7/12/2014 70 useful sentences for academic writing

http://www.luizotaviobarros.com/2013/04/academic-writing-useful-expressions.html 1/4
70 useful sentences for academic writing
Posted on April 17, 2013 Written by Luiz Otvio
[1]
80 Comments
Back in the late 90s, in the process of reading for my MA dissertation, I put together
a collection of hundreds of sentence stems that I felt could help me with my
academic writing later on. And they did. Immensely. After the course was over, I
stacked my sentences away, but kept wondering if I could ever put them to good use
and perhaps help other DELTA / Trinity / MA / PhD students who know exactly what
they want to say, but might have trouble finding the best way to say it.
[2]
So here are 70 sentences extracted and adapted from
the original compilation, which ran for almost 10 pages. This list is organized
around keywords (rather than functions / discourse categories) so I can explore each
words ecosystem better, highlight common collocations and so on.
Before you start:
1. Pay close attention to the words in bold, which are often used in conjunction
with the main word.
2. [ ] means insert a suitable word here, while ( ) means this word is optional.
3. Bear in mind that, within each group, some examples are slightly more formal /
less frequent than others.
4. I am not claiming, by any stretch of the imagination, that these are the most
common ways to use each word. These are just examples of academic discourse that I
collected randomly in the late 90s.
Argue
a. Along similar lines, [X] argues that ___.
b. There seems to be no compelling reason to argue that ___.
c. As a rebuttal to this point, it might be (convincingly) argued that ___.
d. There are [three] main arguments that can be advanced to support ___.
7/12/2014 70 useful sentences for academic writing
http://www.luizotaviobarros.com/2013/04/academic-writing-useful-expressions.html 2/4
e. The underlying argument in favor of / against [X] is that ___.
f. [X]s argument in favor of / against [Y] runs as follows: ___.
Claim
a. In this [paper], I put forward the claim that ___.
b. [X] develops the claim that ___.
c. There is ample / growing support for the claim that ___.
d. [X]s findings lend support to the claim that ___.
e. Taking a middle-ground position, [X] claims that ___.
Data
a. The data gathered in the [pilot study] suggests / suggest that ___.
b. The data appears / appear to suggest that ___.
c. The data yielded by this [study] provides strong / convincing evidence that ___.
(yielded = generated)
d. A closer look at the data indicates that ___.
e. The data generated by [X] is / are reported in [table 1].
f. The aim of this [section] is to generalize beyond the data and ___.
In modern usage, data can also be treated as a mass / uncountable noun, like
information. Before you submit your work, check whether the institution youre
writing for / on behalf of prefers data + plural verb.
Debate
a. [X] has fostered debate on ___. (fostered = encouraged)
b. There has been an inconclusive debate about whether ___.
c. The question of whether ___ has caused much debate in [our profession] [over
the years].
d. (Much of) the current debate revolves around ___.
Discussion
a. In this section / chapter, the discussion will point to ___.
b. The foregoing discussion implies that ___. (foregoing = that came before)
c. For the sake of discussion, I would like to argue that ___.
d. In this study, the question under discussion is ___.
e. In this paper, the discussion centers on ___.
f. [X] lies at the heart of the discussion on ___.
Evidence (Remember: Evidence is uncountable.)
a. The available evidence seems to suggest that ___ / point to ___.
7/12/2014 70 useful sentences for academic writing
http://www.luizotaviobarros.com/2013/04/academic-writing-useful-expressions.html 3/4
b. On the basis of the evidence currently available, it seems fair to suggest that ___.
c. There is overwhelming evidence corroborating the notion that ___.
(corroborating = confirming)
d. Further evidence supporting / against [X] may lie in the findings of [Y], who ___.
e. These results provide confirmatory evidence that ___.
Ground
a. I will now summarize the ground covered in this [chapter] by ___.
b. On logical grounds, there is no compelling reason to argue that ___.
c. [X] takes a middle-ground position on [Y] and argues that ___.
d. On these grounds, we can argue that ___.
e. [X]s views are grounded on the assumption that ___.
Issue
a. This study is an attempt to address the issue of ___.
b.In the present study, the issue under scrutiny is ___.
c. The issue of whether ___ is clouded by the fact that ___. (clouded = made less
clear)
d. To portray the issue in [X]s terms, ___.
e. Given the centrality of this issue to [my claim], I will now ___.
f. This [chapter] is concerned with the issue of [how/whether/what] ___.
Literature
a. [X] is prominent in the literature on [Y].
b. There is a rapidly growing literature on [X], which indicates that ___.
c. The literature shows no consensus on [X], which means that ___.
d. The (current) literature on [X] abounds with examples of ___.
Premise
a. The main theoretical premise behind [X] is that ___.
b. [X] and [Y] share an important premise: ___.
c. [X] is premised on the assumption that ___.
d. The basic premises of [X]s theory / argument are ___.
e. The arguments against [X]s premise rest on [four] assumptions: ___.
Research
a.This study draws on research conducted by ___.
b. Although there has been relatively little research on / into [X], ___.
c. In the last [X] years, [educational] research has provided ample support for the
assertion that ___.
7/12/2014 70 useful sentences for academic writing
http://www.luizotaviobarros.com/2013/04/academic-writing-useful-expressions.html 4/4
1. http://www.luizotaviobarros.com/author/tavinhoELT/
2. http://www.luizotaviobarros.com/2013/04/academic-writing-useful-expressions.html/abc-
portable-typewriter
d. Current research appears / seems to validate the view that ___.
e. Research on / into ___ does not support the view that ___.
f. Further research in this area may include ___ and ___.
g. Evidence for [X] is borne out by research that shows ___.
h. There is insufficient research on / into ___ to draw any firm conclusions about /
on ___.
a. The consensus view seems to be that ___.
b. [X] propounds the view that ___. (propound = put forward for consideration)
c. Current research (does not) appear(s) to validate such a view.
d. There have been dissenters to the view that ___. (dissenter = someone who
disagrees)
e. The answer to [X] / The difference between [X] and [Y] is not as clear-cut as
popular views might suggest.
f. The view that _____ is (very much) in line with [common sense].
g. I am not alone in my view that ___.
h. [X] puts forward the view that ___.
i. [X]s views rest on the assumption that ___.
Thanks for reading and good luck!
This leaflet is available in other formats on request. July 2014
This publication will explain the main characteristics of academic writing and
provide several examples of good practice.
What is academic writing?
When you write an assignment or essay, you must use an academic style of writing. This is similar to your own
natural style of writing but has several characteristics which set it apart from more informal types of writing.

One of the biggest misconceptions about academic writing is that it uses complex language. This is incorrect,
academic writing should be as concise, simple and as clear as possible.

The following characteristics are typical of academic writing:
You will not be expected to write wonderfully written academic arguments straight away. As you progress in your
course, you will start to read more textbooks and journal articles. You will also receive feedback on your writing from
tutors. Using this feedback and reading more in your subject area will gradually develop your academic writing.
How to improve your
academic writing
Use of correct grammar and punctuation
Uses cautious language
Avoids subjective and emotive language
Uses linking words and phrases
Uses correct referencing
Clear and concise language
Formal writing style
Correct spelling
Start reading to develop your academic writing
One of the best ways of developing your academic writing is to read textbooks and journal articles in your area of
study. Read articles for style as well as content. You could set yourself the task of reading at least one relevant
journal article each week.

When reading relevant journals or textbooks try to be aware of the language used and how the author makes use of
sentences and paragraphs. The best place to find relevant and appropriate material is the Library Catalogue and
NORA.
Formal writing style
Academic writing is formal in style, not chatty, so do not write as you would on Facebook or with a text message.
Do not use slang expressions and always write words out in full.

