Emina Rovcanin

2014 Research Paper

FOS4041 Food Science
The Differences in Product Quality when using Soy Flour in contrast to
Wheat Flour?

Research Question: What are the Differences in Product Quality when using Soy Flour in
Contrast to Wheat Flour?
Introduction:
A. Define Wheat and Wheat Flour.
Wheat is one of the most important commodity crops in the world and the most important staple
crop in the United States. A commodity crop is the definition for a food item that is grown to be
sold to return a profit. Staple crops such as wheat, corn and soybeans are sold to larger
enterprises and companies to be processed into many food items and sold all over the world.
With this system wheat provides 19% of the calories consumed by man worldwide. The wheat
crop is number one in the world in the amount of land used to cultivate, and number two in the
quantity produced, losing to corn.1
A wheat kernel consists of three parts; the germ, endosperm and bran. The wheat germ makes up
about 2.5- 3.8% of the entire kernel weight and contains a concentration of nutrients. These
nutrients include protein, lipids, the B vitamins, flavonoids, phyosterols and many minerals.
This food is commonly used in animal feed, and the preparation of food products such as bread
varieties.2 The endosperm makes up 55-75% of the wheat kernel. It is a great source of nutrition
in the Western diet. Most of the endosperm is taken up by simple starches with only about 10%
of protein storage. The endosperm is the portion of the kernel that is kept to make flour during
milling. The bran and germ are removed.3 The coat of the wheat kernel is called the bran. This

makes up about 14.5% of the kernel. 90% of the wheat bran is sold as animal feed and 10% is
used to enhance products such as granola bars and bread with fiber.4
Wheat flour is the result of milling the wheat kernel with no regulation on if the germ is to be
included or not. Whole grain wheat flour means the entire kernel is included in the milling
process. During the milling process nutrients such as fibers, proteins and vitamins are kept in the
bran and germ. Removing these portions from the kernel to make wheat flour reduces the
nutritious components of the natural crop. 5
B. Define Soy.
Soy is a plant from the pea family, the bean of the plant called the soybean is where the
concentration of protein and its many other nutrients are found. It was introduced in the Asian
diet but has been more common in the American diet as a food and food additive. The interest in
soy and soy products became popular when the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
announced that 25 g of soy protein per day may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease. Soy
contains high quality protein, unsaturated fat, and dietary fiber. It is cholesterol free and has 0
6

grams of Trans fat. Soy flour has 38 % protein content which is a high value when compared to
wheat or white flour. Soy is high in unsaturated fatty acids and omega-6 fatty acids that play a
great role in a healthy cardiovascular system. Soy is the most concentrated dietary source of
phytoestrogens called isoflavones which have been studied to reduce the risk of cancers such as
breast and prostate cancer. The activity of isoflavones to halt the growth of cell growth reduces

the risk for these hormonal cancers. Another health benefit of soy includes the prevention and
6,7

reduction of osteoporosis by the reduction of bone turnover.

C. Why is wheat flour commonly used in baked goods?

Wheat flour is common in the use of baked goods because it is a large commodity crop meaning
it is inexpensive. In addition to its cheap production wheat provides nutrients such as fibers,
proteins, and vitamins. Using wheat flour in baked goods creates vastly acceptable physical and
chemical characteristics. Properties such as manipulation, gluten production, dough
development, particle size and taste when using wheat flour for baked goods have been widely
accepted throughout the world. 5
Content
Physical Differences in Baked Goods when using Soy Flour versus Wheat Flour
One physical difference between baked goods when using soy flour versus wheat flour are the
changes that occur during frozen storage. Baked goods using soy flour have increased water
holding capacity because the high concentration of protein in soy can bond covalently and noncovalently to wheat proteins. This means the hydrogen bonding when using soy protein is tighter
and less damage occurs to the protein when frozen. This happens because proteins in soy flour
are globular, meaning they are hydrophilic. This property means the soy proteins will quickly
bind to the water when the dough starts to become moist. 8

The Journal of Applied Sciences Research studied the effect of partial substitution of wheat flour
with defatted soy bean flour at different rations and its effect on physical characteristics of
dough. They replaced the wheat flour by soy flour by 5%, 10% and 15% and tested the width,
thickness and spread. The measured six biscuits back to back of equal ratios to determine the
average results using a venire caliper. The addition of soy bean flour in all the ratios led to
resistance to extension of the dough as the value of soy bean flour increased. This is due to the
great water capacity in protein. Soy flour has higher protein content than wheat flour and these
proteins bond to water in the dough by hydrogen bonds which create a compact product. This
means the width is decreased because the particles are more compact and held closer together.
Consequently the thickness was increased because the product became less dense.

