Handbook

On Promoting a Positive Learning Environment

2013
Nyasha M. Kerr

1 CONTENTS
2

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 5

Preventative Actions ............................................................................................................................. 6

3.1

3.1.1

Consider Students Needs ..................................................................................................... 6

3.1.2

Know Your Students .............................................................................................................. 6

3.1.3

Cultivate Respectful Dynamics.............................................................................................. 7

3.2

Providing an Interesting Curriculum ............................................................................................. 7

3.2.1

Generating & Sustaining Student Interest ............................................................................ 7

3.2.2

Catering for Individual Learners ............................................................................................ 9

3.3

Treat Students Sensitively ............................................................................................................. 6

Helpful Teaching Styles ............................................................................................................... 10

3.3.1

Praise ................................................................................................................................... 10

3.3.2

Teaching for Understanding................................................................................................ 10

3.3.3

Give Clear Instructions ........................................................................................................ 10

3.3.4

Pupil-Centred Teaching ....................................................................................................... 10

3.3.5

Routines .............................................................................................................................. 11

3.3.6

Develop Relational Trust ..................................................................................................... 11

Supportive Actions .............................................................................................................................. 12

4.1

My Hierarchy of Management Intervention ............................................................................... 12

Corrective Actions ............................................................................................................................... 14

Other Classroom Issues....................................................................................................................... 16

6.1

Mental Health in Schools ............................................................................................................ 16

6.1.1
6.2
7

What does a Teacher need to know about Mental Health? ............................................... 16

Bullying ........................................................................................................................................ 17

Psychology in Education ..................................................................................................................... 18

7.1

Piaget .......................................................................................................................................... 18

7.2

Vygotsky ...................................................................................................................................... 18

7.3

Dreikurs ....................................................................................................................................... 18

7.4

Erikson......................................................................................................................................... 18

7.5

Skinner ........................................................................................................................................ 19

Appendices .......................................................................................................................................... 20
8.1

What is a Positive Learning Environment? ................................................................................. 20

8.2

Prevention of Misbehaviour ....................................................................................................... 20

8.3

Motives for Misbehaviour........................................................................................................... 20

8.4

Establishing Class Rules ............................................................................................................... 21

8.5

Gardners Multiple Intelligences ................................................................................................. 21

8.6

The Importance of Flexibility ...................................................................................................... 22

8.6.1
8.7

Dreikurs ....................................................................................................................................... 22

8.8

Restorative Justice ...................................................................................................................... 23

8.9

Student Learning Preferences By Temperament ........................................................................ 23

8.10

Effective Planning of the Classroom Environment ..................................................................... 24

8.10.1

Power sharing ..................................................................................................................... 22

Questions to ask yourself when planning lessons .............................................................. 25

8.11

Think: Pair: Share ........................................................................................................................ 25

8.12

Mental Health Problems in Adolescents..................................................................................... 25

8.13

Preventing Bullying ..................................................................................................................... 26

8.14

Class Character Education........................................................................................................... 26

8.15

Advance Organisers .................................................................................................................... 27

8.16

Blooms Taxonomy ...................................................................................................................... 28

8.17

Blooms Verbs and Matching Assessment Types ........................................................................ 28

8.18

Reflection .................................................................................................................................... 29

8.19

What can a Teacher control? ...................................................................................................... 30

8.20

Essentials of using assertive body language to manage behaviour:........................................... 31

8.21

SOLO Taxonomy .......................................................................................................................... 31

8.22

Piagetian Applications................................................................................................................. 31

8.23

Applying Vygotsky in the Classroom ........................................................................................... 31

8.24

Creating Surprise ......................................................................................................................... 32

8.25

Communicate Effectively ............................................................................................................ 32

8.26

The Exercise in Learning Revolution ........................................................................................... 33

8.27

Finally, Some Encouraging Advice............................................................................................... 34

References .......................................................................................................................................... 35

2 INTRODUCTION
Teach every child with passion, energy, creativity, as if she/he would one day become a Mother Theresa,
a Thomas Edison, a Madame Curie, William Shakespeare, Mahatma Gandhi, Nelson Mandela, Bertrand
Russell or as if he or she were your own child.
-