Write words out in full
The evidence should not rather than The evidence shouldnt...
Current research did not reflect the findings... rather than Current research didnt reflect the findings.
Most modern televisions make use of polymers... rather than Most modern TVs make use of polymers...

Do not use colloquialisms or slang
The evidence should be taken with a pinch of salt.
The results were as clear as mud.
The use of cautious language
Because research and theories are being developed and updated all the time, writers tend to use cautious or
tentative language. The language used in academic writing should reflect the amount of strength of evidence to
support a topic or claim. This is sometimes called hedging. Academic language is therefore usually cautious in
nature.
This leaflet is available in other formats on request. July 2014
Language that is not cautious
Jennings (2010) research shows that smoking tobacco causes lung cancer.
Smiths (2011) evidence says that greenhouse gases have an effect on the climate.

Cautious language
Jennings (2010) research would appear to show that smoking tobacco may cause lung cancer.
Smiths (2011) evidence suggests that greenhouse gases may have an effect on the climate.


Use correct punctuation and grammar

Correct use of punctuation is another characteristic of academic writing. Incorrect use of grammar can undermine
your assignment or dissertation so it is a good idea to ensure you have an understanding of basic grammar. Knowing
how to use correct grammar is a valuable skill for life.

Try to learn and understand the correct use of full stops, commas, colons and semi colons, hyphens and
apostrophes. Some of the most common punctuation and grammar mistakes students make include:






There are many books available in the University Library on punctuation and grammar. There is also a good resource
called Improving your Academic Writing (University of Essex 2012).

You can also use the Grammar Beagle (Learnhigher 2012) which can help you overcome the most common
grammar and punctuation mistakes.


Structuring your writing

A well structured piece of writing is important for several reasons. It helps you present your arguments in a logical
way and can provide a framework for presenting your findings. The correct use of paragraphs and sentences are vital
for a well structured piece of writing. The use of paragraphs and sentences is covered in more details in the Essay
Writing helpguide.

Points to remember for good structure:

Try and group similar ideas and concepts together.
Use paragraphs to divide different sections up and ensure that each paragraph has a point.
Use the first sentence of each paragraph to introduce the theme or topic of the paragraph.
Ensure that your sections and paragraphs flow in a logical manner.

Avoid subjective or emotive language

A key characteristic of academic writing is that it is objective and neutral.

Subjective
The residue from the experiment was a beautiful red colour.
Browns contribution to the field of quantum physics is extremely important because...

Objective
The residue from the experiment was red in colour.
Brown made a significant contribution to the field of quantum physics because


Writing in the third person

Most academic writing uses the third person, in other words the writer does not use I. This helps to ensure the
writing stays objective. If you are writing a personal reflection or a reflective report, then you may be required to write
in the first person but check with your tutor first.
Examples
This essay will discuss the effect of The researcher found that the results seemed to indicate
It could be argued that... The results appeared to show that
Incorrect use of tenses
Incorrect use of speech marks
Incorrect use of single and plural
Incorrect syntax and sentence structure
Incorrect use of commas and apostrophes
This leaflet is available in other formats on request. July 2014
Precise and concise language

Academic writing is precise and not vague. Do not be tempted to add extra big words to your assignment to make it
appear more academic. Your writing should be as concise as possible. Do not try and use extra words just to
increase your word count!
Not precise
The earthquake was strong.
A cupful of methanol was added to the solution.
Precise
The earthquake measured 6.4 on the Richter scale.
400ml of methanol was added to the solution.
Not concise
Owing to the fact that wet weather can contribute towards
erosion in metals
Concise
Because wet weather can contribute towards erosion in
metals
Useful Phrases

In academic writing, you will need to compare, contrast and explain different ideas and concepts. The phrases below
are examples you can use to compare, contrast, introduce and report results or information. You will encounter
these, or similar phrases, as you begin to read more journal articles and textbooks.
There is an excellent resource at the Academic Phrasebank (Manchester University, 2012). This resource has
many examples of academic phrases and language you can use in your own writing.
Why not build your own phrasebook from useful phrases you encounter in your own reading?
Phrases used to report or interpret results
It is likely that ...suggests that... It appears that...
It is possible that... ...probably means that... ...would appear to show that...
Words used to compare and contrast
Equally... Likewise... It appears that... Similarly...
However... On the contrary... Despite being... On the other hand...
Words used to show examples and draw conclusions
For example... As can be seen... This demonstrates... For instance...
To summarise... In conclusion... In other words... Finally...
Words used to present an authors work
Russell (2011) argued that... McGuirk (2009) estimated... Roll (2009) stated that...
DeMille (1999) concluded that... Evans (2006) believed that... King (2007) suggested that...
Referencing and bibliographies

A key characteristic of academic writing is referencing any sources that you use. Referencing usually involves
creating an in-text citation and a reference list.

An in-text citation is how you refer to, or cite, an author in your own writing. A reference list goes at the end of your
assignment and is a complete list of all the resources you have referred to in your writing. The University uses
several different referencing styles, we recommend you consult your tutor to clarify which style you should use.
A bibliography contains everything that is in your reference list but also any resources you may have read but have
not referred to directly in your writing. For this reason, your bibliography is always longer than your reference list.
This leaflet is available in other formats on request. July 2014
What makes a good piece of academic writing?

The following are generic marking criteria for different Faculties within Northumbria University. You might find them
helpful when thinking about what makes a good piece of academic writing. These are taken from Guidelines for
Good Assessment Practice at Northumbria University (Northumbria University, 2011).

Geography and Environmental Management - an exceptional answer
Excellent in every respect, showing extensive knowledge and understanding, and an outstanding ability to
analyse, synthesise and evaluate. Evidence of very extensive, if not exhaustive reading and study beyond the
course content. Exemplars are well chosen and specified in considerable detail. An accurate answer presented in
a very well organised manner, with excellent presentation. A well balanced answer, very sharply focused on the
question and stylishly written. Exhibits a high level of insight, and a strong element of originality.

Newcastle Business School, Undergraduate Year 1, First (70 - 100)
Exceptional comprehension of knowledge demonstrated. Sophisticated skill shown in formation of relevant
argument or analytical reasoning. Thorough knowledge and understanding demonstrated. Fluent and focused.
Shows ability to contextualise knowledge and sustain a relevant argument or logical reasoning.

Newcastle Business School, Undergraduate Year 3, First (70 - 100)
Exceptional scholarship for subject. Outstanding ability to apply, in the right measure, the skills necessary to
achieve highly sophisticated and fluent challenges to received wisdom.
Knowledge and understanding is comprehensive both as to breadth and depth. A mature ability to critically
appreciate concepts and their inter-relationship is demonstrated. Clear evidence of independent thought.
Presentation of work is fluent, focused and accurate.

Arts and Social Sciences, Psychology, Undergraduate Year 1, First (70 - 100)
Covers all aspects of the question. Evidence of independent reading (mainly books, but perhaps some journal
articles). All the material is accurate and directly relevant. All points expressed clearly and succinctly. Excellent
organisation of the material. Shows good appreciation of the strengths and weaknesses of theories,
methodologies and empirical evidence.


Further reading and useful links

Manchester University (2012) Academic Phrasebank. Available at: http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/
discussions.htm (Accessed: 5 March 2013).

Northumbria University (2012) Northumbria Skills Plus. Available at: http://www.northumbria.ac.uk/skillsplus
(Accessed: 1 May 2013).

University of Essex (2012) How to improve your academic writing. Available at: http://www.essex.ac.uk/
myskills/How_to_improve_your_academic_writing.pdf (Accessed: 1 May 2013).

