Biology I

End-of-Course
Exam
Study Guide

Table of Contents

Inquiry 3
Basics of Life 5
Cell Structure 6
Cell Transport 7
Cell Energy 8
Cell Division and Reproduction 9
DNA, RNA, and Protein Synthesis - 12
Genetics 14
Other Genetics Stuff- 16
Evolution - 17
Speciation and Classification 20
Basic Ecology 22

Mr. Helms, may I be excused? My brain is full.

Population Ecology 25

Inquiry
Pages you can find this stuff on
Big things you
1. A hypothesis is a reasonable explanation of an observation or experimental result. It may be a possible
should know
answer to a scientific question that can then be tested. Hypotheses by definition are not necessarily
supported by experimental results. It is often stated as a cause-effect relationship.
- Experimental results DO NOT prove a hypothesis is correct. They merely support (verify) or do
not support (refute) the hypothesis. Either result is acceptable as an unsupported hypothesis still
provides us with valuable information. If a hypothesis is tested repeatedly and is not contradicted,
it may become known as a theory, a principle or a scientific law.
a. Theories are an explanation that has been tested repeatedly and the evidence supports it
to the extent that it can be expressed within a system of logic (the only logical conclusion
to the majority of evidence is the theory). There may be some evidence that does not
support the theory but that evidence does not refute the theory either. While considered
the best explanation based on the available knowledge and data, it may change as more
evidence becomes available but they are not easily discarded as they are already proven
b. Principles are a set of rules that seem to be followed by all available evidence. They
may not be able to be proven by empirical data but we base them on repeated
observations. Vary similar to scientific laws and sometimes called laws by mistake.
c. Scientific Laws are proven to the point of being considered universal and invariable
(unchanging) facts of the universe. They are statements that have irrefutable data
supporting them. They may be revised (narrowed, expanded) as more evidence is found.
- Use credible (trustworthy), accurate (correct based on supported data), and relevant
(applicable, related to the topic of the investigation) sources of scientific information in
preparation for generating a hypothesis. These sources could be previous scientific investigations
science journals, textbooks, or other credible sources, such as scientifically reliable internet sites.
2. Scientific Investigations are designed to be controlled procedures where one variable at a time is
deliberately changed (independent variable) and the effect on another variable is observed/
measured (dependent variable). All other variables are held constant (control variable) so
as to not influence the results.
- Steps in an investigation
i) Stating the purpose in the form of a testable question or problem statement
ii) Researching information related to the investigation
iii) Stating the hypothesis
iv) Describing the experimental process
a) Planning for independent and dependent variables with repeated trials
b) Planning for factors that should be held constant (control variables)
c) Setting up the sequence of steps to be followed
d) Listing materials
e) Planning for recording, organizing and analyzing data
- You record and organize data into Charts, Tables, and Graphs
- A direct variation (proportion, correlation) is when one variable
increases/decreases, the other increases/decreases proportionally to it.
-Inverse variation (proportion, correlation) is when one variable
increases, the other decreases proportionally.
f) Plan out the experimental group and control group.
- The Experimental Group is the collection of individuals in an
investigation that have an independent variable applied to them.
- The Control Group is the collection of individuals in an investigation
that instead of an independent variable given it is instead a control
variable. This group is used as a comparison to the experimental group
to determine the effect the independent variable had.
v) Planning for a conclusion statement that will support or not support the hypothesis
vi) Repeat as necessary to limit random errors in procedure or measurements

3. Measurements are taken with the appropriate SI unit (usually the metric system) and be able to use
prefixes milli (1/1000), centi (1/100), and kilo (1000).
- Measurements should be recorded to the extent of the last digit being an estimation of the next
digit beyond the instruments known measurements
- The more decimals in a measurement, the more precise the instrument used to take it.
Example: an instrument that can be read to the hundredths place is more precise than one
that can be read to the tenths place.
- Precision vs Accuracy. Precision is a measure of the degree to which measurements made in the
same way agree with one another. The accuracy of a result is the degree to which the experimental
value agrees with the true or accepted value. It is possible to have a high degree of precision with
poor accuracy. This occurs if the same error is involved in repeated trials of the experiment.
-Dimensional analysis is the procedure for changing the units of a measurement, but NOT the
value of that measurement. Example: going form milliliters to liters. SEE BELOW.
4. Science vs Technology.
a. Science is a process of inquiry that searches for relationships that explain and predict our
observations. A scientific model is an idealized description of how phenomena occur and how data
or events are related. It is the information we gather to create explanations of how we think some
part of our reality works. We use scientific models to represent a concept or system so that the
concept may be more easily understood and predictions can be made. Models are not a perfect
representation of the actual concept or system and may change as more scientific knowledge
becomes available
b. Technology are the tools, machines, and processes that are used to develop a better
understanding of the science concepts. As technology improves, science concepts are
studied more completely and more accurately thus furthering our scientific knowledge.
Technology also leads to designs and products that are used to meet the specific needs of
humans and to make the human experience better.
Pictures/Charts/Figures youll probably see:
Example of how to change measurement units

Table analyzing how science and technology are different

Basics of Life
Pages you can find this stuff on
Big things you
1. Chemical Reactions occur when reactants collide with sufficient energy to react. Reactions can be
should know
affected by the temperature and pH level of the surrounding environment.
a. Activation Energy is the amount of energy that is sufficient to start a reaction.
b. Buffers are molecules within an organism that are used to regulate pH levels (homeostasis)
c. Catalyst are substances that change the rate of a chemical reaction, lower the amount of
activation energy, or allow reactions to occur at non-ideal temperature and pH conditions.
d. Enzymes are proteins which serve as catalysts in organisms. Enzymes are specific to a
particular reaction but are essential and involved in almost every reaction necessary to life.
Enzymes can be altered by temperature and pH and it may affect how well the enzyme works.
2. Organic Molecules contain carbon atoms and form the building blocks of all living things. Most
organic molecules are made out of smaller units with varying types of bonds. Energy is stored in
these bonds but the amount will vary with each molecule. The amount of energy stored in a
molecule determines its caloric value (calories or energy available).
i) Carbohydrates are the main source of energy for the cell and are often referred to as sugars.
Simple sugars (monosaccharides), such as glucose, often bond together to form much
larger, complex carbohydrates, like starch. Complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides) are
better for storing energy or to be used structurally. Carbohydrates are the main source of
fuel for cell respiration. Their caloric value is dependent on the number of carbonhydrogen bonds.
- In the human body carbohydrates are the primary source of energy and fiber. If we consume more carbohydrates than our
body needs then the excess carbohydrates are converted into other organic molecules, like fat.
ii) Proteins are chains of amino acids. There are 20 different amino acids that vary in structure,
and bonding patterns. Your body makes 12 of these amino acids the others you obtain
from the food you eat. Proteins are primarily used in building cell structures, transport,
and enzymes. They have the same caloric value as Carbohydrates.
- In the human body proteins are involved in almost every function; structure (connective tissue and keratin that forms
hair/fingernails), transport (hemoglobin carries oxygen throughout your body), regulation (hormones coordinate body
activities), movement (proteins in muscle cells control contraction of those cells), and reactions (enzymes accelerate the rate of
chemical reactions).
iii) Lipids are a large, diverse group of organic molecules that includes fats. Most lipids are made
of a combination of two components, glycerols and fatty acids. Lipids have more carbonhydrogen bonds than carbohydrates, therefore they store more energy. They have a
greater caloric value than any other organic molecule.
- In the human body, fats are broken down for energy when carbohydrates are scarce. They also provide long-term energy
storage, cushioning of organs, and heat insulation for the body. They also are a major component in cell membranes.
iv) Nucleic Acid serve as the blueprint for proteins, and through the action of the proteins, control
all cellular activity. There are two types: DNA and RNA. Both are made up of
nucleotides. Every nucleotide is made up of a nitrogen base, a pentose sugar, and a
phosphate group.
- In the human body, nucleic acids are the molecular basis for how our body is made and works along with how we pass that
on to offspring (heredity).