Professor Kapinsky P Frugenburger1

_____________________________________________________________________________________
This handbook is designed to be a comprehensive and practical user-friendly guide to the essential
aspects of promoting and maintaining a positive learning environment (See Appendix 8.1).
To successfully prevent misbehaviour and develop a positive learning environment, a teacher needs to
have an effective classroom management system. This involves three important stages2:
1. Planning the classroom setup and rules and procedures regarding behavior management
2. Developing student understanding and self-regulation of the guidelines
3. Maintaining the desired learning environment
To do so, the teacher will need to come up with their own personalised discipline system involving
numerous teaching techniques and strategies of preventative, supportive and corrective actions. This
should be complemented by an awareness and understanding of how to prevent and deal with other
classroom issues, including bullying and mental health problems.
Teachers cannot control every aspect of the classroom that they might wish. Nevertheless, research has
shown that enough is known about teaching and learning for teachers to be able to develop a wellfounded set of principles on which to base systematic approaches to effective teaching3. This Handbook
is designed as an easy access resource to help teachers develop such skills, and how reflection can help
them continually improve. And remember, what you do really does make a difference! See Figure 1.

Figure 1- Percentage of Achievement Variance (Hattie, 2003)

(Frangenheim, 2006) p iii

(McInerney, 2002) p 252.
3
(Killen, 2006) p 1
2

3 PREVENTATIVE ACTIONS
Maintaining Motivation and Attention
You can prevent most misbehaviour if you treat students sensitively,
provide an interesting curriculum, and use a helpful teaching style
-

C. M. Charles (2002) p 236

___________________________________________________________

3.1 TREAT STUDENTS SENSITIVELY

3.1.1

Consider Students Needs

Maslow believes that the pursuit of learning activity can only
meaningfully occur when basic needs have been satisfied4. His
Hierarchy of Needs shows that teachers cannot expect their
students to have high cognitive involvement in lessons unless their
more fundamental needs have been fulfilled. Maslow calls the first
four levels deficiency needs, and states that these must be met
before an individual is able to grow5:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Physiological: hunger, thirst, bodily comfort (temperature etc.)

Safety/security: not feeling threatened in any way
Belonging: to be accepted, to be loved
Esteem: to be competent, to achieve, to gain approval and
recognition

Preventative actions in the classroom are about establishing an

environment that fulfills these basic needs of each student in order
for them to be able to fully participate in learning. Even the simple
use of praise can establish a greater sense of security and
belonging in students.
3.1.2

Know Your Students

3.1.2.1 Get to know them
a. Introduce Yourself: tell a story, write a letter
b. Make a questionnaire that will give you an insight into
their interests, personalities, and learning styles You can
use what you learn about them to build better studentteacher relationships, create interesting and relevant
assignments, and to design groups that take personalities
and learning styles into account.

4
5

(Scully, 2005) p 49
(Huitt, 2007)

1. Philip Positive Learning

Environment
Tips from UKs Teacher of the Year,
Philip Beadle:
1. Marking with a degree of rigour is
the best way to impact on their
learning. It is an opportunity to
have a personal discourse with
them.
2. Learning Strategy: Period of
deep individual thought followed
by group discussion.
3. Lots of positive encouragement,
including reading aloud, repeating
answers, clapping answers.
4. Love your students, "their souls
are every bit as valid as adult
souls". Have a strong belief in the
abilities of every student.

2. Patrick Good Practical

Lessons
1. Discipline Tip: Speak to a
misbehaving student one-on-one, tell
them Ive had to give you a tick; if this
behaviour continues youll have to see
me at the end of class. What are you
going to do to stop that from
happening?
2. Praise: A very important teaching
tool! For winning affiliation, prolonging
attention spans, giving off-task children
a different route to your attention. It
also makes the lesson more enjoyable
for the teacher!

c. Marking rigorously is a way of creating a strong

relationship with students. (See Video Clip 1: Phil)
3.1.2.2 Help them feel valued
a. Make an effort to personally interact with each individual
student every lesson6.
b. Learn to listen - If you provide students with a venue at
which they feel their opinion is valued and their decisions
taken seriously, you will further the quality of the
teacher-student relationship7
3.1.2.3 Learn to read them
a. A good skill to have as a teacher is the ability to read your
class know when they are engaged, when they are
bored, when they are distracted, etc.
3.1.3

