. Only dissolves in slightly acidic water. (form salt,
carbon dioxide and water)
Calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid = calcium chloride + CO+ H(2)O
Stalagmites, stalactites, seashells, eggshells, coral reefs and bones.
Limestone A sedimentary rock which is formed from the remains of sea creatures
and fragments of shells settled at the bottom of the sea.
Quicklime (calcium oxide) Is formed when calcium carbonate is heated strongly. It decomposes
and changes into calcium oxide (quicklime) and carbon dioside.
Calcium carbonate (heated strongly) calcium oxide (quicklime) +
carbon ioxide
Slaked lime (carbon
hydroxide)
Is formed when calcium oxide (quicklime) reacts with water. Heat is
produced in the process.
Calcium oxide (quicklime) + water calcium hydroxide (slaked lime)
+heat
An alkali
Lime water Calcium hydroxide (an alkali) dissolves in water to become lime water
which is used to test for the presence of carbon dioxide.
Calcium hydroxide solution (lime water) + carbon dioxide calcium
carbonate (white precipitate) + water
Fuels Substances that burn to produce heat as a form of energy.
Fossil fuels Natural fuel rewsources
Petroleum, coal and natural gas= formed from the remains of living
plants and animals that lived millions of years ago.
The formation of coal Dead plant minerals covered by mud and sand in swamps.
High pressure and heat act on the partially decayed plant material.
Over a long period of time, a black solid called coal is formed.
Coal A mixture of carbon, hydrocarbons and other compounds.
When coal burns, the main products are carbon dioxide and water.
The formation of
petroleum and natural
gas
Petroleum (crude oil) and natural gas are formed from the remains of
tiny sea creatures which were buried in sediments at the bottom of the
ocean. As these remains decompose slowly, they were subjected to
great heat and pressure. Over millions of years, these remains were
changed into a dark, sticky liquid called petroleum. Some may change
into gas, called natural gas. Petroleum and natural gas are found
together, held in between layers of non-porous rocks.
Petroleum A dark, sticky and foul-smelling liquid.
A mixture of hydrocarbons.
Must be separated into fractions before it can be used.
Refining The separation of petroleum into useful fractions is calle the refining of
the oil.
Fractional distillation Petroleum can be refined to useful fractions through fractional
distillaiton because each fraction has a different boiling point.
Furnance= 400C, bitumen= (>350C), fuel oil= (300-350C), lubricating
oil=( 250-300C), diesel=( 230-250C), Kerosene= (150-230C), naphtha=
(75-150C ) , petrol= (40-75C), petroleum gas= (<30C)
Viscous Flows easily
Petroleum gas (<30C) Gas for cooking
Petrol (40-75C) Fuel for light vehicles (motor cars)
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Naphtha (75-150C ) Used for making chemicals such as alcohol, plastics, drugs
(petrochemicals)
Kerosene (150-230C) Used as fuel in jet enginesl; fuel for heating and cooking.
Diesel ( 230-250C) Fuel for diesel engines of buses, taxis and lorries.
Lubricating oil ( 250-
300C)
Lubricants for machines; waxes and polishes.
Fuel oil (300-350C) Fuel for power stations and ships, and for heating systems.
Bitumen (>350C), Surfacing roads.
Electrostatics The study of electric charges at rest or static electricity.
Negative charge (-) Gains extra electrons and becomes negatively charged.
Positive charge (+) Loses electrons and becomes positively charged.
Electrostatic force A force which exists between electric charges.
Electrostatic charges Static (not moving) charges that are distributed at the surface of an
object (not inside the object)
Electrostatic
precipitation
Prevents fly ash from being discharged into the air.
Electrostatic spraying Used to paint cars and other objects
Lightning conductors Installed on the buildings to reduce the chances of a lightning strike.
Provides a route for electric charges to pass into the ground if lightning
does occur.
Van de Graaff generator Commonly used to investigate electric current.
Produces a large and continuous supply of electric charge.
Electroscpoe Detects the presence and magnitude of electric charge on a body.
Galvanometer Detect the flow of charge or electric current.
The larger the flow of charges, the larger the electric current.
Electricity The flow of electric current in a conductor
Electric current The rate of flow of charge through a conductor
Potential difference Built up between the Van de Graaff generator and the Earth when the
dome is erthed.
Causes the flow of charge between the dome and the earth is known as
voltage.
Voltage The potential difference across two points or the electrical energy
supply needed to move each unit of charge from one point to another.
Resistance The property of a material that resists the flow of electric current
through it.
Copper A good conductor (very low resistance)
Electrons A subatomic particle with a negative elementary electric charge.
Always flow in the direction opposite to the flow of electric current.
Protons A subatomic particle with the symbol p or p+ and a positive electric
charge of 1 elementary charge.
Nucleons Protons and neutrons are collectively referred to as nucleons
Ampere (A) The unti for electric current.
Volt (V) Unit for voltage
Ohm () Unit for resistance
Circuit The electric path through the bulb, meter, battery and connecting wires.
Ammeter Measures current
Has a very low resistance and must be connected in series in a circuit.
Voltmeter Measures voltage.
Has a very high resistance and must be connected across a load or
parallel to a load in a circuit. No current passes through voltmeter.
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Rheostat To vary the magnitude of resistance of a circuit.
Variable resistor
Ohms law The current that flows through a conductor is directly proportional to
the voltage across the ends of the conductor, provided that the
temperature and other physical conditions are unchanged.

