Problem 1

a. Give four characteristics of colloids and briefly describe their effects on drilling fluids
b. Develop Figure 4-1 on page 142 of Gray and Darley
c. List the two simple structural units of clays
d. Describe isomorphous substitution as it relates to clay surfaces
e. Explain why naming of clay types appears to be endless
f. List the four primary clays found in sediments
g. List the clay mineral groups of interest to drilling fluids engineers
h. Describe uses of the clay bentonite
i. Define cation exchange capacity
j. What is the relationship between cation exchange capacity and surface area of clay
minerals?
k. Describe the methods used for deflocculating clay particles
l. Describe flocculation mechanisms of clay particles

Solution
a. Four characteristics of colloids include Brownian movement, electrophoresis, Tyndall
effect and control by surface phenomena. Colloidal systems exercise a relatively high
influence on mud properties because of their high degree of activity

b. Table 1.1 below was used to develop figure 4-1 in Gray and Darley

Size of cube,
mm
Number of
cubes
Surface Area,
mm
2
Specific Surface
Area, mm
2
/g
1 1 6 2.2E+00
0.1 10 60 2.2E+01
0.01 100 600 2.2E+02
0.001 1000 6000 2.2E+03
0.0001 10000 60000 2.2E+04
0.00001 100000 600000 2.2E+05
0.000001 1000000 6000000 2.2E+06
0.0000001 10000000 60000000 2.2E+07

assuming the specific gravity of the cube is 2.7
Specific surface of cubes
1.0E+00
1.0E+01
1.0E+02
1.0E+03
1.0E+04
1.0E+05
1.0E+06
1.0E+07
1.0E+08
1.0E-06 1.0E-05 1.0E-04 1.0E-03 1.0E-02 1.0E-01 1.0E+00
size of cubes, mm
s
p
e
c
i
f
i
c

s
u
r
f
a
c
e

a
r
e
a
,

m
m

2
/
g

Fig. 1.1: Specific surface area correlation with size of cubes
c. A single clay platelet is called a unit layer and consists of
i. an octahedral sheet
ii. one or two sheets of silica tetrahedra

d. Isomorphous substitution is the replacement of one atom by another of similar size in
a crystal lattice without disrupting or changing crystal structure of the mineral. Clay
minerals crystals carry a charge arising from isomorphous substitutions of certain
atoms in their structure for other atoms of a different valence

e. Naming of clay types appears endless because the aforementioned substitutions can
occur in either the octahedral or tetrahedral sheets and diverse species may be
exchanged giving rise to innumerable groupings and sub-groupings of clay minerals

f. The four primary clays found in sediments are smectites, illites, kaolinites and
chlorites

g. The clay mineral groups of interest to drilling fluid engineers are smectites, illites,
kaolinite, chlorites, mixed layers and attapulgite

h. The uses of bentonite include providing sufficient viscosity and density to drilling
fluids. The may also be used as an animal feed binder, a natural soil sealant and a
foundry sand binder. Bentonite may also be used as a mortar plasticizer

i. Cation exchange capacity simply refers to the total amount of cations adsorbed per
hundred grams of dry clay

j. The greater the degree of subdivision, the greater its surface area per unit weight
hence the greater the influence of surface phenomena like cation exchange

k. The following additives are employed for deflocculating clay particles
i. phosphates
ii. tannins
iii. lignins
iv. lignosulfates


l. Flocculation refers to a thickening of the mud due to edge-to-edge and edge-to-face
associations of clay platelets. It is caused by unbalanced electrical charges on the
edge and surface of the clay platelets. When the mud is allowed to remain static or is
sheared at a very low rate, the positive and negative charges of different clay
platelets begin to link up to form a house of cards structure.
The hydrated clay platelets normally have an excess of electrons and thus, a
negative charge. Since like charges repel, this tends to keep the clay platelets
dispersed. The local positive and negative charges on the edge of the clay platelets
do not have a chance to link up. Anything that tends to overcome repelling forces
between clay platelets will increase the tendency of a mud to flocculate.