Cultivate Respectful Dynamics

3.1.3.1 You get what you give
a. If [you] want respect from [your] students, [you] must
show them respect8.
b. Be pleasant, considerate, respectful, understanding and
helpful towards students, and teach them to treat you
and each other likewise9.
3.1.3.2 Establish Class Rules
See Appendix 8.4
3.1.3.3 Plan Classroom Environment Effectively
See Appendix 8.10

3. Ben The Importance of

Positive Reinforcement
1. Structure and Routines: You should
praise on-task behaviour, structures
and routines. It may not be
outstanding, but if they are making an
effort, reward them.
2. Challenging Questions: e.g. I really
like what youve done here. I wonder,
would you be able to explain ?
3. You have to find something to
like in every student: Its too easy to
find things you dont like about
students. Make a genuine effort to
show them you like them and they
will respond.
4. The behaviour is in the teaching:
Good teaching prevents
misbehaviour. If theres a lot of
misbehaviour in your class, think
about what youre doing as a
teacherwhat could you change?
What different techniques or
strategies could you implement?

3.2 PROVIDING AN INTERESTING CURRICULUM

3.2.1 Generating & Sustaining Student Interest
For effective engagement and student learning to be maximized, interest
generated needs to be interest sustained10. Talking for too long will bore
them and you will lose their attention (See Video 10: John). Below are a
number of strategies that will help keep students motivated to learn.

(Charles C. M., 2002) p 243

Lewis (1997) p 120 from (McInerney, 2002) p 266
8
(Charles C. M., 2002) p 243
9
(Charles C. M., 2002) p 236
10
(Scully, 2005) p 65
7

4. Teddy Clear Instructions

1. Be explicit: It is important to be
specific with respect to teaching &
learning AND behaviour management:
e.g. My expectation is that you will
, or You have failed to meet my
expectations in this area, if you do so
again you will have to *logical
consequence+.

3.2.1.1

Be Creative and Promote Creativity

a. Success in generating and sustaining student
interest is dependent not only on the content and
the activity of learning, but also on how these are
introduced to students11. Students can be inspired
to connect and engage with learning when teachers
are creative in planning different and unexpected
approaches to content and activity12.
b. Children are naturally creative and good lateral
thinkers. Unfortunately, traditional forms of
education can tend to squash this ability out of
children13. Try to ensure that the education system
within your classroom is about nurturing rather
than undermining creativity.

3.2.1.2 Surprise Them!

Predictability in teaching can have the effect of killing motivation
rather than enhancing it14. Doing something unexpected is one way
in which teachers can open a learning episode in a way that
generates interest. Variety is the spice of life! See Appendix 12.8 for
a list of ideas of creating surprise remember that you are only

5. Carrie Generating
Interest
1. Use energy-burning games at the
beginning of the lesson to let
students express themselves, to
grab their attention and help them
focus.
2. Being confrontational doesnt
work. Carrie finds that with this
class in particular, she has to be
gentle to make progress.
3. Design some talking time into
the lesson. Students want to talk!
Mix up the activities and allow for
the students chances to talk
amongst themselves constructively.

limited by your imagination.

3.2.1.3 Model Interest
If a teacher is enthusiastic, the children become enthusiastic. If a
teacher is not enthusiastic, the children take that on15.
An enthusiastic teacher can turn potentially boring lesson material
into an enriching and enlivening learning experience16.
3.2.1.4 Reviewing Prior Learning
Skinner believes in the importance of a scaffolding process when it
comes to learning; that when learning is divided into a very large
number of very small steps, with reinforcement upon the
accomplishment of each step, the frequency of reinforcement can
be maximised, while the chances of being wrong are minimised.17

11

(Scully, 2005) p 47
(Scully, 2005) p 47
13
(Sir Ken Robinson - Do Schools Kill Creativity?, 2007)
14
(Scully, 2005) p 54
15
(Gipps, 2000) (Scully, 2005) p 56
16
(Scully, 2005) p 56
17
B. F. Skinner, 1968, The Technology of Teaching,
Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York, p 21
12

6. Michelle The Need

for Good Lesson Structure
1. Structure: Without good
structure and clear instructions,
students can easily become lost
and unsure. Well-structured
lessons help students keep on task
as they know exactly what is
expected of them.
2. Constructive Boredom? There is
no such thing! Purposefully boring
the class in order to have more
control only results in wasted
lesson time where no learning
occurs and student attention is
lost. Instead, use interesting
starters to grab students
attention from the very beginning.