is a
constant for the same conductor. Conductors with a constant value for
the ratio

are said to obey Ohms law.

The ratio

A measurement of resistance that acts against the flow of current
through a conductor.
The relationship between voltage (V), current (I) and resistance (R) Can
be written as:

or
Simple circuit A battery, a switch and a bulb that are connected with connecting wires
form a simple circuit.
Complete circuit When the switch is closed, the circuit forms a complete circuit around
which a current flows.
Circuit diagram Represents an electric circuit
Circuit symbols Used to represent various components of a circuit.

Series circuit When two bulbs are connected next to each other in a circuit
(connected in series)
The current flows through the two bulbs in a single path.
There are no branches in this circuit.
If one bulb is removed, the circuit is broken. The other bulb does not
light up.
Each of the two bulbs glows dimly but are equally bright.
Parallel circuit When two bulbs are connected separately to the same terminals of a
battery (connected in parallel)
The current from the battery flows through the two bulbs in two
separate paths.
There are two branches in the circuit.
If one bulb is removed, there is still an unbroken circuit through the
other bulb.
Each bulb has direct connections to the battery so each bulb glows
brightly.
Total resistance in a
parallel circuit

Always remember to inverse back the value

to get the total

resistance R.
Magnet An object that is magnetic.
Can pick up objects that are made of magnetic metals.
Surrounded by a magnetic field where magnetism is found.
Magnetic field A region around a magnet where magnetic forces act on other magnets
and on objects made of magnetic materials
Neutral point The central point of the two poles is an empty space with no magnetic
field.
Compass Consists of a small magnetised steel needle pivoting freely at its centre
of gravity in a casing.
Magnetic needle Used in compasses to show direction as it always rests in the North-
South direction.
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Electromagnetism The relatiopnship between electricity and magnetism based on the fact
that electric current can produce magnetic fields is known as
electromagnetism.
Electromagnet When electric current flows through a coil of wire wrapped around a
soft iron core, it creates a strong magnet called an electromagnet.
A temporary magnet.
Tidal Energy The flow of water due to high tide and low tide can be used to turn the
generators.
Wind Energy Large wind turbines are used to turn electrical generators.
Solar Energy
Biomass Energy Fast-growing plants like sugar cane are used to make alcohol. The
alcohol is used as a fuel to generate electricity on a smaller scale.
Transformer A device that can convert electrical energy from one voltage to another
voltage.
Consists of two coils wrapped around a soft iron core.
Primary coil The coil which is connected to the AC supply (or input voltage)
Secondary coil The coil which supplies the output voltage (from the transformer)
Step-up transformer Has more turns in the secondary coil than in the primary coil.
Changes or transforms a low imput voltage to a higher output voltage.
Step-down transformer Has fewer turns in the secondary coil than in the primary coil.
Changes or transforms a high input voltage to a lower output voltage.
Transmission system Consists of power stations, transformer stations, switch zones and the
National Grid Network.
Distribution system Consists of main substations and local substations
National Grid Network The network of cables and transformers which link to all our homes,
schools, offices and factories to the main power stations.
Direct Current (DC) The electricity we get from batteries
Flows in a single direction
Alternating Current (AC) Electricity that powers our fans and televisions
Changes direction regularly
Distribution box Contains swtiches and fuses which lead to different circuits in the house
Live wire Carries AC electricity into the house from the local substation.
Dangerous as it carries high voltage
Neutral wire Completes the electrical circuit from the house back to the local
substation when the switches are on.
Usually at zero volt
Electricity meter Measures how much electricity is used in the house.
Main switch Used to cut off the main supply when major repair work in the wiring
system is being carried out.
Fuse A safety device used to protect equipment or wiring from excessive
current.
It cuts off the current if too great a current passes through it.
Made up of a tin-coated copper wire.
When current exceeds its rating value, it will overheat and melt.
Circuit breaker A safety device which is used to turn off the electricity automativally if
too much current flows or short circuit occurs in a circuit.
Fuse distribution box The distribution point for the households electricity supply.
Controls the various types of circuits in the house.
Earth wire Connected to a metal stake under the house.
Earthing protects any users of the appliance from an electric shock, in
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the metal casing should accidentally becone live.
Single phase wiring Used in houses and it has the main voltage (230V AC) between two
wires, live and neutral.
Three-phase wiring Used in multi-storey office buildings and large industrial buildings
because these buildings use high voltage value.
3-pin plug Provides a safe and convenient way of connecting the appliances to the
main circuit via a power socket.
Electricity A form of energy.
Sold in energy unit kilowatt-hour (kWh)
Measured by the electricity meter.
Cost of electrical energy used per month:
= Total domestic units Tariff rate
Power The rate at which an appliance uses energy
Measured in watts (joules per second)
The power rating of an appliance is related to the electrical energy usage
and time by the following formula:
Power, P =