The Journal of Food Processing & Preservation tested the Pasting Behaviors of Starch and
Protein in Soy Flour-Enriched Composite Flours on Quality of Biscuits. Similarly to the research
done by the Journal of Applied Science they tested the diameter and thickness with a caliper.
They found that the biscuits that were enriched with soy flour had a small decrease in diameter
and spread, but had an increase in thickness. This is due to the higher amount of protein in the
soy flour that caused the flour to be more compact. The higher the protein content, the more
hydrogen bonding takes place which keeps the product from spread. The protein in soy flour has
larger water holding capacity which creates a more dense biscuit. 9
Another physical property that has been tested between wheat flour and soy flour is the color the
product. An important food science principle to understand is the Maillard reaction. The

Maillard reaction is a chemical reaction between simple sugars and amino acids that cause a
browning in the product, and flavor enhancement. When the wheat flour was replaced by soy
flour the color of the product became darker. This is due to the increase in amino acids in the soy
flour versus the wheat flour. The rise in amino acids creates more availability of protein to
reaction with the simple sugars for the Maillard reaction to occur leading to the increase in
browning of the product. 10
Sensory Differences in Baked Goods when using Soy flour versus Wheat Flour
Sensory differences in loaves of bread when replacing wheat flour by soy flour were researched
by the National Research Foundation of Korea. The sensory analysis included eight panelists
ages 25-31. The analysis included appearance, odor, taste, and texture using a nine point scale.
The panel agreed that the color of the soy infused bread was darker giving it a score of 1. The
darkness of this flour is due to the increased amount of protein in the soy flour versus the white
flour. The Maillard reaction takes place when there is great heat, simple sugars and amino acids,
such as in bread making.

11

The higher concentration of amino acids in the soy flour causes an

increase in the Maillard reaction which causes browning and flavor enhancement of the loaves.
The odor and taste of the soy flour bread was described by the panelists as beany. This is
because this is legume based flour made out of soy beans. The accepted amount of soy flour
replacement in wheat flour is 20%, diminishing the beany odor and taste.12 The texture of the
soy flour bread when compared to wheat flour was said to be slightly thicker. The thickness of
the texture is due to the higher protein content in the soy flour. The hydrophilic amino acids in

the soy flour create hydrogen and disulfide bonds with the water used in bread making creating a
stronger hold of the molecules resulting in a more compact and thick baked product. 11
The Inonu University Department of Food Engineering tested the Effect of Soy Flour
Supplementation on the Sensory Properties of Dough. They included a control which was dough
made with wheat flour, 5% soy flour supplementation, 10% soy flour, 15% soy flour and 20%
soy flour. The results show that the increase of soy flour supplementation resulted in a harder
loaf of dough. As the percentage of soy flour substitution increased so did the protein content
going into the dough. This increase of protein in the dough created covalent and non-covalent
bonds such as hydrogen bonds meaning the dough was more compact with many bonds to hold it
together resulting in a hard texture. In the same research the overall accepted score of appearance
was the loaf with 20% soy flour substitution. This is because the item did not have a high
diameter, but was thick without too much spread ability. The compact properties of this bread
are due to the large percentage of protein in the soy flour as mentioned. 13
Health Benefits of Using Soy Products and Soy Flour in Baked Goods
Soy flour originated from the soy bean which has many nutritional properties but has also been
deemed with health detriments. The soy bean itself is considered a complete protein and contains
all of the essential amino acids that have to be consumed in the diet except for methionine. The
protein profile in soy beans ranges between 38-44% while wheat carries about 8-15%. This
makes soy very popular as a dietary staple for protein. Using soy flour would increase the
protein content in baked goods. 14

Soy beans contain omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids. The alpha-linoleic acid is converted
to eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and decosohexanoic acid (DHA) which are the fatty acids that
are precursors of eicosanoids, thromboxanes and leukotrienes. These components are antiinflammatory and vasodilatory which have been linked to prevent cardiovascular disease. The
omega-3 fatty acid components have also been connected with treating hypertension and
rheumatoid arthritis. Substituting soy flour for a percentage of wheat flour in baked goods will
allow the consumer to receive these healthy heart benefits. 15
Extensive reviews and Meta analyses have been researched to determine the effects of
soy intake on breast cancer in pre and post menopausal women. Soy products are rich in
isoflavones, phytosterols, phytates and saponins that are linked to contribute to reducing the risk
of post-menopausal breast cancer. Studies have solely focused on the isoflavone component of
soybeans. Soybeans contain the highest concentration of isoflavones as a dietary source.
Isoflavone supplements have been given over the counter to treat menopausal symptoms in
postmenopausal women. Regularly including soy products in your diet is a way to treat oneself
to alleviate menopausal symptoms. 16 In order to have these positive effects on reducing the risk
of breast cancer and menopausal symptoms, the intake of soy should be regularly consumed at
an early age. The substitution of soy flour for whole wheat flour in baked goods would create an
easy way to include soy products in the diets of younger children. With this regular consumption
of soy flour in breads or other baked products the risk of pre or post menopausal breast cancer
may be reduced. 17