As such, reviewing prior learning before introducing new material is

an important step in the learning process. It also allows teachers to
ascertain prior knowledge and to foster students expectations for
success18. Ideas for how prior learning may be reviewed can be seen
in Appendix 8.10.1
3.2.1.5 Make it relevant:
Good teachers can provide students with both a lateral and
vertical understanding of their curriculum19, i.e. an understanding
that ties topics within their subjects together and relates it to
relevant topics across other subjects.
3.2.2

Catering for Individual Learners

When planning lessons and when in the classroom, it is important to
always be conscious of the many different personalities, learning
styles and intelligences present in each class. Teachers should

7. Abigail Sustaining
Student Interest
1. Join in! If the teacher is
enthusiastic and really involved in
the learning, it motivates the
students.
2. Supportive Actions: Abigail
makes use of eye contact and
hand gestures to remind her
students of appropriate
behaviour.

ensure that their lessons structures and styles vary and are designed
to meet the needs of diverse learners. Structure is very important
(See Video 3: Ben & Video 6: Michelle)
In order to maintain a learner-centred approach in keeping with
Gardners multiple intelligences theory (see Appendix 8.5),
teachers must20:

present material in numerous ways

provide a curriculum full of choices

David Keirseys different temperaments reflect personality and

preferred learning styles. A table with a number of ideas for
teaching different temperaments is given in Appendix 8.9

8. Jane Turning
Negatives to Positives
1. Be yourself: John encourages
Jane to let her vivacious
personality out, and embrace a
new, upbeat teaching style, with
great results! The previously
disruptive class become fully
engaged and obviously enjoy
themselves.
2. One-on-one encouragement:
When a student is having trouble,
speak to them in a low voice and
help them get back on track with
simple, straightforward goals.
3. Praise: Use praise to reward
good behaviour and hard work.
Attention-seeking students will
respond well to a new avenue to
gain your attention.

18

(Scully, 2005) p 55
(Scully, 2005) p 47
20
(Phillips, 2010) p 9
19

3.3 HELPFUL TEACHING STYLES

This section is about quality teaching for quality learning:
3.3.1 Praise
Praise is one of the most important teaching tools that a teacher can
use. It has benefits to both student behaviour and student learning,
and can improve student-teacher relationships, increase motivation,
gain and sustain student attention and more. Praise stood out as the
most effective technique from the teaching videos we watched. It was
evident from the videos that every teacher who used more praise in
their classrooms found the lessons more enjoyable for both them and
their students.
If you actively seek opportunities for encouraging students without
making the acceptance conditional on students performance, you will
generate a substantial pile of goodwill.21
Praising correct responses or good work is one of the principles of
operant learning, which is based on the view that learning occurs
when a response is reinforced22.
3.3.2 Teaching for Understanding
When we say we want our students to understand something, it is
hard to know exactly what we mean. Understanding can come in
different amountsBiggs discussed the notion of deep understanding
versus surface understanding23. The steps for teaching for
understanding are as follows24:
1. Describe precisely what it is that you want your students to
understand.
2. Translate this into specific short-term learning outcomes.
3. Select suitable content for helping your students gain the
desired understanding.
4. Decide how to create a learning environment that will support
and encourage learning.
5. Give students the opportunity to publicly demonstrate their
understanding.
3.3.3

Give Clear Instructions

(See Video 4: Teddy)

3.3.4

Pupil-Centred Teaching

21

Lewis (1997), p120 from (McInerney, 2002) p266

(Brady, 1985) p22
23
Biggs (1996) from (Killen, 2006) p 11
24
(Killen, 2006) pp. 13-15
22

9. Amy Praise and Preparation

1. Students respond well to praise. If
theyre told theyre doing badly all the time
they just switch off and there is a tense
classroom environment. If you can turn
down the tension, calm them, and tell them
how wonderful they are, then thats all any
kid needs. They want to feel comfortable
and that things are OK. Using praise wins
you more teaching time.
There are three different levels of praise
that Amy uses.
1.

2.

3.

Praising the group telling them

all theyve been working hard,
listening well.
Praising the individual publicly
congratulating correct answers
and good behaviour.
Praising individuals one-on-one,
quietly I really like what youre
doing here, well done etc.