1 watt (W) = 1

Electrical energy, E = power, P time, t

Kilowatt-hours (kWh) One kilowatt-hour (1 kWh) is the electrical energy used by a device at
rate of 1000 watts in one hour.
Circuit breaker A special automatic switch which will trip and cut off the current as soon
as it detects a short circuit, or an overload in the wiring.
Rewirable fuses Placed in the distribution box of a house wiring system.
Rated at 5A, 10A, 15A and 30A
Catridge fuses Fixed in 3-pin plug and some other electrical devices.
Consists of a fuse wire mounted onto a small glass or ceramic tube.
Range: 1A, 2A, 5A, 10A, and 13A
Overloading Connecting too many appliances to one socket and using them at the
same time will cause an unusually large current flow in the supply cable.
This can damage the whole wiring system.
Damaged insulation Due to material fatigue from regular bending and twisting.
This exposes the conducting wires inside.
Damp conditions Live wire touching a wet floor can cause a large current to flow through
the floor.
Short circuit Happens when the live wire makes contact with the neutral wire due to
damaged insulation between them.
A large current flow will cause the wire to melt and start a fire.
Electric shock Caused by contact with the elctricity supply.
Fire Caused by short circuit or overloading.
Double insulation A safety feature in an electrical appliance that can substitute for an
earth wire.
Miniature Circuit Breaker
(MCB)
Breaks the circuit when there is a short-circuit or when overload current
passes through the circuit.
Can be switched back on to get electric supply again.
Earth Leakage Circuit
Breaker (ELCB)
Can detect small leakage current (as small as 25mA) from the live wire
to the earth wire.
The ELCB will switch off all the circuits in the house is a very short time
(about 25 ms) once the leakage is detected.
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Short circuit When the live wire makes contact with the neutral wire due to damaged
insulation between them.
A large current flow will cause the wire to melt and start a fire.
The Sun A medium-sized yellow star located at the centre of our Solar System.
Our nearest star and the engine for all life on Earth.
A huge, rotating ball of hot gas with nuclear reactions that lights up the
Earth and provides us with heat energy.
Formed 4.5 billion years ago.
Corona

The outermost layer of the Sun.
Sends out x-ray energy and little light.
Can only be seen during solar eclipse.
Temp. is extremely hot-2,000,000C
Stretches out more than one million kilometers into space.
Chromosphere

A red-glowing region of gas considered to be part of the solar
atmosphere.
Appears pinkish and can be seen by naked eyes only during solar eclipse.
Temp. 10,000C-50,000C
Active with various phenomena due to the various magnetic fields.
Photosphere

Visible surface of the Sun where the Suns energy is seen as moving like
boiling water.
Considered to be the surface of the Sun.
One of the coolest layers of the Sun.
Temperature is less than 6000C.
Heat and light are from this layer
Sometimes, large magnetic disturbances may break out through the
photosphere and cause sunspots.
Core

The gaseous centre of the Sun.
Made of hydrogen gas which turn into helium gas to produce light and
heat by nuclear reactions.
Temp. about 15,000,000C
Sun flares/ Solar flares

The huge outburst of solar material that is several thousand to million
kilometers long.
Magnetic storms that explodes from the surface of the Sun.
Explode suddenly without warning.
May release an amount of energy equivalent to 100 million hydrogen
bombs.
Sends out electrical particles which are dangerous to the Earth.
Solar wind Formed by the outer layer of the corona blowing away from the Sun.
Particles streaming off the Sun.
Disturbs and changes the magnetic field of Earth.
Prominence