The effects of the addition on whole soy flour to cafeteria diet and the reduction of
metabolic risk markers in wistar rats was studied by a research team for the Lipids in Diet and
Health Journal. In the research they used 30 male Wistar rats. A control group of ten rats were
fed the cafeteria diet and 20 rats had soy flour substitutions on the cafeteria diet. The rats were to
eat this diet for 56 days and have regular measurements of: food intake, weight gain, triglyceride
concentration in serum, and cholesterol. After 56 days the parameters measured showed that the
Wistar rats that consumed the diet with substitutions of soy flour had decreased triglyceride
concentration in serum and lower cholesterol levels. The soy diet rats also had an increased
amount of food intake compared to the rats that were fed the cafeteria diet. Some miscellaneous
parameters measure in the Wistar rats showed that there was a greater amount of lipid in the
feces and increase in muscle layer of the rats that were fed the soy flour. These markers show
that the metabolic risk of the rats that consumed soy flour was decreased. This research shows
the health benefits when substituting soy flour in the cafeteria diet, ultimately decreasing
16

metabolic risk of rats.

Health Detriments of using Soy Products and Soy Flours in Baked Goods
Some of the same substances found in the soy bean that have positive effects, have properties
that may be detrimental to our health. Some of these properties are diminished when the soy
bean undergoes fermentation. Fermentation is the chemical transformation of substance into
smaller compounds by enzymes. If the soy bean does not undergo fermentation some toxins
remain present. These toxins include goitrogens, lectins, oxalates and phytates

One of these toxins is goitrogens, which prevent the thyroid gland from absorbing and
processing iodine. 7 When the thyroid is not receiving a sufficient amount of iodine it can result
in hyperplasia, hypothyroidism, which means the thyroid stimulating concentrations are elevated
and hypothyroxinemia which means the concentration of thyroid hormone 4 is decreased.
Meaning, an abundance of an unfermented soy product over a long period of time may halt the
proper functioning of the thyroid gland. 18 Lectins are another one of the toxins found in
unfermented soy beans. Lectins are a group of proteins that cause erythrocytes to gather in
clumps. Another anti nutrient present in unfermented soybeans is oxalate. Oxalates are released
into the urine by the kidney where they bind to calcium which may result in the formation of an
insoluble salt triggering the formation of kidney stones.7 There is also a high concentration of
phytates which impair absorption of iron and calcium.

18

Application to Dietetic Practice

The use of soy flour in baked products may be helpful in dietetic practice because soy is a
source of complete protein and omega-6 fatty acids and soy has an optimal nutrient breakdown.
Soy flour has about 20% more protein than wheat flour, this information can be used in dietetic
practice with vegetarian or vegan clients who need counseling to increase their protein intake.
Substituting soy flour in baked goods such as bread and muffins is a great source of daily
protein. Soy is also high in omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids which are anti-inflammatory and
help benefit cardiovascular health. Introducing the use of soy flour to patients with
cardiovascular disease or high cholesterol is a great way to reduce their symptoms and get on the
right track to a healthy heart. 17 Clients may be interested in a product with many positive

nutrient characteristics that is not very commonly used. The majority of baked goods are still
made with wheat or white flour. Substituting soy flour is still foreign to most consumers but the
nutrient breakdown makes it something worth mentioning in a counsel setting. In one hundred
grams of soy flour there are 43.2 grams of protein, 19.5 grams of fat, and 20.9 grams of
carbohydrates. The vitamin and mineral content also increases when substituting or adding in soy
flour. In one hundred grams of soy flour there is 240 milligrams of calcium, 10.4 milligrams of
iron, and 690 milligrams of phosphorus. The use of soy flour is being used in more products in
many ratios. This means it will become easier for consumers to purchase premade baked goods
with soy replacement, but until then counseling on how to bake with soy flour and the percentage
of substitution that is optimal for the desired product is important.19
Conclusion
To conclude, substituting soy flour in baked goods increases the protein content in a food
item that is popular all over the world, it has optimal storage characteristics and soy flour is high
in fiber, antioxidants, and all the B group vitamins. The number one macro nutrient that people
all over the world are deficient in is protein. The most common food allergies are shellfish, eggs,
wheat, corn, and nuts. Adding soy flour to baked goods such as bread and biscuits which is a
staple in many regions of the world will increase the protein content that is consumed. The soy
protein in baked goods also has great storage characteristics such as water mitigation prevention.
This means that even after the product is frozen and thawed out it will have few if any structural
changes.

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