2. Organisation: Amy writes tasks on the

board in advance so she doesnt have to
waste time with her back turned to the
class. She uses a colour-coded system which
is straightforward and helps the students
know exactly what to do. Green is for
keywords, Black is for the work that they
have to write down in their book, Blue is for
an instruction; do what it says, no need to
write it down, Red is for other information.
There is also an extension task on the board
for students who finish early.
3. Summary Quiz: 10 Questions in the back
of the book covering main ideas from the
past few lessons. Gives students
opportunity to review own learning: If
youre not sure of the answer thats OK.
Youve learnt something if you dont know
the answer because youve learnt that its
something youve still got to work on
learning.

Traditionally, the classroom has been very teacher-centred,

but with a pupil-centred focus a teacher acts more as a
facilitator and supporter of learning25, rather than a fount of
all knowledge26. Pupil-centred teaching encourages student
interaction and participation, and evokes and guides
responses from the students.
10. John Teaching Strategies
3.3.5

3.3.6

Routines
When a teacher has a good number of routines in place, it
gives the students a sense of comfort and security and gives
the teacher more teaching time. Classical conditioning may
be used in the classroom for establishing routines, for
example when a teacher claps her hands to produce
immediate silence27. (See also Video 5: Ben)
Develop Relational Trust
It is very important for teachers to work to develop a strong
sense of relational trust with their students. Research has
shown that this is a key component of successful schools28,
and that a trusting environment can significantly improve
student learning and achievement.

1. You cant paste knowledge onto students

Instead, use questions like can you put what I
just said into your own words? to find out how
much they understand.
2. Dont talk for >15 minutes! Suggestion: Put
times on board and get students involved to
assist you with the pace of the lesson.
3. When you ask a question of a student If
they cant answer straightaway, let them ask a
friend. Then, get them to repeat the answer
given. This makes them feel clever, which is an
important step in both teaching & learning and
behaviour management.

11. Nicola Rewarding Good

Behaviour
1. Ration your attention: It is not fair to spend
a great deal more time with some students
than with others. Use your attention as a tool
for encouraging on-task behaviour.
2. Reward good behaviour with your attention.
If students seek your attention through
inappropriate behaviour, go cold on them. You
could make a constructive remark then return
to giving your attention to well-behaving
students.
3. Topic Review Idea: write a sentence of
exactly 11 words on what you have learnt in
the last two lessons.
25

Brady, Laurie (1985) Models and Methods of Teaching, Prentice-Hall Pty Ltd, Victoria, Australia, p 5
(Killen, 2006) p 2
27
(Brady, 1985) p 21
28
(Schneider, 2003) from (The University of Adelaide, 2013) Reading 6:2
26

4 SUPPORTIVE ACTIONS
Minimising management problems through pre-emptive and
effective classroom management
Despite your best efforts, students will at times become restive and can
easily slip into misbehaviour. This is the time for you to make use of
supportive techniques, which are pleasant yet effective in keeping students
engaged in their work. You should practice a number of these techniques so
you can use them naturally when needed
-

C. M. Charles (2002) p 236

____________________________________________________________

4.1 MY HIERARCHY OF MANAGEMENT INTERVENTION

This personalised hierarchy of decision making is designed to mimic
that of Levin and Nolan, including numerous suggestions of theirs
that I believe will suit my teaching style, as well as my own additions
that I have come across throughout the course.
The supportive actions part of the hierarchy deals with more
student-centred interventions which involve less confrontation and
less disruption, and encourage student control over student
behaviour.
WHAT
Planned Ignoring (NV)
Intentionally and completely ignoring a behaviour
can be difficult to do, especially when ones
instinct is to immediately look. This technique
should be used to manage only the behaviours that
cause little interference to teaching/learning29,
such as calling out answers, mild or infrequent
whispering, or interrupting.
Adjacent (Peer) Reinforcement
When disruptive behaviour is noticed, find another
student who is behaving appropriately and
commend that student publicly for that behaviour.
Proximity Reinforcement (NV)
Move closer to the misbehaving student and stand
there momentarily while continuing instruction32.
29

(Levin, 2005) p 29
(Levin, 2005) p 29
31
(Bandura, 1977) from (Levin, 2005) p 35
32
(McInerney, 2002) p 265
33
(McInerney, 2002) p 265
30

12. Jenny The Importance

of Body Language
1. Teaching position: Jenny has
isolated a spot in the classroom to use
as a teaching position and is
conditioning the students to know
that when she stands there that they
are going to be taught something.
2. Standing still: When the students
arent paying her their full attention,
Jenny stands rock-still and waits for
silence before resuming teaching.
3. Walk off and back: Jenny separates
behaviour from learning by walking
off when the class is disruptive,
waiting for silence and walking back
on when shes ready.