University of Bristol (2012) Improve your writing. Available at: http://www.northumbria.ac.uk/skillsplus
(Accessed: 7 July 2014).



University of Westminster http://gsearch.wmin.ac.uk/search?q=cache:qjMrJ mby7iAJ :www.wmin.ac.uk/sshl/page-
2224+academic+phrases&site=default_collection&client=default_frontend&access=p&ie=UTF-
8&output=xml_no_dtd&proxystylesheet=default_frontend&oe=ISO-8859-1Accessed 22/10/09

Academic Writing Centre
Useful phrases for academic writing
Here are suggestions for using words and phrases which could improve your
academic writing structure and style significantly.

1. INTRODUCTION
This essay will deal with the following aspects of the question...
The aim of this essay is ......
_______________________________________
2. GIVING AN OVERVIEW OF THE ESSAY CONTENT
In order to link.... with ...., the background to ... will be briefly outlined.
The first part of the analysis will examine....
The second part of this analysis will consider...
The final level of the analysis consists of...
__________________________________________

3. MAKING A POINT
It is clear/ noticeable that...
It is necessary/ important/ useful/ interesting/to note/point out/ highlight/
emphasise that
___________________________________________

4. EMPHASIS MARKERS show clearly what you think is most important but
allow you to avoid personal language such as 'I think'

Adjecti ves: main, crucial, important, significant, key, essential

Nouns: focus, element, concept, theory, aspect, part, idea, point, argument,
discussion, debate

Verbs: to emphasise, to summarise, to focus, to highlight

Examples:
The key aspect of this argument is
The most crucial point made so far
It is worth noting that
Another relevant point is that
___________________________________________

University of Westminster http://gsearch.wmin.ac.uk/search?q=cache:qjMrJ mby7iAJ :www.wmin.ac.uk/sshl/page-
2224+academic+phrases&site=default_collection&client=default_frontend&access=p&ie=UTF-
8&output=xml_no_dtd&proxystylesheet=default_frontend&oe=ISO-8859-1Accessed 22/10/09

5. INTRODUCING A NEW IDEA
Turning now to the question of
Bearing in mind the previous points,
Having considered (X)
With regard to
As far as ....... is concerned
___________________________________________
6. HEDGING
The group of 11 words called modals can help you avoid over-generalisation
as they express degrees of certainty and possibility, thereby avoiding making
statements which claim too much or suggest you know everything about a
subject.
The 11 modals are:
CAN MAY COULD MIGHT WILL
WOULD SHALL SHOULD, OUGHT TO MUST NEEDN'T

By far the most useful modal verbs are CAN, MAY, COULD and MIGHT. If
you say something IS true you may well be guilty of over-generalisation. If
you say something MAY or MIGHT be true you avoid this problem.
It could/might be said that ....
It seems/appears ...
It is generally thought/considered ......
Some/many people think/believe ......
___________________________________________
7. CITING RESEARCH
It has been found that
Research has shown that
___________________________________________
8. MAKING HYPOTHESES
If, then
Assuming that
___________________________________________

9. STATING CONDITIONS
Given that
Provided that
Granted that
If it is the case that & then,
___________________________________________

University of Westminster http://gsearch.wmin.ac.uk/search?q=cache:qjMrJ mby7iAJ :www.wmin.ac.uk/sshl/page-
2224+academic+phrases&site=default_collection&client=default_frontend&access=p&ie=UTF-
8&output=xml_no_dtd&proxystylesheet=default_frontend&oe=ISO-8859-1Accessed 22/10/09

10. GIVING EXAMPLES
For example/instance
In this situation/case
To illustrate
___________________________________________

11. ADDING INFORMATION
Again/ besides/ equally important/ in addition/ further/ furthermore/
moreover
It must also be noted/ remembered that
___________________________________________

12. DISCUSSION MARKERS
On the one hand, on the other hand
Although it may be true that....however
Whilst it is generally agreed that
There exists a contradiction between ..... and
Those in favour of/ Supporters/Advocates of
Those opposed to/ Critics of
___________________________________________

13. RE-PHRASING
In other words
To put it another way
That is to say
___________________________________________

14. EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE.
This is used to show more clearly what you think about different points. Do
you already use these words? Could you use them more?

Positive adjecti ves: remarkable, innovative, complex, interesting, profound,
comprehensive, powerful, rigorous, systematic, useful, sensitive, reliable,
logical,

Negative adjecti ves: flawed, modest, unsatisfactory, inadequate, limited,
restricted

Nouns: synthesis, survey, topic, study, review, history, concept, area, theme,
overview, analysis, system


University of Westminster http://gsearch.wmin.ac.uk/search?q=cache:qjMrJ mby7iAJ :www.wmin.ac.uk/sshl/page-
2224+academic+phrases&site=default_collection&client=default_frontend&access=p&ie=UTF-
8&output=xml_no_dtd&proxystylesheet=default_frontend&oe=ISO-8859-1Accessed 22/10/09

Verbs: explain, discuss, study, present, describe, bring into focus, consider,
explore, illuminate, introduce, analyse, constitute

Examples:
The UNO has published an interesting survey...
It presents a useful concept...
However, the study is limited in that...
___________________________________________

15. REPEATING
In general, DON'T! Try to organise your writing so that you stick to one point
at a time. But if you must, you can use phrases such as:
To return to an earlier point
As noted before/above
___________________________________________

16. SUMMING UP
Briefly, we can say/ it can be said that
To sum up
Hence/therefore/accordingly/ consequently
The evidence suggests, therefore
In general what this means/ suggests/ indicates is
It is clear from the above that
___________________________________________