Pictures/Charts/Figures youll probably see:

Example of a Carbohydrate

Example of a Lipid

Example of a Protein

Example of a Nucleotide

Phosphate
Group

O
O=PO
O

CH2
O
N
C1

C4
Sugar
(deoxyribose)

C3

Nitrogenous base
(A, G, C, or T)

C2

Cell Structure and Function

Pages you can find this stuff on
Big things you
1. Cell Theory should know
i) All living things are made of cells
ii) Cells are the basic unit of structure for life (capable of doing all of lifes processes)
iii) All existing cells arose from previous cells
2. Unicellular organisms are made of only one cell (the one cell does everything)
3. Multicellular organisms are made of many cells (cells can specialize but together do everything)
4. Organelles are cell structures that perform a specialized function within a eukaryotic cell.
a. Nucleus - contains the DNA; functions as the genetic control of the cell.
b. Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration, a process which supplies the cell with energy.
c. Chloroplasts (PLANTS) are the site of photosynthesis, a process where energy is turned into sugar.
d. Lysosomes contain chemicals called enzymes necessary for digesting certain materials in the cell.
e. Vacuoles store materials such as water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates
- vacuoles in animal cells (if they are present) are much smaller than those in plant cells.
f. Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis; some are located on the ER, others in the cytoplasm.
g. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an extensive network that transports materials throughout the cell.
- Rough ER has ribosomes attached to the surface is ribosome-studded.
- Smooth ER has no attached ribosomes.
h. Golgi apparatus modifies, collects, packages, and distributes molecules within the cell or outside the cell.
i. Cilia are short hair-like projections responsible for the movement of a cell
j. Flagella are long whip-like projections responsible for the movement of a cell
k. Cell membrane (plasma membrane) encloses the cell and regulates the passage of materials between the
cell and its environment; also aids in protection and support of the cell.

l. Nuclear membrane (nuclear envelope) is the membrane that surrounds the nucleus of the cell and
regulates the passage of materials between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
m. Cell wall (PLANTS) surrounds the cell membrane for protection and support
n. Cytoplasm is the semi-fluid material inside the cell containing molecules and the organelles
5. Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus or other membrane bound organelles, the DNA is attached to the
membrane and is circular in shape, obtain energy from sunlight or chemicals in their environment,
mostly unicellular
6. Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and membrane bound organelles, the DNA is organized into linear
chromosomes which are located in the nucleus, obtain energy from digesting other molecules, can
be either unicellular or multicellular, cells can become specialized to perform a specific function
7. Differentiation is the process of a cell becoming specialized in structure and function (blood,
muscle, skin, or a nerve cell) by activating only certain genes. This leads to an organizational
pattern of tissues, organs, and organ systems.
- Stem cells are unspecialized cells. Once a cell differentiates it can not be reversed.

Pictures/Charts/Figures youll probably see:

Prokaryote vs. Eukaryote Cell

Animal vs. Plant cell

BE ABLE TO IDENTIFY THE ORGANELLES IN ALL CELLS

Cell Transport
Pages you can find this stuff on
Big things you
1. Homeostasis refers to an organisms ability to maintain a constant or stable internal condition.
should know
- organisms respond to stimuli to keep their conditions conducive for life
2. Selective permeability (semipermeable) is the quality of a cell membrane that helps a cell maintain
homeostasis. The membrane controls what molecules can easily pass across and those that cannot.
Depending on conditions, it will allow needed substances into and excess substances out of a cell.
3. Passive Transport is when substances move across the cell membrane without the use of energy
a. Diffusion is a random process where molecules will always go from high to low concentration
until the concentration is equaled out on both sides. Only substances small enough and
able to move across the membrane (hydrophobic) undergo diffusion.
b. Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules from a greater water concentration (low solute) to a
lower water concentration (high solute). 3 types of solutions
i) Isotonic equal on both sides (equilibrium) and water moves equally in both directions
ii) Hypotonic greater water conc. outside the cell causing water to move into the cell.
May cause cell to burst or lyse
iii) Hypertonic lower water conc. outside the cell causing water to leave the cell. May
cause the cell to shrivel and lyse
c. Facilitated Diffusion is a process where substances that are not able to pass directly through the
membrane are able to enter or leave the cell with the aid of transport (channel) proteins.
4. Active Transport is when molecules move against the concentration gradient (low to high) and require
energy from a cell in order to do so.
a. Protein Pump energy is used to make a transport (carrier) protein pump a molecule across the
membrane. Calcium, Potassium, and Sodium are all examples.
b. Endocytosis molecules that are too large to pass across the membrane (or a high quantity of
smaller molecules) move into the cell by a vesicle.
c. Exocytosis same as above but move out of the cell
Pictures/Charts/Figures youll probably see:
Diffusion across a semipermeable membrane

Osmotic solutions

Types of Transport

Cell Energy
Pages you can find this stuff on
Big things you
1. ATP-ADP Cycle refers to the constant need of a cell to supply energy for cell functions and to reuse and
should know
recycle molecules instead of making new ones each time.
i) Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is the most important biological molecule that supplies energy
to a cell. It is composed of 3 parts: adenine (a nitrogen base), ribose (a sugar), and three
phosphate groups that have high energy bonds that bind them. If one of these
phosphate bonds is broken, energy is released and you form ADP and a free phosphate
group.
ii) Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP) is the used form of ATP and is identical except for one fewer
phosphate group. A cell will use energy from metabolic processes to reattach a phosphate
group to
ADP forming ATP thus storing that energy to be used elsewhere.
2. Photosynthesis is the overall process by which solar energy is used to chemically convert water and
carbon dioxide into simple sugars
i) In the light-dependent reactions, solar energy is absorbed by chloroplasts and is stored in ATP
and NADPH. Solar energy is used to split water which leads to the release of oxygen.
ii) In the light-independent reactions (dark reactions), energy from ATP and NADPH are used to
convert carbon dioxide into a simple sugar. The energy stored in sugar will be used later.
3. Cell Respiration is the process by which energy stored in sugar (or other nutrients) is converted into
ATP. ATP is then used throughout the cell to provide energy for metabolic processes
A. Aerobic respiration occurs when oxygen is available and results in a complete breakdown of
the sugar or nutrient and maximum ATP production.
B. Anaerobic respiration occurs when there is NO oxygen available. It is inefficient and only
partially breaks down the sugar or nutrient and produces little ATP.
All Possible Steps in Respiration
i) Glycolysis is the first step where glucose is split into two pyruvate (pyruvic acid) molecules and
two ATP. Takes place in the cytoplasm. ANAEROBIC.
ii) Krebs Cycle (citric acid cycle) occurs after glycolysis if oxygen is present and is the process of
breaking the pyruvate down into carbon dioxide, water, and 2 ATP in addition to making
other energy molecules (NADH and FADH2) for the next step. Takes place in the
mitochondria. AEROBIC