Arc formed from the surface of the Sun when explosions happen on the
chromosphere.
The masses of glowing gas above the Suns bright surface that are visible
to the naked eye only during total solar eclipses.
Suspended above the surface of the Sun by loops of magnetic fields
Can remain relatively quiet and stable for days or weeks, but tend to
erupt when the magnetic fields change.
Thousands to millions of kilometers wide and tall.
Reaches millions of kilometer wide and tall into space.
Temperature about 10,000C
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Sunspots

Darker patches on the surface of the Sun which are cooler and less
bright.
Not genuienly black but appear so because they are cooler than the
surrounding regions of the photosphere.
Changes in sizes and moves towards the east of the Sun- the Sun rotates
Temperature about 4500C
Appear in groups maybe huge but not permanent.
May last for six months (very small: <2 hours)
Aurora

A phenomenon caused by solar wind.
Colourful lights appear in the sky near the north and south poles during
the night.
Nuclear fusion A nuclear reaction when the Sun generates its energy.
Stars

A self-luminous gaseous body which gives out light.
Formed from nebulae.
Nebulae

Clouds of gas or dust.
Glow by reflecting the light of nearby stars.
Regarded as regions in which fresh stars are being formed out of the
interstellar material.
The formation of stars Is born when enormous clouds of dust and gas in a nebula collapse
under the force of gravity.
The material condensed and compressed by the gravitaional force, its
temperature begins to rise at its centre.
As the temperature rises, nucleus fusion occurs in the core, heat and
light energy travels out from the centre. It glows and turns into a star.
The death of stars Begins when it has used up its core hydrogen fuel.
The core will shrink and heat up, whereas the outer layer will expand
and cool down.
Red dwarf

A star which is 10-100 times larger than before.
White dwarf

The core that is left of a medium-sized star, after its outer layers
disperse into space. (2
nd
smallest)
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Supergiants

Giant stars will expand further to become supergiants. (biggest)
Supernova

Giant stars will expand further to become supergiants and blow up in a
supernova explosion.
Neutron star

A large star will end up as a Neutron star. (smallest)
Black holes

Very big stars will become black holes.
The gravity around a black hole is so strong that absolutely nothing, not
even light can escape.
Constellation

A group of stars that form a certain pattern in the sky.
Galaxies A system of stars.
A gathering of billions of stars, planets, dusts and gases.
Universe Consist of everything that exist around us.
All matter and energy are part of the universe.
Irregular galaxy

Has not formed a specific shape.
Consists mainly of young stars
e.x. Magellan Cloud
Elliptical galaxy

Flattened, ball shape
Consists mainly of old stars because it cannot from new stars and does
not contain any more dusts and gas.
e.x Galaxy M87 in Virgo
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Spiral galaxy

Disc-shaped, have spiral arms
Consists of old (at centre) and young stars (at the edges)
e.x. Milky Way, Andromeda
Moon

The Earth has a large satellite which is called the Moon.
Influences ocean tides.
Astronomy A branch of science that studies the motions and natures of planets,
stars and galaxies. It is the oldest of all sciences.
Telecommunication
satelllite

Send information through televisions, radios, telephones, Internet, etc.
Hubble Space Telescope

Invented to observe the outer space and planets
Space station

A place set up in space that enables astronauts to carry out researches
and transport material.
Remote sensing satellite

Used to measure parameters like environment changes on Earth.
Brought benefits in various fields.
Space probes

Launched into space to explore planets.
Does not carry humans.
Space exploration is left to space probes
Take photographs of planets.
Radio telescope

Detect and pick up radio signals and radiation from outer space
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Space shuttle

A spaceship that can be launched, return to Earth and be reused.
Put the Hubble Space Telescope in orbit.
Carry astronauts and research equipment
Launch probes, satellite
Bring back/ repair satellites that have malfunctioned.
Space telescopes

(most recent)
Provide clearer images without the disturbance of the Earths
atmosphere.
Sputnik 1 The first atrificial (man made) satellite by the Russians.
Vosotk 1 Manned spacecraft
Made a full circuit of the Earth before landing safely.
Major Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Air Force.
Apollo 11 The lunar module which landed on the Moon
Neil A. Armstrong and Edwin E. Aldrin from US
International space
station
Provides a platform for scientists to carry out researches in various
fields= medicine and meteorology.
Communication satellites Enhance television and radio broadcasting.
Provide direct links between continents and are now introducing
distance learning to remote areas.
Remote Sensing A cost effective, timely and informativ technique used to study the Earth
and its environment.
Provides vital inputs on agriculture, soil, forestry, land and water
resources, minerals, ocean development and management of droughts
and floods.

























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