17. CONCLUSION
To conclude/In conclusion,

7/12/2014 Dissertation abstract | Lrd Dissertation
http://dissertation.laerd.com/useful-phrases-when-writing-a-dissertation-abstract.php 1/3
Cookies & Privacy Feedback
USEFUL PHRASES
Useful phrases when writing a dissertation abstract
This section sets out some useful phrases that you can use and build on when writing your undergraduate or master's level
dissertation abstract. As the section, How to structure your dissertation abstract explains, the abstract has a number of
components, typically including: (a) study background and significance; (b) components of your research strategy; (c)
findings; and (d) conclusions. The phrases below build on these four components.
COMPONENT #1: Study background and significance
COMPONENT #2: Components of your research strategy
COMPONENT #3: Findings
COMPONENT #4: Conclusions
COMPONENT #1
Build the background to the study
Introductory sentences
This study (dissertation, research)?
aims to illuminate?
examines the role of...
explores why...
investigates the effects of...
assesses the impact of...on...
developed and tested the idea that...
I...
investigated the role of...
outline how...
introduce the concept of...
extend prior work on...
examine the relationship between...and...
identify...
evaluate these...by...
In this study (dissertation, research) I...
propose a model of...
Leading with research questions
This study (dissertation, research)...
GETTING STARTED QUANTITATIVE DISSERTATIONS FUNDAMENTALS
Quantitative Dissertations Dissertation Essentials Research Strategy Data Analysis
7/12/2014 Dissertation abstract | Lrd Dissertation
http://dissertation.laerd.com/useful-phrases-when-writing-a-dissertation-abstract.php 2/3
is motivated by two research questions: (1) [Insert research question one]? (2) [Insert research question two]? To
examine these questions, the study?
"[Insert a research question]?" is a fundamental question in [the name of your area of interest]. We suggest [argue] that
a new generation of research in this area needs to address the extended question: [Insert your research question]?
Leading with research hypotheses
This study (dissertation, research)...
offers two hypotheses: (1) [insert research hypothesis one]; and (2) [insert research hypothesis two].
tested hypotheses regarding the relationship between...and...
It was
hypothesized that [insert variable] is negatively [positively] related to...
hypothesized that [insert variable] is more negatively [positively] related to [insert variable] than [insert variable].
Leading with a dissertation aim or goals
This study (dissertation, research)...
has three goals: (1) [insert goal one], (2) [insert goal two], and (3) [insert goal three].
Literature component
Previous research (extent research, previous studies, or prior studies)...
indicates that...
offers a descriptive account of...
has shown that...
Literature on [insert area of the literature] has focused almost exclusively on...
Synthesizing [e.g., name of theories], this research built and tested a theoretical model linking...
This model addresses X (e.g., 2) major gaps in the literature.
Drawing on [insert name] research, we argue that...
In bridging the two literature gaps, a model of [insert text] is proposed.
Significance of the study
We develop theory to explain how...
Our most important contribution is...
This study advances our understanding of...
To date, no systematic investigation has considered...
We examine how organisations use [insert text] to overcome...
COMPONENT #2
Components of research strategy
We conducted...
in-depth case studies of [X number of private/public] enterprises in [country].
a laboratory experiment and a field study to test our hypotheses.
an inductive study of...
We employed...
multiple methods to test...
7/12/2014 Dissertation abstract | Lrd Dissertation
http://dissertation.laerd.com/useful-phrases-when-writing-a-dissertation-abstract.php 3/3
previous 1 2 3 4 5
Using...
a sample of [X number of people, firms, data, objects, e.g., doctors, banks, songs], we collected data from three
sources [e.g., X, Y and Z].
comparative case analysis, this research explored the role of...
To illustrate these ideas, [insert company name or type] was used as a case study to show how...
We tested these hypotheses using [e.g., student test score] data to measure [e.g., teacher performance].
We developed a 9-item scale to measure...
Using data from...
COMPONENT #3
Major findings
The findings from the research...
illustrate how...
show that the impact of [insert text] on [insert text] is more complex than previously thought/assumed.
address a controversial belief among practitioners that...
illustrate the antecedents and consequences of [insert text] and [insert text] in...
suggest that the effect of [variable X] on [variable Y] was moderated over time when...
A predicted, the...
Contrary to our expectations...
COMPONENT #4
Conclusion
The results, implications for managers, and future research are discussed.
Theoretical contributions and managerial implications of the findings are discussed.
The findings...
provide support for the key arguments.
support the prediction that...
support the model:
offer insights into...
prompt a re-thinking of [insert your area of interest]
We conclude that...
If you would like us to add more of these kinds of phrases, please leave us feedback.
Contact Us Cookies & Privacy Copyright Terms & Conditions 2012 Lund Research Ltd


Produced by The University of Hull
1
Academic Writing Academic Writing Academic Writing Academic Writing
1 11 1 What is it hat is it hat is it hat is it - -- - what is it not? what is it not? what is it not? what is it not?

What is formal writing?
It is usually defined by what it is not. It is not colloquial, not personal, nor
is it subjective.

Some characteristics of formal writing:

The academic writer's approach to his or her writing is:







The academic writer's tone is:






1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 S SS Style tyle tyle tyle

In addition the academic writer makes more frequent use of

impersonal pronouns and phrases
qualifying words and phrases
complex sentence structures
specialized vocabulary
passive forms of verbs




analytical rather than impressionistic
objective rather than subjective
intellectual rather than emotional
rational rather than polemical

serious rather than conversational
impersonal rather than personal
formal rather than colloquial



Produced by The University of Hull
2
1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 C CC Conventions onventions onventions onventions
Some conventions of formal academic writing

Generally: Generally: Generally: Generally:

avoid words and expressions from spoken English. Colloquialisms are
usually inappropriate when using formal language.

try to remove slang

where possible, choose more formal vocabulary.

Avoid contractions. Avoid contractions. Avoid contractions. Avoid contractions.


Do not use Instead use

don't do not
wasn't was not
can't cannot
isn't is not
it's it is


Find alternatives to beginning a sentence with so, and, or but.

Instead of
So try As a result / Therefore, / Consequently,

Instead of
And try In addition, / Furthermore,

Instead of
But try However,

(For more suggestions, see the section on Transitions that follows later)


Produced by The University of Hull
3

2 22 2 P PP Passive voice assive voice assive voice assive voice
The passive voice means changing from phrasing things in this form "I
did this to that object" to "that object had this done to it"
suddenly, you don't need to know that I I I I did it.

The use of I, We and You:

How to write in the third person when expressing opinions.

Try to avoid:
I believe NATO'S strategy was poorly designed and carelessly implemented.
We argue NATO'S strategy was poorly designed and carelessly implemented.
You can see NATO'S strategy was poorly designed and carelessly implemented.

The phrases I believe /We argue / You can see can be found in
academic writing but they are not formal enough for many
departments. If you need to be more formal, you have to learn how
to use impersonal structures


Try stating the opinion directly . . .
NATO'S strategy was poorly designed and carelessly implemented.


You can also invoke an authority . . .
Fred Bloggs, in his study NATO in the Nineties (1997), argues that
NATO'S strategy was poorly designed and carelessly implemented.
Whether you agree or not will become clearer in the sentences that
follow, e.g.
This is confirmed by the catastrophic events that followed.

or

However, this seems to fly in the face of accounts by local
inhabitants.





Produced by The University of Hull
4

Some other impersonal constructions:

It is argued that
it has been asserted that
it will be shown that
it can be seen that
_________________________________________________________________

Policy makers have claimed that
Politicians have maintained that
Researchers have suggested that
_________________________________________________________________

The critic Olivia Robinson disputes
The policy's main opponent, Dr. Kissinger, doubts
Dr. George Simpson questions
_________________________________________________________________
advocates dismiss
environmentalists urge
realists recommend
________________________________________________________________


Exercise: Exercise: Exercise: Exercise: i ii impersonal construction mpersonal construction mpersonal construction mpersonal constructions ss s

Rewrite each sentence by making it more formal, but do not change
the author's meaning. It is okay to add words, if necessary. The first
one has been done for you.


1. Most people considered that it was a good decision.

It was considered to be a good decision.





Produced by The University of Hull
5
2. I think that the government's policy was successful in this regard.
It can be argued that the government's policy was successful in this
regard.



3. It's obvious that this was going to happen.
It is obvious that this was going to happen.
It was apparent to many that this would be the likely outcome.



4. I intend to disprove her argument in my essay.




5. I feel that the fall of communism was a good thing.
It has been pointed out that the fall of communism was a good thing.



6. People were surprised at the results of the election and some were
very upset.
The results of the election were surprising.




7. We all know that the assassination was a desperate attempt to
prevent democracy from taking hold in the country.




N.B. For those of you working in departments less preoccupied with
rigid adherence to this convention, another advantage of generally
using the passive voice is that it adds gravitas to those few occasions
and opinions expressed using the active voice; use sparingly and your
opinions will carry weight.


Produced by The University of Hull
6
3 33 3 H HH How to convey emotion while using the passive voice ow to convey emotion while using the passive voice ow to convey emotion while using the passive voice ow to convey emotion while using the passive voice

3.1 3.1 3.1 3.1 C CC Choice of words: hoice of words: hoice of words: hoice of words:
Where you wish to add emphasis deliberately choose either abrupt,
staccato synonyms or deliberately more elaborate, grandiose synonyms.
Your choice of words or synonyms will relay your judgments. for example
think about how different news programmes/papers use language to confer
judgements while still appearing impartial

from the obvious
freedom fighter vs terrorist

to more subtle examples such as
spying vs intelligence gathering
deeply irresponsible vs cavalier
whistle-blower vs informant
ploughed into vs ran into

Now, try meddling with
1. The chicken crossed the road.
2. The government is set to backtrack on key areas of the anti-terror laws, the shadow
home secretary claims.
3. The detainee was head of the regime's intelligence services before becoming a
presidential adviser.