iii) Electron Transport Chain (ETC) is the final step after the Kreabs Cycle, where most of the
ATP is formed. It is a series of reactions ending with hydrogen joining oxygen to form
water which is released. Each reaction releases a small amount of energy that is used to
make ATP and we will produce up to 36 ATP molecules. Takes place in the
mitochondria. AEROBIC
iv) Fermentation follows glycolysis when there is no oxygen present. It results in far fewer ATP.
ANAEROBIC
a. Lactic Acid fermentation occurs in muscle tissues during extensive exercises when
muscles get depleted of oxygen. Pyruvate is broken down to lactic acid for an
immediate release of a small amount of ATP. Lactic acid builds up in the tissue
and causes the burning/painful sensation during the exercise. When it is later
broken down completely it causes the soreness we feel.
b. Alcoholic fermentation occurs in some yeast and bacteria where pyruvate is broken
down partially to produce alcohol, and a small amount of ATP. The alcohol is
release as waste and not broken down further in the cell.

Pictures/Charts/Figures youll probably see:

Photosynthesis formula

Cell Respiration formula

Cell Division and Reproduction

Pages you can find this stuff on
Big things you
1. Cell Cycle is a repeated pattern of growth and division in eukaryotic cells. Consists of three phases
should know
a. Interphase the phase in which a cell grows, and prepares for its next division. A cell will
spend most of its time in this phase.
i) G1 (gap 1) the cell grows and synthesizes proteins and organelles
ii) S (synthesis) chromosomes replicate/copy. The two copies are called sister
chromatids and held together by a centromere
- DNA replication is carried out by a series of enzymes. The first enzyme unzips
the two
strands of DNA that compose the double helix, separating paired bases.
Each base that is exposed can only bond to its complementary base. Each of the
separated strands serves as a template for the attachment of complementary
bases, forming a new strand, identical to the one from which it was unzipped.
The result is two identical DNA molecules.
iii) G2 (gap 2) cells continue to grow and produce materials necessary for division
b. Mitosis is the division of the DNA. The duplicated chromosomes separate so that each new cell
gets a copy of each.
i) Prophase chromosomes coil/condense, become visible; nuclear membrane
disappears; centrioles move to the poles and form the spindle
ii) Metaphase chromosomes line up at the cell equator after being attached to spindle
iii) Anaphase centromeres are broken and sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles
iv) Telophase chromosomes uncoil/decondense; nuclear membrane reforms; spindle
fibers dissolve; cytokinesis begins
c. Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm and cell membrane into two different cells.
a. Animal cells form a cleavage furrow that pinches the cell membrane.
b. Plant cells form a cell plate at the equator of a cell, eventually forming a cell wall.
2. There is a chemical control system within a cell that triggers and coordinates key events in the cell cycle.
a. Internal signals involve the cell sensing the presence of chemicals (i.e. enzymes, organic
molecules) that are produced by the cell.

b. External signals involve the cell sensing the presence of a chemical (i.e. hormones) that are
outside the cell, and usually produced by a specialized cell.
c. Physical signals involve the cell sensing and responding to a signal from the environment (i.e.
food, or whether or not it is touching another surface)
d. Checkpoints are found within the cell cycle, these are critical control points where specific
signals have to be received before the cycle continues.
3. Cancer cells are examples of cells whose chemical control system is not working properly. These cells
are not receiving the normal signals that tell it not to divide and therefore are dividing excessively
and uncontrollable. They continue to divide even when they are densely packed. 2 types:
i) Malignant tumors are a mass of cancel cells that invade and impair the function of an organ
ii) Benign tumors are a mass of cancer cells that remain at one site and do not impair function.
4. Meiosis is the type of cell division that leads to the formation of gametes. Gametes are haploid meaning
they only have one of each chromosome. During sexual reproduction a gamete from each parent
will join to form a zygote. Zygotes are diploid meaning they have two of each chromosome, one
from each parent. There are two parts to Meiosis.
i) Meiosis I - results in two haploid daughter cells with duplicated chromosomes different from the
sets in the original diploid cell.
a. Interphase I cells increase in size, prepare for division, and replicate the DNA
b. Prophase I (as in figure A) - the nuclear membrane breaks down; centrioles move to
opposite sides of the cell and begin to produce spindle fibers. Homologous
chromosomes pair up and form a cluster of four chromatids called a tetrad.
- A homologous chromosome pair consists of two chromosomes containing the
same type of genes, one from each parent.
- Each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids (duplicated chromosomes)
attached at a point called the centromere.
- The homologous chromosome pairs may exchange genetic material during a
process called Crossing over.
c. Metaphase I (as in figure B) - The chromosomes are attached to the spindle fiber at
the centromere and are pulled into the mid-line (or equator) of the cell in pairs.
d. Anaphase I (as in figure C) - The chromosome pairs separate, one chromosome to
each side of the cell ensuring only one chromosome of a pair is in the new cell.
e. Telophase I & Cytokinesis (as in figure D) - Chromosomes gather at the poles,
nuclear membrane may form, and the cytoplasm divides forming two individual
daughter cells. Each of the two daughter cells from meiosis I contains only one
chromosome (consisting of two sister chromatids) from each original pair. Each
daughter cell from meiosis I proceeds to undergo meiosis II.
ii) Meiosis II the haploid daughter cells from Meiosis I divide, resulting in four haploid daughter
cells called gametes, or sex cells (eggs and sperm), with undoubled chromosomes.
a. Prophase II (as in figure E)- Spindle fibers re-form, and the nuclear membrane
breaks down (if it had reformed in Telophase I).
b. Metaphase II (as in figure F) - Chromosomes, now made up of two sister chromatids,
line up across the center of the cell.
c. Anaphase II (as in figure G) - The chromosomes separate so that one chromatid from
each chromosome goes to each pole.
d. Telophase II & Cytokinesis (as in figure H) - Nuclear membranes form around each
set of chromosomes as the hromosomes uncoil to become unseen, and the
spindle and centrioles disappear. There are now 4 daughter cells that are haploid
and genetically different from the original cell prior to meiosis.
5. Sexual reproduction uses the process of meiosis to create gametes. Fertilization is the combination of a
male and female gamete to form a fertilized egg, called a zygote, which will grow into an embryo.
The embryo will have received alleles from each parent for each trait. The new individual will
express a combination of traits allowing for variation within the offspring. 2 parents 1 offspring
6. Asexual reproduction involves only one parent that produces the offspring that are for the most part
genetically identical to that parent. Genetic variability can only occur through mutations in the
DNA passed from parent to offspring, which is another way these organisms achieve variations as
the populations continue over time. Two types: binary fission (reproduction of single-celled
organisms) or mitosis (reproduction in multi-celled organisms). 1 parent 2 offspring