Problem 2 (2-14)

An 11.4-lbm/gal freshwater mud is found to have a solids content of 16.2 vol%.

a. Compute the volume fraction of API barite and low-specific-gravity solids
b. Compute the weight fraction of API barite and low-specific-gravity solids in the mud
c. Compute the API barite and low-specific-gravity solids content in pounds per barrel of
mud

Solution

From the text, we have
f
s
= 0.3125 (
m
/8.33 -1) +0.5 f
lg

where f
s
is the volume fraction of all solids in the mud,

m
is the mud weight of the mud, lb/gal,
f
lg
is the volume fraction of low-specific-gravity solids in the mud,

f
lg
0.094

We also know that
f
B
=f
s
-f
lg

where f
B
is the volume fraction of API barite in the mud
f
B
0.068

To obtain the weight fractions, we have that for 1 gallon of the said mud,
v
B
=0.068 gal, v
lg
=0.094 gal, v
W
=0.838 gal and

B
=35 lbm/gal (Table 2.7 in text),
w
=8.33 lbm/gal

Confirming from the equation

m
=
w
f
w
+
B
f
B
+
lg
f
lg

lg
21.7 lbm/gal (bentonite density from Table 2.7 in the text)

so, the appropriate masses are
m
w
=8.33 lb/gal x 0.838 gal
m
B
=35 lb/gal x 0.068 gal
m
lg
=21.7 lb/gal x 0.094 gal

implying that the weight fraction of API barite and low-specific gravity-solids will be:

w
lg
0.18

w
B
0.21

The values are above are with respect to 1 gallon of mud. For 1 barrel of mud, we would have
m
lg
85.7 lbm/bbl

m
B
100 lbm/bbl

Problem 3 (2-20)

Compute the yield of a clay that requires addition of 35 lbm/bbl of clay to 1 bbl of water to raise
the apparent viscosity of water to 15 cp (measured in a Fann viscometer at 600 rpm)

Solution

We know yield of clay is the number of barrels of mud that can be produced using 1 ton of clay if
the mud has an apparent viscosity of 15 cp when measured in a rotational viscometer at 600 rpm.

From the problem statement, we have that:
V
T
=1 bbl +35 lbm 910 lbm/bbl (assume clay is bentonite clay)
V
T
=1.0385 bbl

Since we know that for the yield, the mass of the clay is 1 ton (2000 lbm), we may find the
approximate volume based on the relationship surmised above
V
T
=
2000 lbm
1.0385 bbl
35 lbm


V
T
59.3 bbl

Problem 4 (2-24)

Name the three common causes of flocculation. Also name four types of mud additives used to
control flocculation

Solution

Three common causes of flocculation include:
i. a high active solids concentration
ii. a high electrolyte concentration
iii. a high temperature

Four types of mud additives used to control flocculation are:
i. phosphates
ii. tannins
iii. lignins
iv. lignosulfates

Problem 5 (2-34)

Discuss why prehydrated bentonite is used in high-salinity muds

Solution

Prehydrated bentonite is used in high salinity muds because dry bentonite does not hydrate
significantly in water of even moderate salinity. For salinities greater than that of sea water, dry
bentonite behaves like an inert solid but such behavior is not experienced with prehydrated
bentonite
Problem 6 (2-36)

Compute the osmotic pressure developed across the membrane shown in Fig. 2-36 in the text if
the saline water has a weight fraction of CaCl
2
of
(1) 0.10, (2) 0.30, or (3) 0.44 (assume T =70
o
F)

Solution
We have that the osmotic pressure, , is expressed thus
ln
w
w
RT
a
V
=
where R is the universal gas constant, 0.083 liter-atm/mole-K,
T is the temperature, K
w V is the molar volume of water, 0.018 liter/mole and
w
a is the water activity

From Fig. 2.39 in the text, we have that for a salt concentration of 0.10,
w
a 0.94
1023 psi
From Fig. 2.39 in the text, we have that for a salt concentration of 0.30,
w
a 0.65
8595 psi
From Fig. 2.39 in the text, we have that for a salt concentration of 0.30,
w
a 0.32
22740 psi


Problem 7 (2-40)

A 6.125-in. hole is being drilled through a 100-ft depleted gas sand. The pressure in the wellbore
is 2000 psi greater than the formation pressure of the depleted sand. The mud cake has a
thickness of 0.5 in. and a coefficient of friction of 0.10. If the 4.75-in. collars become differentially
stuck over the entire sand interval, what force would be required to pull the collars free?

Solution
From the text, we have that

F
st
= p Af

where F
st
is the freeing force,
p is the pressure differential between the wellbore and the permeable formation,
A is the effective area of contact with the mud cake and
f is the coefficient of friction between the pipe and the mud cake

Although A is not given, we know that

2
2
2 2 2
2 1
2 2
1
2
2 2
for
2
mc
f mc mc
mc
mc
d h d d
A h h h
d d
d h d
h
d


=

where h
f
is the thickness of the low pressure, permeable formation against which the drill collars
are held,
h
mc
is the thickness of the mud cake,
d
2
is the diameter of the borehole,
d
1
is the outer diameter of the drill collars

A 39.2 ft
2

So F 1.13 x 10
6
lbf