3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 S SS Style tricks: tyle tricks: tyle tricks: tyle tricks:
1. alliteration alliteration alliteration alliteration - beginning a series of two or more words with the same sound
e.g. b bb big b bb bang, co co co condescending, co co co convoluted c cc co oo odswallop and cr cr cr creative cr cr cr crap at
that - you don't even need an exclamation mark when you've got alliteration
- which reminds me - don't use exclamation marks in academic writing.
2. idioms idioms idioms idioms - phrases that are part of language without being colloquial or
clichd, e.g. straight faced, passing the buck, odds and ends, part and
parcel. Use of these could act to lighten the tone of an essay that might
otherwise become stuffy, but use with care.
3. sparingly sparingly sparingly sparingly reverting to reverting to reverting to reverting to the active voice the active voice the active voice the active voice as stated at the end of section 2 (if
your department is not a stickler for the convention).

In creative writing... In creative writing... In creative writing... In creative writing... (e.g. poetry / prose) you could use the following to great effect (however, in academic writing you
would generally be well advised to avoid)
metaphors metaphors metaphors metaphors - comparisons between dissimilar entities expressed as statements of fact, typically using some form of to be,
e.g. he is a shark/ she's a sausage/ he's putting down roots.
similes similes similes similes - comparisons between dissimilar entities using words such as like and as, e.g. it was as if the heavens opened
hyperbole hyperbole hyperbole hyperbole - wild exaggeration, e.g. the old clich I could eat a horse
litotes litotes litotes litotes - a form of understatement that implies something by stating that it is not its opposite, e.g. saying not bad instead
of saying good.
anthropomorphism anthropomorphism anthropomorphism anthropomorphism - giving animals/inanimate objects human qualities, emotions or intent, e.g. that step tripped me/ the
chair welcomed me/ I left the computer to its own devices.


Produced by The University of Hull
7
4 44 4 Signposting Signposting Signposting Signposting

There are two aspects to sign posting:
the first is saying where you are:
the second is saying where you're going / implying relationships
that lend structure to your essay as a whole.

4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 Saying where you are Saying where you are Saying where you are Saying where you are. .. .
One of the problems many of us dyslexics experience is that
we're often reluctant to state the obvious, because it's -er-
obvious: we tend to go straight for the meat of the argument.
However, if you think of the obvious as being the "big picture
message" or the skeleton instead, it becomes more apparent why
its inclusion can help give structure to your arguments.

This can be done by using the IDEAL paragraph format, i.e.

I Introduce the idea (i.e. the topic of that paragraph)
D Define the idea (e.g. new terminology in the paragraph)
E Explore the idea (e.g. background / relevance / context)
A Add evidence about the idea (quotes, statistics, etc.)
L Lastly, conclude (state the obvious)

Holding to this kind of structure will also help you avoid both
repetition (sending you over your word count) and not putting in
sufficient shoehorning language (which would pull you under
your word count). If, after applying the IDEAL format, you're still
significantly under or over your word count then there's a very
high probability that you're pitching your assignment at the
wrong level (either too low or too high respectively) especially
if the second section on sign posting (whichll help improve the
readability of your essay) also leaves you wide of the mark.




Produced by The University of Hull
8
4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 Saying where you're going Saying where you're going Saying where you're going Saying where you're going - -- - linking sentences & paragraphs linking sentences & paragraphs linking sentences & paragraphs linking sentences & paragraphs: :: :

Use transition words or phrases between sentences and between
paragraphs.

These emphasise the relationships between ideas
They help readers follow your train of thought or see
connections they might otherwise miss or misunderstand.


REMEMBER
All academic writing is written to be read by someone else
HOWEVER,
Some of us become so involved with the hassle of getting things
down that we do not think of the person were writing for.
Preoccupied with off-loading our information and ideas we lose
sight of our reader.

So, remember:

you need to show your train of thought

you need to show how your ideas connect up

you need to show how your paragraphs are linked

dont fall into the trap of thinking these links are just a waste of
space/ "padding" or "fluff" - trying to put your thoughts down
using a minimum number of words: this will not help your reader.
Instead, connect your work with words and phrases which tell
the reader

what you have done

what you are going to do

how your points link up


Produced by The University of Hull
9
Now look at some examples of transitional words and
phrases can you think of any others?

ADDITION adding more to a point that has already been made
in addition, again, also, and, besides, finally, first, further,
furthermore, last, moreover, second, too, next, indeed, in fact

CAUSE AND EFFECT - this is where you show the effects of something
accordingly, as a result, consequently, hence, otherwise,
therefore, thus; so, it can be seen that; it is evident that;
because of this; this suggests that; it follows that;

COMPARISON
similarly, likewise

CONTRAST - introducing an alternative viewpoint
in contrast, although, and yet, however, nevertheless, on the
other hand, on the contrary, but, alternatively, against this it
could be argued; conversely; on the contrary

EXAMPLES OR SPECIAL FEATURES
for example, for instance, in other words, in illustration, an
illustration of this is, in this case, in particular, specifically,
evidence to support this can be found in.

CONNECTIONS IN TIME
after a short time, afterwards, as long as, as soon as, at last, at
length, at that time, at the same time, before, earlier, of late,
immediately, in the meantime, lastly, lately, later, meanwhile,
presently, shortly, since, soon, temporarily, thereafter, until,
when, while.

SUMMING UP OR CONCLUDING
in brief, in conclusion, in short, on the whole, to conclude, to
summarise, to sum up, all in all, on the whole, on balance, it could
be claimed, as a consequence of this; in the final analysis


Produced by The University of Hull
10
Now look at these examples of 'before' and 'after' paragraphs.


Example one Example one Example one Example one
Before
Harrison's use of the word public asserts his belief that poetry
should be available for all. Poetry is not something that readily
embraces such a categorisation. Geoffrey Grigson has
suggested that poetry is essentially a 'private art'. It is 'the
necessary secret possession of select individuals. It isn't choral,
it isn't communal [] it is resistant to vulgarisation.' Alan Bold,
has argued that 'there is nothing intrinsically private about
poetry'. C. K. Stead has said: 'Poetry is neither 'public' as in the
moralist tradition, nor 'private' as in the aesthete's'.


After
It is arguable that Harrison's use of the word public asserts his
belief that poetry should be available for all. For some critics,
however, poetry is not something that readily embraces such a
categorisation. Geoffrey Grigson, for example, has suggested
that poetry is essentially a 'private art'. For him it is 'the
necessary secret possession of select individuals. It isn't choral,
it isn't communal [ consequently ] it is resistant to
vulgarisation.' Alan Bold, on the other hand, has argued
succinctly that 'there is nothing intrinsically private about
poetry' whereas for C. K. Stead: 'Poetry is neither 'public' as in
the moralist tradition, nor 'private' as in the aesthete's'.




Produced by The University of Hull
11
Example two Example two Example two Example two
Before
Television has been blamed by researchers for many social
problems. Families do not communicate. They do not eat
together. Many families have the television on all the time.
Children watch unsuitable videos. This may cause psychological
disturbance. It may lead to violent and aggressive behaviour.