10

Pictures/Charts/Figures youll probably see:

Replicated Chromosomes (both pictures)

Cytokinesis in Animal cell

Cytokinesis in Plant cell

Cell Cycle

Mitosis Stages

11

Meiosis I

Meiosis II

DNA, RNA and Protein Synthesis

Pages you can find this stuff on
Big things you
1. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) consists of two strands of nucleotides where the nitrogen bases bond
should know
facing each other forming a spiral structure called a double helix.
2. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a single strand of nucleotides where the nitrogen bases are exposed on one
side which allows it to bond to a DNA strand or other RNA. There are 3 types of RNA.
i) Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries DNAs message out of the nucleus
- every 3 bases on mRNA is called a codon. Each codon specifies a specific amino acid.
- the sequence of codons determines the sequence of amino acids and thus the protein.
ii) Transfer RNA (tRNA) brings amino acids to a ribosome and transfers them to the protein
- each tRNA has an amino acid attached on one end and an anticodon on the other
- anticodons are 3 base sequences that are complementary to the mRNA codon
iii) Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) combines with some proteins to make a ribosome
3. The nucleotides that make of DNA and RNA are structurally similar. They have 3 basic parts
i) A nitrogenous base (a carbon ring that also has a nitrogen)
- Cytosine (C)
- Guanine (G)
- Adenine (A)
- Thymine (T) (DNA only)

12

- Uracil (U) (RNA only)

ii) A simple (pentose) sugar
- Deoxyribose (DNA only)
- Ribose (RNA only)
iii) A phosphate group
- The phosphate attaches to the sugar to form a backbone of the structure
4. Complementary bases are pairs of nucleotides that bond together (fit together).
- In DNA, G will only bond with C, and A will only bond with T.
- In RNA, G will only bond with C, and A will only bond with U.
5. DNA contains the code of life, also known as the genetic code, because it contains the code for each
protein that the organism needs. The structure of a protein (amino acid sequence) is determined by
of nucleotides found in DNA. When a particular protein is needed, the cell will make
protein through the process of protein synthesis.
6. Protein Synthesis is the process that turns the code in DNA to mRNA to the amino acids that form a
protein. DNA does not leave the nucleus, but assembling a protein occurs outside the nucleus in
the ribosomes, so the DNA must be copied first into a form that can leave the nucleus and go to
the ribosomes to assemble a protein. There are two steps to protein synthesis.
i) Transcription is the process by which a portion of the DNA is copied into a complementary
mRNA strand. Through a series of signals, an enzyme (RNA polymerase) attaches to the
DNA at the exact starting location of a gene (promoter). The enzyme causes the DNA to
separate, then it adds RNA nucleotides in a complementary pattern to one of the strands
of DNA. After RNA is made the DNA reattaches its two strands and the mRNA leaves
the nucleus and goes to a ribosome in the cytoplasm.
ii) Translation is the process of interpreting the code on the mRNA and building the protein. This
takes place inside of a ribosome. The tRNA, with its attached amino acid, pairs to the
codon of the mRNA inside of a ribosome. When a second tRNA pairs to the next codon
in sequence, the amino acid breaks from the first tRNA and attaches to the amino acid of
the second tRNA, causing an amino acid chain to begin to form. The empty tRNA leaves
the ribosome and this process is repeated until the ribosome reaches a stop codon on the
mRNA, which signals the end of protein synthesis.

the order
that

Pictures/Charts/Figures youll probably see:

Chart comparing DNA and RNA

Structure of DNA

Structure of RNA

13

Diagram of Transcription

Diagram of Translation

Genetics
Pages you can find this stuff on
Big things you
1. DNA, chromosomes, and genes compose the molecular basis of heredity (passing of traits to offspring).
should know
a. DNA is the blueprint of life in such that its sequence of nucleotides tell the cell what proteins
to make, in what quantities, and through the actions of those proteins, it controls the cell.
b. A chromosome is a structure in the nucleus consisting of one thread of DNA that is coiled up.
- There are hundreds to thousands of genes on each chromosome
- Each cell in an organisms body contains a complete set of chromosomes.
- The # of chromosomes varies with the type of organism. Example: humans have 46.
- Sex chromosomes are a pair of chromosomes that determines the sex (male, female).
- Autosomes are all of the other chromosomes, regardless of number or size
- Cells (except for sex cells) contain one pair of each type of chromosome.
- Each pair consists of two chromosomes that have genes for the same proteins.

14

- These are called homologous chromosomes.

- One chromosome came from the male parent and the other from the female.
c. A gene is a segment of DNA (code for a protein) found in a specific location on a chromosome.
- Organisms that are closely related may have many of the same genes that code for the
same proteins, i.e.. all maple trees have many of the same genes.
- Organisms that are not closely related share fewer genes than organisms that are more
closely related, i.e. red maple trees share more genes with oak trees than with a bulldog.
2. Genetics is the study if patterns of inheritance in organisms. Each organism inherits one copy of each
chromosome (and therefore each gene) from each parent, meaning that every organism has 2
copies of every chromosome and every gene.
a. Alleles are different forms (sequences) of a gene and will produce different characteristics.
b. The Law of Dominance states that some alleles are dominant (will be seen), thus masking
others which are called recessive (will not be seen).
i) The genotype of an organism is the gene combination (allele types) of that organism,
alleles are represented by a letter; dominant is capitalized and a recessive is lower-case
- If they have two of the same allele are homozygous and will express that allele
- TT (Dominant) or tt (recessive)
- If they have one of each allele are heterozygous but will only express the
dominant allele and the recessive allele stays inactive and unexpressed.
- Tt (Dominant only)
ii) The phenotype is the physical characteristic caused by the allele being expressed.
- dominant phenotypes will be shown by organisms with a TT or Tt genotype
- recessive phenotypes will be shown by organisms with a tt genotype
c. The Law of Segregation explains that alleles are separated during meiosis and only one of the
two alleles is sent to each gamete. During fertilization , the gametes will unite, and each
parent will give one copy of each chromosome (and therefore gene) to their offspring.
d. The Law of Independent Assortment states that the inheritance of one trait does not affect the
inheritance of another.
e. Incomplete Dominance is a condition in which one allele is not completely dominant over
another. The phenotype expressed in a heterozygous individual is inbetween the
dominant and the recessive phenotypes.
f. Codominance occurs when there are multiple alleles that are dominant (express completely).The
phenotype will show evidence of both phenotypes
g. Sex-linked traits are the result of genes located on the X or Y chromosomes. This is in contrast
to Mendels Laws because an individual may only get one copy of a gene and express it.
Females are XX and males are XY, therefore males are more likely to be affected as they
are the only ones to get a Y and they only have one X while females have 2.
h. Gene linkage is when two genes are located on the same chromosome and thus will be inherited
together. This is an exception to all other patterns of inheritance.