But television has many good points. People learn more from it,
because it is a visual medium. Families can share watching a
good film and talk about it. It can pass on news very quickly. It
has interesting documentaries. It is good entertainment for
people who cannot afford to go out.


After
On the one hand, television has been blamed by researchers for
many social problems. The first is that because many families
have the television on all the time, they do not communicate.
Secondly, they do not eat together. Another criticism is that
children watch unsuitable videos and this may cause
psychological disturbance. This in turn may lead to violent and
aggressive behaviour.

On the other hand, however, television has many good points.
For instance, people learn more from it, because it is a visual
medium. Moreover, families can share watching a good film and
talk about it. In addition, it can pass on news very quickly. It
also shows interesting documentaries. Finally, it is good
entertainment for people who cannot afford to go out.



The points made in both pieces are the same but the second
piece makes the links between the ideas stand out more clearly.




Produced by The University of Hull
12
5 55 5 O OO Other types of paragraph ther types of paragraph ther types of paragraph ther types of paragraph
If you find the IDEAL paragraph too rigid there are four, more loosely
defined examples below. Use of these can provide variety to your style and
flow to your arguments. The descriptions of the different types mimic what
they are trying to define.

loose: loose: loose: loose:
A intro sentence
A followed by examples and/or evidence.

mixed: mixed: mixed: mixed:
p build up to the central topic
p introduce the central topic
p this may be particularly useful if the central topic of the paragraph is
sufficiently complex that preliminary explanation is required
p followed by supporting information

but use these sparingly as they do not provide the reader with good
signposting...
certainly, don't start or end a subsection with this type of paragraph.

periodic: periodic: periodic: periodic:
d sometimes development is needed
d these set the scene for the main topic sentence
d so, when the topic sentence finally comes, and ends the paragraph...
d the main topic sentence is a logical conclusion and therefore easy to
remember.

it should be noted that following a periodic paragraph with a loose (or -
better still - an IDEAL) paragraph can be a nice way of linking ideas, which
will help your arguments flow.

cyclic: cyclic: cyclic: cyclic:
8 a cyclic paragraph is a paragraph that starts and finishes with the main
topic.
8 within the paragraph the topic is explored/ evidence is provided
8 in fact, the IDEAL paragraph format is an example
8 by starting and finishing with the main topic, a cyclic paragraph provides
both a preview and a review of the topic.


Produced by The University of Hull
13

6 66 6 Tips Tips Tips Tips

6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 Think about Think about Think about Think about how how how how to write as well as to write as well as to write as well as to write as well as what what what what to write to write to write to write
However, you may have problems with your short-term
memory so if you can mind map/put down an outline note of
everything you want to include in your assignment, you
won't have to worry about losing the idea while youre
thinking about how how how how to say the what what what what that you want to
say. If you can reduce your levels of multitasking youll
probably also reduce the stress you can experience while
writing.

6.2 6.2 6.2 6.2 Avoid repetition Avoid repetition Avoid repetition Avoid repetition
Planning will also help you avoid repetition

6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 Help your reader by signposting your arguments Help your reader by signposting your arguments Help your reader by signposting your arguments Help your reader by signposting your arguments

6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4 Avoid Avoid Avoid Avoid cliches cliches cliches cliches - -- -er er er er- -- - like the plague like the plague like the plague like the plague
They're tedious even before you repeat them and therefore
are likely to alienate your reader.

Idioms may be more appropriate - they're familiar turns of
phrase without being as tired as clichs.

6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 Read ot Read ot Read ot Read other people's stuff and nick the non her people's stuff and nick the non her people's stuff and nick the non her people's stuff and nick the non- -- -contentsy contentsy contentsy contentsy- -- -linky linky linky linky- -- -
bits you like bits you like bits you like bits you like (that doesn't count as plagiarism) (that doesn't count as plagiarism) (that doesn't count as plagiarism) (that doesn't count as plagiarism)


Produced by The University of Hull
14
Academic Academic Academic Academic
Writing Writing Writing Writing
1
What is it - What is it - What is it - What is it -
what is i t what is i t what is i t what is i t
not? not? not? not?
2
passive passive passive passive
voi ce voi ce voi ce voi ce
Tips Tips Tips Tips
Saying where you're
going - linking
sentences &
paragraphs
Avoid cliches -er-
like the plague
Think about how how how how
to write as well as
what what what what to write
Avoid
repetition
Help your reader
by signposting
your arguments
Read other people's stuff
and nick the non-contentsy-
linky-bits you like (that
doesn't count as plagiarism)
style
conventions
3
How to convey How to convey How to convey How to convey
emotion while emotion while emotion while emotion while
using the using the using the using the
passive voice passive voice passive voice passive voice
choice of
words:
style tricks:
In creative
writing...
How to evaluate How to evaluate How to evaluate How to evaluate
your own work your own work your own work your own work
5
other other other other
types of types of types of types of
paragraph paragraph paragraph paragraph
4
Si gnposti ng Si gnposti ng Si gnposti ng Si gnposti ng
7 deadly sins 7 deadly sins 7 deadly sins 7 deadly sins
circumlocution circumlocution circumlocution circumlocution
- not expressing
yourself directly
tautology tautology tautology tautology
- using two
words that
repeat the
meaning
gobbledygook gobbledygook gobbledygook gobbledygook
- if you look like
you're trying to
impress your
reader with
convoluted
arguments you
will instead
alienate/
confuse him/her
instead; s/he
may even get
the impression
that you don't
know what
you're talking
about
j argon j argon j argon j argon - don't
use it
unnecessarily
and always
define,
otherwise
you'll be back
in
gobbledygook
land
euphemi sm euphemi sm euphemi sm euphemi sm
- clarity is
essential
cliches cliches cliches cliches -
because
they're
tired; I
wouldn't
touch
them
with a
ten foot
barge
pole
overloading overloading overloading overloading
- overly long
sentences/
too much
detail/ non
sequitur
(things that
don't follow
on logically)
Saying where
you are
e. g. e. g. e. g. e. g.
actual fact,
added bonus,
arid desert,
innocent victims, andGeorge W. Bush's
"As long as necessary but not a day longer.
It may be the intention to add emphasis but use of
tautologies detract instead
e. g. e. g. e. g. e. g.
using
due to the fact that when because will do;
in the majority of cases - usually ;
or I beg to differ - I disagree


Produced by The University of Hull
15
Academic Styles of Writing
Where in this style spectrum you should aim your writing style will depend on your subject/department see where you
think you should be aiming relative to these two extremes of the academic style spectrum
One extreme
tick where in the spectrum you
think your department would
like your work to appear
the other
Every attempt is made to control the conditions under
which the research takes place, so that the researcher
can decide which variable to manipulate and measure.

Every attempt is made to keep the research
true to life, i.e. to give it ecological validity.
Results can be generalised, i.e. they would hold true if
the research was repeated.

The unique is considered worth of study
results may be impossible to repeat exactly.
Numbers and standardised measurements make it
easier to generalise results.

Creative interpretation is highly valued.
Objective views are formed, based on the evidence and
facts rather than personal opinion

Subjective responses, feelings, intuition and
creativity are regarded as valuable resources.
The role of the scientist is minimised and rarely
discussed

The role of the researcher is made explicit it is
considered useful to discuss how the
researchers presence influenced the results.
Individual differences are not important general
findings are valued

Individual instances, and opportunities for
detailed interpretation, are valued.
Personal experiences are regarded as individual and
irrelevant: they are not referred to

Personal experience is highly valued as giving
insight and a deeper understanding
The language used is clinical, neutral, impersonal and
dispassionate, even if the researcher feels
passionately about the subject.