3. Punnett Squares are used to predict the inherited traits of offspring based on the principles of genetics.
They show the probabilities that an offspring will have a specific genotype based on the parents.
a. Monohybrid Cross examines how a single trait is inherited
i) P generation the original parents used in a cross
ii) F1 generation the first generation of offspring of the P generation
ii) F2 generation the offspring of the F1 generation (the second generation offspring)
b. Dihybrid Cross - examines how a two traits are inherited based on independent assortment.
4. Pedigrees are charts that show an inheritance pattern within a family through many generations. Using a
pedigree reveals the genotypes and phenotypes of the family members allowing us to track the
characteristics of a trait (dom, rec, sex linked, etc.)

Pictures/Charts/Figures youll probably see:

15

Example of a pedigree

Example of a Punnett Square

Other Genetics Stuff

Pages you can find this stuff on
Big things you
1. Mutations are changes in an organisms DNA. They can be large or small and could affect a single gene
should know
or multiple genes. A mutagen is a physical or chemical agent that can cause mutations. Most
mutations are automatically repaired by enzymes, but if not repaired, a mutation may be
advantageous (benefit), deleterious (harmful), or neutral.
a. Mutations in somatic cells only affect the organism and not their offspring.
b. Mutations in gametes will affect the organisms offspring (and possibly the organism too)
c. Genetic Disorders are diseases or deformities caused by mutations. 2 types of mutations
i) Gene mutations affect a single gene, its nucleotide sequence, and the protein it makes.
ii) Chromosome mutations affect the structure of a chromosome and affect multiple genes
- nondisjunction results in an abnormal chromosome number (too many or few)

16

2. Genetic Engineering is the process of replacing specific genes in an organism in order to ensure that
the organism expresses a desired trait. Genetic engineering is accomplished by taking specific
genes from one organism and placing them into another organism.
a. A gene map shows the relative location of each known gene on a chromosome.
b. Genome refers to all the genetic material in an organism.
- The Human Genome Project that mapped the DNA sequence of human genes is useful
in identifying genes for specific traits.
c. In cloning, an identical copy of a gene or an entire organism is produced. This may occur
naturally or may be engineered. Cloning brings benefits such as organ transplants or
saving endangered species, but it may also cause an organism to have health problems.
d. In gene therapy, scientists insert a normal gene into an absent or abnormal gene. Once inserted
the normal gene begins to produce the correct protein or enzyme. It has had limited
success because the host often rejects the injected genetic material.
e. Stem Cells are unspecialized cells that continually reproduce themselves until the appropriate
condition arises causing the cell to differentiate into a type of specialized cell.
a. Embryonic stem cells come from embryonic tissue and potentially can be any cell
b. Adult stem cells are found in an adult organisms and are limited in their cell type.
f. Selective Breeding is the method of artificially selecting and breeding only organisms with a
desired trait. Almost all domesticated animals and crop plants were made this way.
- The drawback is that recessive gene defects often show up more frequently as well.
g. Hybridization, which is another form of selective breeding, is the choosing and breeding
organisms that show strong expression for two different traits in order to produce
offspring that express both traits. This occurs often between two different (but similar)
species. The offspring are often hardier than either of the parents.

Evolution
Pages you can find this stuff on
Big things you
1. Biological evolution describes all of the changes that have transformed life on Earth from the earliest
should know
beginnings to the diversity of organisms in the world today. Biological evolution is the unifying
theme of biology.
a. Micorevolution is evolution occurring on a small scale (short time) affecting a single population
b. Macroevolution is evolution occurring on a large scale (long time) affecting changes in species
across many populations.
c. Natural selection occurs because the individual members of a population have different traits
which allow them to interact with the environment either more or less effectively than the
other members of the population. Natural selection results in changes in the inherited
traits of a population over time. These changes often increase a species fitness in its

17

environment. There are four main principles to natural selection. Natural selection has
sometimes been popularized under the term survival of the fittest.
i) Overproduction of Offspring - the ability of a population to have many offspring raises
the chance of survival but also increases the competition for resources.
ii) Variation - Within every population, variation exists in the phenotypes (body
structures and characteristics) within the inherited traits of the individuals within
every population. An organisms phenotype may influence its ability to find,
obtain, or utilize its resources (food, water, shelter, and oxygen) and also might
affect the organisms ability to reproduce. Phenotypic variation is controlled by
the organisms genotype and the environment. Those individuals with
phenotypes that do not interact well with the environment are more likely to
either die or produce fewer offspring than those that can interact well.
iii) Adaptation - The process of adaptation leads to the increase in frequency of a
particular structure, physiological process, or behavior in a population of
organisms that makes the organisms better able to survive and reproduce. An
adaptation is any characteristic that makes surviving or reproducing easier. In
this manner, the gene pool of a population can change over time as more
beneficial mutations become more prevalent in a population as fitness increases.
-Fitness is used to measure how a particular trait contributes to
an organisms success in a given environment based on its adaptations.
iv) Descent with modification - As the environment of a population changes, the entire
process of natural selection can yield populations with new phenotypes adapted
to new conditions. Natural selection can produce populations that have different
structures, live in different niches or habitats from their ancestors. Each
successive living species will have descended, with adaptations or other
modifications, from previous generations.
2. Evidence for evolution -the continuity of life-forms on Earth is based on an organisms success in
passing genes to the next generation. Many organisms that lived long ago resemble those still alive
today because the same genetic processes have passed along the genetic material of life. Based on
scientific evidence, most scientists attribute the continuity of life-forms over time to the genetic
processes that all organisms share.
a. The field of Anatomy provides many forms of evidence to determine the possible relationship
between the evolutionary paths of two species. Organisms which have diverged from a
common ancestor often have similar characteristics resulting from common ancestry. The
greater the numbers of shared structures between two species, the more closely the
species are related. Examples of the evidence are:
i) Homologous structures came from the same tissue but have different functions.
ii) Vestigial organs are structures with little or no function to the organism, but are the
remnants of structures that had important functions in ancestors of the species.
iii) Also, the study of the anatomy of species located in different geographical locations
reveals that species living in different locations under similar ecological
conditions developed similar structures and behaviors. If a species encountered a
different ecosystem due to a change in geographical location, favorable
anatomical traits become established. A new species evolves with a shared
common ancestor from the original population.
b. The field of Embryology provides more evidence by comparing the anatomies of embryos; the
early stages of organism development (pre-birth, pre-hatching, or pre-germination).
Sometimes similarities in patterns of development or structures that are not obvious in
adult organisms become evident when embryonic development is observed.
Examples of evidence are:
i) The embryos of all vertebrates are very similar in appearance early in development but
may grow into different structures in the adult form, such as pharyngeal slits that will turn
into gills or a pair of lungs.
ii) There is a set of genes that determine body pattern and they are the same in all animals
c. The field of Biochemistry provides evidence that the more similar the DNA and amino acid
sequences in proteins of two species, the more likely they are to have diverged from a
common ancestor. Biochemical evidence is primarily used when species are so closely
related that they do not appear to be different, or when species are so diverse that they
share few similar structures. Examples of evidence are:

18

i) All life that has ever existed on Earth, share at least the same two structures:
(1) Nucleic acids (RNA or DNA) that carry the code for the synthesis of proteins
(2) Proteins (composed of the same twenty amino acids in all organsims)
ii) The process by which nucleic acids code for proteins is the same in all life forms. The
same sequences of nucleotides code for the same specific amino acids.
iii) All organisms have reliable means of passing genetic information to offspring through
reproduction. The reproductive processes of organisms, whether sexual or
asexual, result in offspring receiving essentially the same genetic information as
the parent or parents, though there may be some genetic variability.
d. The field of Paleontology provides valid evidence of life forms and environments along a
timeline and supports evolutionary relationships by showing the similarities between
current species and ancient species. Comparing current and ancient species shows a
pattern of gradual change from the past to the present.
i) Examining the fossil record of Earth reveals a history that tells a story of the types of
organisms that have lived on Earth (now extinct).
ii) The fossil record is not complete because most organisms do not form fossils.
However, many of the gaps in the fossil record have been filled in as more
fossils have been discovered and will continue to do so.
iii) The older the fossils, the less resemblance there is to modern species. The newer the
fossil the more closely it resembles a currently living species.
IMPORTANT!!! One piece of evidence does not ensure an accurate picture of the history of the evolution of a particular
group of organisms, but as scientists collect many pieces of evidence from many fields, the reliability of a particular hypothesis
becomes greater and greater. The more evidence scientists can gather from different fields of science, the more
reliable their
information becomes in regards to evolutionary relationships. The evolutionary theory is a well-tested
explanation that accounts
for a wide range of observations made by scientists in many fields of science. No scientist suggests
that all evolutionary
processes are understood; many unanswered questions remain to be studied.

Pictures/Charts/Figures youll probably see:

Adaptations in finches for different environments and food type

Paleontology fossil record shows progression of species

19

Anatomy homologous structures

Embryology similarity in embryo development

Speciation and Classification of Species

20

Pages you can find this stuff on

Big things you
1. Speciation is the process of forming of a new species (or other taxonomic groups) by biological
should know
evolution from a preexisting species. New species usually form when organisms in the population
are isolated or separated so that the new population is prevented from reproducing with the
original population, and its gene pools cease to blend. Once isolation (reproductive or temporal,
behavioral, geographic) occurs, genetic variation and natural selection increase the differences
between the separated populations. As different traits are favored in the two populations (original
and new) because of isolation, the gene pools gradually become so different that they are no
longer able to reproduce. At this point the two groups are by definition different species.
Speciation may also be caused by environmental factors (such as catastrophic events, climatic
changes, continental drift) that lead to evolution. Some patterns of species evolution are:
i) Gradualism - Gradual changes of a species in a particular way over long periods of time, such as
a gradual trend toward larger or smaller body size.
ii) Punctuated equilibrium - Periods of abrupt changes in a species after long periods of little
change within the species over time, such as sudden change in species size or shape due
to environmental factors.
iii) Adaptive radiation/Divergent evolution - a number of different species diverge (split-off)
from a common ancestor. This occurs when, over many generations, organisms (whose
ancestors were all of the same species) evolve a variety of characteristics which allow
them to survive in different niches.
iv) Convergent evolution - In convergent evolution, evolution among different groups of
organisms living in similar environments produces species that are similar in appearance
and behavior. Convergent evolution has produced many of the analogous structures in
organisms today. Analogous structures are similar in appearance and function, but have
different evolutionary origins.
v) Coevolution - With coevolution, when two or more species living in close proximity change in
response to each other. One species may affect the evolution of the other.
vi) Extinction - Extinction is the elimination of a species often occurring when a species as a
whole cannot adapt to a change in its environment. Types of extinction:
a. Gradual extinction usually occurs at a slow rate and may be due to other organisms,
changes in climate, or natural disasters. Speciation and gradual extinction occur
at approximately the same rate.
b. Mass extinction usually occurs when a catastrophic event changes the environment
very suddenly (such as a massive volcanic eruption, or a meteor hitting the earth
causing massive climatic changes). It is often impossible for a species to adapt
to rapid and extreme environmental changes.
2. A species is a group of organisms that share similar characteristics and can interbreed with one another
to produce fertile offspring. Species that interbreed share a common gene pool (all genes,
including all the different alleles, of all of the individuals in a population). Because of the shared
gene pool, a genetic change that occurs in one individual can spread through the population as that
individual and its offspring mate with other individuals. If the genetic change increases fitness, it
will eventually be found in many individuals in the population.
a. Within a species there is a variability of phenotypic traits leading to diversity among the
organisms of the species. The greater the diversity, the greater the chances are for that
species to survive during environmental changes. If an environment changes, organisms
that have phenotypes which are well-suited to the new environment will be able to
survive and reproduce at higher rates than those with less favorable phenotypes.
Therefore, the alleles associated with favorable phenotypes increase in frequency and
become more common and increase the chances of survival of the species.
b. Favorable traits (such as coloration or odors in plants and animals, competitive strength,
courting behaviors) in male and female organisms will enhance their reproductive
success. Non-random mating results in the gene pool of a population that can change over
time and a species that can become increasingly adapted to its environment.
c. Organisms with inherited traits that are beneficial to survival in its environment become more
prevalent. For example, resistance of the organism to diseases or ability of the organism
to obtain nutrients from a wide variety of foods or from new foods.
d. Organisms with inherited traits that are detrimental to survival in its environment become less

21

prevalent.
3. Genetic variation is random and ensures that each new generation results in individuals with unique
genotypes and phenotypes. This genetic variability leads to biological evolution. Factors that
influence genetic variability within a population may be:
i) Genetic drift is the random change in the frequency of alleles of a population over time. Due to
chance, rare alleles in a population will decrease in frequency and become eliminated;
other alleles will increase in frequency and become fixed. The phenotypic changes may
be more apparent in smaller populations than in larger ones.
ii) Gene flow is the movement of genes into or out of a population. This occurs during the
movement of individuals between populations (such as migration) thus increasing the
genetic variability of the receiving population.
iii) Non-random mating limits the frequency of the expression of certain alleles.
iv) Mutations increase the frequencies and types of allele changes within the population.
v) Natural selection allows for the most favorable phenotypes to survive and thus be passed on to
future generations.
4. The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that if there is no change in the allele frequencies within a species,
the population is said to be in genetic equilibrium. Five conditions that are required to maintain
genetic equilibrium are:
The population must be very large, no genetic drift occurs
There must be no movement into or out of a population
There must be random mating
There must be no mutations within the gene pool
There must be no natural selection
5. Classification (or taxonomy) is necessary to examine the evolutionary history of species and their
evolutionary relationships. We use a phylogenetic tree, or cladogram, to show these relationships.
It classifies organisms into major taxa (groups) based on evolutionary relationships (the order in
which they descended from a common ancestor using physical characteristics or other evidence).
From phylogenetic trees, the following information can be determined:
Which groups are most closely related?
Which groups are least closely related?
Which group diverged first (longest ago) in the lineage?
i) The most recent classification scheme includes:
- 3 domains (Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya)
- 6 kingdoms (Eubacteria, Archaebacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia).