The language allows the personality and
feelings of the writer to shine through
Which subjects do you think are at this end of
the spectrum?

Which subjects do you think
are in the middle?
Which subjects do you think are at this
end of the spectrum?



Produced by The University of Hull
16

Useful phrases

The lists below offer general phrases that can be used in many kinds of research papers. For
mastering the terminology and phraseology specific to a field, regular reading of the relevant
literature is necessary.

Note: The numbering below follows the numbering of the parts in the Guidelines for writing
a paper.

3. Abstract
As the Abstract is a short version of the paper, some of the phrases used in the other parts
of the paper are also used in the abstract and are not mentioned here. You can find them
below under each section of the paper. Some hints on how to start the Abstract follow:

Introductory sentences
The paper/article
discusses/deals with/analyses/considers/explains/describes/establishes/introduces ..
develops/presents/provides/studies/represents/features/contains/concentrates on ..
covers/suggests/proposes/shows ..
demonstrates the feasibility of ..
opens up a new field/issue
gives/aims to give a comprehensive account of ..
offers a solution to ..
serves as an introduction to ..
The main objective/goal/purpose of the paper/article is ..
Common mistakes:
Wrong: Right:
In this paper there/it is presented a novel This paper presents a novel method of ..
method of .. In this paper, a novel method of .. is
presented
4. Sections of the paper

4.1. Introduction
In most cases, the Introduction section is treated as a whole and is not divided into
subsections. The subheadings below should only help you organize the information.

4.1.1. Problem background, state of the art
.. plays an important/vital role in ..
.. is an important issue for ..
.. is extensively/widely used in ..
.. is a very effective method for ..
In the last few years there has been a growing interest in ..
Quite recently, considerable attention has been paid to ..
.. have/has been gaining importance in recent years ..
.. have/has been utilized in many applications such as ..
4.1.2. Literature review/Summary of previous research
- Referring to the sources in general
Current research on .. is focused on ..
Previous studies indicate that ..
The literature on .. shows a variety of approaches
Much research on .. has been done.
The focus of recent research has been on ..
.. has/have been widely researched/investigated.
In recent years, research on/into .. has become very popular.
In the last decade .. has attracted much attention from research teams ..
For several years great effort has been devoted to the study of ..
Several publications have appeared in recent years documenting ..
Previous research has documented/shown/demonstrated that ..
To solve this problem/issue, many researchers have proposed various methods of (+-ing)
In the literature, several theories have been proposed to explain ..
- Referring to individual authors
.. and . are discussed in [3] and [6].
X [4] and Y [3] indicate that ..
X et al. [1] argue that ..
One of the first examples of .. is presented in [2].
Another/The latest solution is described in [3].
The results obtained/offered by X in [5] suggest that ..
Recently, several authors [4], [5], [7] have proposed (a new theory) ..
X [2] and X [5] have demonstrated that ..
A/The most interesting approach to this issue has been proposed by [2].
X [6] has also found that .. . However, our researchers have arrived at the conclusion/have
concluded that ..
.. was experimentally measured by [7].
X et al. [7] studied .. and showed that ..
X [11] developed a novel sensor using ..
In this work and in related references it was observed that ..
In [8] it was shown that ..
As reported by X [2], ..
In a recent paper by X [9], ..
- Saying that little research has been done in a particular field
However, to the authors/authors best knowledge, very few publications can be found/are
available in the literature that discuss/address the issue of .
To the authors/authors knowledge, .. has/have been scarcely investigated from the point
of view of ../from the theoretical point of view.
- Pointing out limitations of previous research
A key limitation of this research is that (it does not address the problem of ..)
The major drawback of this approach is ..
However, most of the previous studies do not take into account ..
This approach may not be practical/orthodox/conventional in all situations.
Reference [3] analyses and compares various aspects of .. . Nevertheless, there are still
some interesting and relevant problems to be addressed.
However, studies on .. are still lacking.
The problem with this approach is in that it ..
Although several studies have indicated that .., little attention has been paid/given to ..

4.1.3. Problem statement, purpose/main objective of the paper
- Problem statement and description of the objective of the paper are very specific parts of
the paper and the phrases used depend on the nature of the problem. Examples showing
how closely this part is related to the literature review and previous research are given
below.
(A .. theory of .. ) has recently been presented in [..]. However, several practical
questions arise when dealing with ..: 1) It is important to (identify ..). 2) It is key to
(predict ..). 3. It is crucial to (establish when ..). To answer all these questions, we present
an original approach which .. .
Even though (the efficiency of ..) has been improved in recent years, most improvements
have been achieved by (minimizing the amount of energy lost in ..). Nonetheless, it is
possible to further improve (the efficiency by ..). With this goal, this work (explores, seeks
to ..).
Based on the approach presented in [3], the purpose of this paper is to .
In this paper, while we refer to our earlier work [2], [3], and [4], the focus is different.
Like most authors, we ..
The objective/aim of this paper/study is to propose ..
The paper presents/proposes a new approach to ..
This article introduces a new type of ..
In this paper, we/the authors offer ..
In this paper, we explore the possibility of ..
In this study, a new technique that improves .. is suggested.
See also Abstract, Introductory sentences.

4.1.4. Framework of the paper (usually the last part of the Introduction)
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows/into .. sections:
Section II describes/outlines .., Section III discusses/analyses .. . (Experimental results)
are presented in Section IV; Section V concludes the paper.
In Section II, .. will be discussed. Section III is devoted to .. . Section IV presents (the
experimental results). The conclusion is reported in Section V.
The proposed (design) is discussed in Section II (The implementation of the proposed
design) is presented in Section III. Section IV shows (the experimental results of
..). Finally, Section V concludes with a summary.
In Section II we explain .. . In Section III we introduce our .. . The measurements are
presented in Section IV. Section V summarizes the results of this work and draws
conclusions.

4.2. Body/Core of the paper
General information
The Body of the paper is very specific in its content. For this reason, the number of generally
applicable phrases is smaller than in the other parts. Examples of some of these phrases are
given below.
There are, however, linguistic means common to all kinds of research papers, i.e. words and
phrases expressing cause, results, addition, similarity, etc. For lists and usage of these words
and phrases see A Remedial Course in English Grammar: Clauses and Guidelines for
Academic Writing: Text structure.