Pictures/Charts/Figures youll probably see:

Example of a phylogenetic tree or cladogram

Types of Evolution that lead to Speciation

Basic Ecology

22

Pages you can find this stuff on

Big things you
1. The flow or path of energy transfers in an ecosystem can be described as a food chain, food web, or an
should know
ecological pyramid (energy, number, biomass).
a) Food chains show the simplest path that energy takes through an ecosystem. The original source
of energy for most ecosystems is sunlight. As energy transfers between organisms (in the
form of organic molecules, aka food) it moves between trophic levels. In each trophic
level, an organism uses some of its energy for cell respiration, loses some due to heat
loss, and stores the rest (available to move to another level). Here are the trophic levels:
i) Producers are autotrophs. Most are photosynthetic, but all of them convert chemical
energy into the form of simple sugars. Examples: Plants, Algae, Archea bacteria
ii) Primary Consumers are heterotrophs called herbivores. They eat the producers to
satisfy their energy needs. Examples: Grasshoppers, Rabbits, Zooplankton.
iii) Secondary Consumers and any higher order consumer are heterotrophs called either
carnivores or omnivores. Carnivores eat only other consumers and Omnivores
eat both producers and other consummers. Examples: Humans, Wolves, Frogs.
iv) Decomposers are heterotrophs that help in the breakdown of organic material (usually
dead organisms) and returns nutrients to the soil, water, and air, thereby making
them available to other organisms, also called a detrivore.
Examples: Slime Mold, most fungi and worms
b) Food webs represent many interconnected food chains describing various paths that energy
takes through an ecosystem. Food webs are usually represented by a large diagram with
arrows between organisms to show the direction energy moves. Most organisms will
have multiple arrows going to them (representing those that they eat) and away from
them (representing those that eat them).
c) Ecological Pyramids are models that show the relative amounts of energy, biomass, or number
of organisms at each trophic level in an ecosystem. The base of the pyramid are the
producers, and each subsequent step represents the next level of consumer. The number
of pyramid levels is determined by the number of organisms in that ecosystems food
chain or food web.
i) Energy pyramids represent the energy available in each trophic level in an ecosystem.
The energy needs of organisms are greater as you move up the pyramid which
leads to a decrease in the total amount of energy available at each level. Each
successive level in an ecosystem can support fewer numbers of organisms than
the one below. Rule of thumb: only 10% of the energy available in an level is
available to move on to the next level.
ii) Number pyramids represent the number of individual organisms available in each
trophic level. The autotrophic level is represented at the base of the pyramid.
The total number of individuals tends to decline as one goes up trophic levels.
iii) A biomass pyramid represents the total mass of living organic matter (biomass) at
each trophic level in an ecosystem. Since the number of organisms is reduced in
each successive trophic level, the biomass at each level is reduced as well.
2. The geochemical cycles describe the movement of a particular form of matter through the living and
nonliving parts of an ecosystem. Matter changes form but is neither created nor destroyed; it is
used over and over again in a continuous cycle. Organisms are an important part of this cycling
system. Matter placed into biological systems is always transferred and transformed. Matter,
including carbon, nitrogen, and water, gets cycled in and out of ecosystems.
a. Carbon Cycle (see picture below)
- Carbon is one of the major components of the biochemical compounds of living
organisms (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids).
b. Nitrogen Cycle (see picture below)
- Nitrogen is the critical component of amino acids which are needed to build proteins.
c. Water Cycle or Hydrologic Cycle (see picture below)
- Water is a necessary substance for the life processes of all living organisms.

3. There are naturally occurring Earth processes that help ecosystems maintain the materials necessary for
the organisms in the ecosystem. The portion of Earth that is inhabited by life (the biosphere) is

23

interconnected with other Earth systems: the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and the geosphere. All
of these systems must interact efficiently in order for an ecosystem to maintain itself.
a. Atmosphere the layer of air surrounding the Earth. The composition of Earths atmosphere is
mostly the result of the life processes of the organisms which inhabit Earth.
- Plants and other photosynthetic organisms use carbon dioxide and produce oxygen.
- The ozone layer in the atmosphere prevents much of the Suns ultraviolet radiation from
reaching Earths surface and protects the biosphere from the harmful radiation.
- Nitrogen is maintained in the atmosphere through the nitrogen cycle.
- Water is maintained in the atmosphere through the water cycle.
- The greenhouse effect is the normal warming effect when gases trap heat in the
atmosphere. Greenhouse gases (such as carbon dioxide, oxygen, methane, and water
vapor) trap heat energy and maintain Earths temperature range.
b. Geosphere the layer of earth that is made of inorganic minerals and organic matter.
- As the weathering of inorganic materials from wind, water, and ice and the decaying of
organic materials continue, the process of soil generation continues.
- Soil erosion and deposition are natural processes that move soil from one location to
another due to water, wind, ice and other agents.
c. Hydrosphere the layer of earth that is made of water (flowing, standing, and frozen)
- The hydrologic cycle is maintained by the energy of the Sun and the effect of weather.
- The hydrologic cycle purifies water in several ways:
Evaporated water is pure water containing no impurities.
As water seeps down through the soil and rock it is filtered of impurities.
As water flow slows, heavier particles of sediment settle out, leaving purified
water to travel toward the oceans.
d. Disposing of Waste & Recycling Nutrients
Waste materials from organisms are decomposed by bacteria or other organisms in the
soil or in aquatic ecosystems.
Nutrients are cycled through an ecosystem from organisms to the environment and back
through series of specific processes known as geochemical cycles.

Pictures/Charts/Figures youll probably see:

Examples of food chains

Example of a food web

Examples of an ecological pyramid

24

Number pyramid

Water Cycle

Nitrogen Cycle

Carbon Cycle

Population Ecology

25

Pages you can find this stuff on

Big things you
1. Ecosystems are a community of different populations and the abiotic factors that affect them.
should know
Populations can be described based on their size, density, or distribution. Population density
measures the number of individual organisms living in a defined space. Regulation of a population
is affected by limiting factors that include:
i) Biotic factors living components in an ecosystem (the organisms themselves)
- A Species is a group of organisms that share similar characteristics and can interbreed
with one another to produce fertile offspring.
- A Population is a group of organisms that are the same species and located in the same
geographical location at the same time
- A Community is a collection of multiple populations (different species) in the same
geographical location at the same time.
ii) Abiotic factors chemical or physical non-living components in an ecosystem (such as water,
soil, or climate)
iii) Density-dependent limiting factors are those that operate more strongly on large populations
than on small ones. Density-dependent limiting factors include competition, predation,
parasitism, and disease. These limiting factors are triggered by increases in population
density (crowding).
iv) Density-independent limiting factors are those that occur regardless of how large the
population is and reduce the size of all populations in the area in which they occur by the
same proportion. Density-independent factors are mostly abiotic (such as weather
changes), human activities (such as pollution), and natural disasters (such as fires).
- A change in an abiotic or biotic factor may decrease the size of a population if it cannot
acclimate or adapt to or migrate from the change. A change may increase the size of a population
if that change enhances its ability to survive, flourish or reproduce.
2. A stable ecosystem is one where:
the population numbers of each organism fluctuate at a predictable rate.
the supply of resources in the physical environment fluctuates at a predictable rate.
energy flows through the ecosystem at a fairly constant rate over time.
- Types of interactions in a stable ecosystem
a. Predation is an interaction between species in which one species (the predator) eats the other
(the prey). This interaction helps regulate the population within an ecosystem thereby
causing it to become stable. Fluctuations in predatorprey populations are predictable. At
some point the prey population grows so numerous that they are easy to find.
b. Competition is a relationship that occurs when two or more organisms need the same resource
at the same time. Competition usually occurs with organisms that share the same niche.
- An ecological niche refers to the role of an organism in its environment including type
of food it eats, how it obtains its food and how it interacts with other organisms.
Two species with identical niches cannot coexist in the same habitat.
- Competition usually results in a decrease in the population of a species less adapted to
compete for a particular resource.
c. Symbiotic Relationships exist between organisms of two different species that live together in
direct contact. If the population of one or other of the symbiotic organisms becomes
unbalanced, the populations of both organisms will fluctuate in an uncharacteristic
manner. Three types of symbiotic relationships:
i) Parasitism is a symbiotic relationship in which one organism (the parasite) benefits at
the expense of the other organism (the host). In general, the parasite does not kill
the host.
Some parasites live within the host, such as tape worms, or bacteria.
Some parasites feed on the external surface of a host, such as fleas, or leeches.
ii) Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship in which both organisms benefit. Because the
two organisms work closely together, they help each other survive. For example:
bacteria, which can digest wood, live within the digestive tracts of termites;
plant roots provide food for fungi that break down nutrients the plant needs.
iii) Commensalism is a symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits and the
organism is not affected. For example:

26

 barnacles that attach to whales are dispersed to different environments where

they can obtain food and reproduce;
burdock seeds that attach to organisms and are carried to locations where they
can germinate.
3. Ecological succession is the series of changes in an ecosystem when one community is replaced by
another community as a result of changes in abiotic and biotic factors. There are two types:
i)Primary succession occurs in an area that has not previously been inhabited: for example, bare
rock surfaces from recent volcanic lava flows, rock faces that have been scraped clean by
glaciers, or a city street. one community replaces another over time. Eventually a mature
community (climax community) results where there is little change in the composition of
species and perpetuates itself as long as no disturbances occur. The climax community of
a particular area is determined by the limiting factors of the area.
ii) Secondary succession begins in an area where there was a preexisting community and wellformed soil: for example, abandoned farmland, vacant lots, clear-cut forest areas, or open
areas produced by forest fires. When the disturbance is over, the ecosystem interacts to
restore the original condition of the community.
4. Humans play a role in ecosystems and geochemical cycles. People depend on the resources and
geochemical cycles of Earth to provide clean water, breathable air, and soil that is capable of
supporting crops. Human activities, including population growth, technology, and consumption of
resources, can affect the cycles and processes of Earth.
a. The carrying capacity of an environment is defined as the maximum population size that can
be supported by the available resources.
b. Various factors (such as energy, water, oxygen, nutrients) determine the carrying capacity of
Earth for the human population.
c. Sustainability is term used to describe the ability to meet the needs of humans to survive
indefinitely, and to reach sustainability there needs to be a balance between Earths
resources and carrying capacity, the needs of humans, and the needs of other species on
Earth. Factors that affect the sustainability of humans include:
i) Population Growth how a population changes in size over time
- Population growth world-wide has grown exponentially. Based on current
trends, scientists predict that the population will continue to grow at a rapid rate.
- The natural slowing of population growth as it nears Earths carrying capacity
is due to an increase in the death rate and a decrease in the birth rate because of:
. Food and water shortages
. Pollution of the environment
. Spread of diseases
- An increasing population can have an effect on the amount of available clean
water. If clean water is being depleted at a greater rate than it can be purified, it
is not considered renewable in our lifetime.
- An increasing population can have an effect on the amount of waste that is
produced. Although there are mechanisms in place to control the disposal of
some waste products, more waste is produced than can be managed effectively.
- An increasing population can have an effect on the amount of available fertile
soil for agriculture (food resources).
- Worldwide demand for land (for agriculture or habitation) has led to
deforestation. As forests are cut down, there are fewer trees to absorb
atmospheric carbon dioxide. The increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide
contributes to global warming by preventing heat from radiating back into space.
- Deforestation can increase the rate of erosion (both wind and water) and
decrease the rate of soil generation.
- Human population growth has depleted the amount of fertile soil, clean water
and available land in many areas of the world. When these resources become
scarce, many natural processes (such as the water cycle, the carbon cycle, the
nitrogen cycle, and the physical process of soil regeneration) are affected.

ii) Technology - applying scientific knowledge in order to find solutions to problems or

develop products to help meet the needs of humans. Although technology has benefited

27

humankind, it has also contributed to the pollution of the air, water, and land. For
sustainability, humans depend on technology to now provide cleaner energy sources,
safer ways to deal with waste, and better methods for cleaning up pollution.
- Agricultural technology are advances in agricultural methodology, tools, and
biotechnology and led to improved ability to grow crops to sustain a growing
world population. Sustainable agricultural practices can help conserve fertile soil
and reduce soil erosion.
- Industrial technology are advances in industrial technology have changed the
world and have lead to developments in communication, transportation, and
industry. Technological advances have created waste issues as more
technologies become outdated and are thrown out. The burning of fossil fuels
for industry and transportation increases sustainability of the growing human
population; however, it also increase the greenhouse effect and produces acid
rain (pollutants in the air combining with water vapor)
- Alternative energy technology use natural renewable energy sources (such as
wind, water, geothermal, or solar energy) and decrease the burning of fossil
fuels, which increases the quality of the atmosphere and the cycles involved.
Using nuclear energy technology provides an alternative energy source that does
not impact the atmosphere. However, the waste produced from nuclear energy
use is becoming an increasing concern.
iii) Consumption of Resources - As the population increases and technology expands, the
demand for Earth resources also increases. However, there is a limited supply of these
resources available to sustain the human population. Some resources (such as food, clean
water, and timber) are considered renewable resources, those that can be produced at
roughly the same rate that they are consumed.
a. Renewable resources have factors that limit their production, for example the
amount of grain that can be produced is limited by the amount of land available
for farming, fertility of the land, or availability of clean water.
b. Nonrenewable resources cannot be produced at the same rate that they are
consumed. For example, the demand for minerals, metals, and ores increases
because these strategic materials are vital to industry but are decreasing in
availability because they are formed so slowly by geological processes.
Sustainable use of resources can be accomplished by reducing consumption, reusing products rather than disposing
of them, or recycling waste to protect the environment.

Pictures/Charts/Figures youll probably see:

Types of population growth

Predator-prey relationship

Example of competition

28

GOOD

LUCK!

29