4.2.1. Materials and Methods/Methods of Approach
- Describing what was done and how it was done
We started by investigating ..
We designed a new technique for
We used a new approach.
These experiments were carried out to find out ..
In order to verify the validity of the .. method, we carried out several experiments.
All the tests/measurements were carried out at room temperature.
The (signals) were measured before and after ..
To illustrate .., a simulation was performed.
The .. analysis was performed in order to ..
We checked for the presence of ..
(The chemical structure of ..) was examined by (the .. technique).
A gradual change (in temperature) was observed.
The increase in .. was not caused by/was not due to a decrease in ...
The (optimized condition) was obtained from .
- Describing numerical methods
The equation that describes .. is as follows:
Equation (2) represents/defines/expresses ..
The equation can be written as .., where ..
Thus, the following equation is obtained:
.. can be computed by the following equation:
Equations (5) and (6) approximate (the original formulas).
.. satisfies equation (3).
Equations (2) and (3) demonstrate that ..
(3) implies that ..
.. is described by (5).
The function f is given/defined by...
Let f be given/defined by ..
To simplify (3) we can ..
For simplicity we ignore the dependence of .. on ..
It follows from (3) that ..
Substituting/inserting (4) and (6a) in(to) (6b), we obtain ..
Substitution/Insertion of (4) in(to) (5) yields ..
Now we can derive .. according to (2)
We can now proceed analogously to ..
This is true for ../This holds for ..
Similarly, (5) is also valid/true for the following relation.
Assume/Let us assume that (3) holds for ..
(6) holds under the condition that ..
We will make the following assumptions: ..
From now on we assume that ..
Let us define the following dependence/relation by/as ..
Let (3) satisfy the following relation ...
Equality holds in (10) if and only if ..
The inequality is satisfied if and only if ..
We shall write the above expression as ..
In this way we obtain ...
According to (5) we have/obtain ..
. is obtained as ../can be obtained as ..
.. is denoted (M) and defined as ..
.. takes the form .. /.. can be written in the form ..
As is clear from (5,) ..
We first prove that ../Let us first prove that ..
It remains to prove that ..
It is clear/evident/obvious that ..
From this we conclude/see/deduce that ..
- Referring to/Describing figures, graphs, tables, diagrams
Fig. 2 shows/presents/depicts/outlines/illustrates/represents ..
Fig. 3 gives an example of ..
Such cases are depicted in the following figures.
This is illustrated in Fig. 5.
.. is/are shown/given in Figs. 3 and 4.
.. can be found in Fig. 8.
Consider Fig. 2, which plots .. versus/against .. .
As can be seen from Figs. 5 and 3, ..
As shown in Fig. 1, ..
As follows from the figures shown above, ..
From this figure it can be seen that ..
For the resulting plot, see Fig. 2.
For visual representation of the dependence .. the reader is referred to Tables V and VI.
Table II summarizes ..
The graph/diagram suggests/indicates that ..
Common mistake
Wrong Right
As shown in the Fig. 1 As shown in Fig. 1
The Fig. 2 presents .. Fig. 2 presents ..
See also Guidelines for Presentations, Discussions and Chairing: Slides, graphs, tables,
diagrams.

4.2.2. Results
Some of the phrases listed under Materials and Methods may also be suitable for the
Results section, e.g. summarizing what was done, referring to diagrams, graphs, etc.
It has been found that ..
The results show that ..
The results thus obtained are compatible with ..
The overall measurement results are summarized in Table II.
As mentioned earlier/above, ..
The previous sections have shown that ..
This method is based on ..
The method was tested on ..
The method is an effective way to improve ..
The analysis and simulation indicate that ..
The . analysis plays a crucial role in ..
As may be seen below, ..
We have introduced a new approach to ..
A similar approach is used for ..
This approach may fail if/due to ..
One of the big advantages of (this approach/method) .. is that ..
To verify this method, .. is compared with ..
The only disadvantage/drawback of such .. is ..
There is no evident relationship between .. and ..
.. are in good agreement/correspond with ..
There is a good match between .. and ..
To illustrate the result, a simulation of .. was performed.
The simulation results match the calculations.
The differences in (temperature) result in significant differences in ..
The decrease/increase in .. can be contributed to ..
To overcome/avoid this problem/difficulty, it is necessary to adopt a ..
One possible solution to this problem is to (use)
This solution requires ..

4.2.3. Discussion
For more phrases see also Introduction and Conclusion(s).
- Stating the main objective
In this paper we propose/examine/study ..
This paper proposes/has proposed ..
The purpose of the paper/study is to ..
The paper presents/has presented several solutions to ..
This paper is a modest contribution to the ongoing discussions about/on ..
It was the main purpose of the paper to draw attention to ..
The main concern of the paper was to ..
In our paper, the focus of attention was/is on ..
This study shows/has shown that ..
This experiment/technique/demonstrates that ..
- Specifying the objective
Particular attention is paid to ..
The authors attention was focused/concentrated not only on .. but also on ..
We have addressed not only .. but also ..
We have also considered the consequences of ..
- Pointing out the originality of the solution
Our paper presents an innovative/a novel view of ..
The originality of our solution lies in the fact that ..
This is a novel solution to ..
Our results describe for the first time the ..
To our knowledge, this is the first study to deal with/examine/investigate ..
Only one other study, to our knowledge, has come up with ..
This paper presents a pilot study to find the answer to ..
Our observations that .. are not new, but ..
- Interpreting the facts
The data obtained is/are broadly consistent with the major trends ..
These results agree/concur/are consistent/are in good agreement with other studies which
have shown that ..
In contrast to some reports in the literature, there were ..
An important implication of these findings is that ..
The finding was quite unexpected/surprising and suggests that ..
The most likely explanation of the negative result is ..
The findings have a number of possible limitations, namely ..
So far, the significance of this finding is not clear.
- Stating the limitations of the research
The main limitation of the experimental result is ..
One question still unanswered is whether ..
The analysis does not enable us to determine ..
These results are not conclusive.
- Suggesting possible applications (possible applications are commonly found in the
Conclusion(s) section; they may, however, be mentioned in this section, too. For useful
phrases see Conclusion(s).

4.2.4. Conclusion(s)
The Conclusion(s) section usually starts with
- Stating the objective
The objective presented in the Conclusion(s) section should agree with the objective stated
in the Introduction. For suitable phrases see Introduction and Discussion.
- Drawing conclusions
From the research that has been carried out/done/conducted/performed/undertaken, it is
possible to conclude that ..
Based on the results, it can be concluded that the research into .. has been very successful.
From the outcome of our investigation it is possible to conclude that ..
The findings of our research are quite convincing, and thus the following conclusions can be
drawn: ..
Summing up the results, it can be concluded that ..
In conclusion, it is evident that this study has shown ..
This paper has clearly shown that ..
It has been demonstrated/shown/found that ..
The results/data obtained indicate/have indicated/suggest/show that ..
The existence of (these effects ) implies that ..
- Suggesting possible application(s)
The proposed method can be readily used in practice.
The technique/approach/result is applicable to ..
.. can be successfully used for a number of .. applications.
The/our .. has great potential for other applications such as ..
This research was concerned with ..; however, the results should be applicable also to ..
The findings suggest that this approach could also be useful for ..
The findings are of direct practical relevance.
- Suggesting further research
In our future research we intend to concentrate on ..
Future work will involve ..
On the basis of the promising findings presented in this paper, work on the remaining issues
is continuing and will be presented in future papers.
The next stage of our research will be (experimental confirmation of our theory).
Further study of the issue would be of interest.
Clearly, further research will be needed/required to prove/validate ..
Several other questions remain to be addressed/resolved.
More research into .. is still necessary before obtaining a definitive answer to ..
Further study of the issue is still required.
Further research on/into .. is desirable/necessary (to extend our knowledge of) ..
Continuing/continued research on/into .. appears fully justified because ..
More tests/experiments/calculations will be needed to verify whether ..

5. Acknowledgement
- Thanking for assistance, acknowledging financial assistance
The authors would like to thank their colleagues/Dr X and Dr Y for
- many useful comments and discussions on ..
- their valuable insights and recommendations
- their technical assistance
- their contribution in conducting some of the experiments
for the research
The authors would like to acknowledge the valuable comments and suggestions of the
reviewers, which have improved the quality of this paper.
Fruitful discussions in the early stages of experiments with Professor X are gratefully
acknowledged.
The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance and support of ..
The authors appreciate the efforts and assistance of .. regarding .. .
The authors thanks are due to Dr X for kindly granting permission to include Fig. 9.
The authors thanks are also extended to Dr Y for his support and help in completing the
paper.
The author would like to extend his/her thanks to (name of institution) for its support in
implementing the project.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the generous financial support of (name of institution).
Financial support from the Czech Science Foundation, Grant No. .., (project topic), is
gratefully acknowledged.
- Stating financial support
This research/work was supported by the European Regional Development Fund and
Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic under Project No.