WHY
Based on reinforcement theory, the idea is that if
you ignore a behaviour, it will eventually lessen
and disappear30. If that does not happen after a
reasonable period of time, the teacher should
move to the next step in the hierarchy.

Other students are likely to imitate an appropriate

behaviour when their peers have been reinforced
for that behaviour31.
This communicates teacher awareness and
expectation that the student will adopt the desired
behaviour (they usually do!)33.

Signal Reinforcement (NV)

Any type of nonverbal behaviour that
communicates to the student that their behaviour
is inappropriate, without disturbing other
students34, e.g., making eye contact, giving hand
gestures, shaking head. (See Video 7: Abigail)
Name-Dropping
The teacher redirects the student to appropriate
behaviour by calling on the student to answer a
question or by inserting the students name in an
example or in the middle of an explanation.

34
35

(Levin, 2005) p 29
(Rinne, 1984) from (Levin, 2005) p36

The student sees that the teacher is aware of

whats going on, and is giving them the
opportunity to correct their own behaviour. The
teachers expression should be businesslike, as
smiling whilst indicating that a student is
misbehaving will send mixed messages.
Upon hearing their name, the student is reminded
that his/her attention should be focused on the
lesson35. It is a subtle yet effective technique that
may be used for recapturing attention without
interrupting the flow of the lesson or risking
confrontation.

5 CORRECTIVE ACTIONS
Responding to common and chronic misbehaviour problems when
they arise
We have to accept that while good discipline systems can prevent most
misbehaviour, your students will nevertheless break rules at times and you
must deal with the transgressions. If you approach misbehaving students in
a sensitive manner, you can help them return to proper behaviour with no ill
feelings
-

C. M. Charles (2002) p 237

__________________________________________________________
Ones personal discipline theory should be developed around a consistently
formulated and carefully articulated personal philosophy of education36.
The corrective part of my personalised classroom management hierarchy
gradually progresses from student-centred interventions to teachercentred interventions37. The teacher should begin with an intervention that
is likely to correct the misbehaviour whilst still allowing the student the
opportunity to take control and responsibility of their own behaviour.
However it is perfectly acceptable to begin with a more teacher-centred
technique if deemed necessary. It is suggested that in general teachercentred interventions are more appropriate for younger, more
developmentally immature children, and that student-centred interventions
are more appropriate for older learners38. With practice a teacher will
discover which interventions are most appropriate and effective for each
situation.
WHAT
One-on-One Appeal
A quiet comment to the student reminding them of
what they should be doing may be all that is
required to get them back on task.
Humour
Spontaneous use of humour (not sarcasm39) can be
an effective intervention tool in the classroom.

Questioning Awareness of Effect

36

(Edwards, 2000) p 20
(Levin, 2005) p 34
38
(Lasley, 1989) from (Levin, 2005) p 34
39
(Levin, 2005) p 37
40
From (Levin, 2005) p 37
37

13. Its not fair! Basics of

Assertive Language
1. Assertive Language Fundamentals:
Break it down into three parts:
1. Receive what's being said to
you
2. Give a positive direction
3. Give an acknowledgement that
asks for further compliance.
e.g. "I understand what you're saying.
Now we need to make progress, and I
need to see you and so-and-so working
together. Thank you".
2. Don't put in conditionals or
questions, e.g. "I wonder if, or "Do
you think it's okay if", or "could
you"
3. Be fair: The fairest thing is that all
the students in a room can work in an
uninterrupted way and they all get the
teacher's attention. True fairness
exists in your total relationship with
them and the procedures that you
follow outside the lesson.

WHY
Minimises disruption but allows students
opportunity to correct their own behaviour.
(See Video 8:Jane)
Humour that is directed at the situation rather
than at the student can diffuse tension in the
classroom and redirect students to appropriate
behaviour. The use of humour tends to
depersonalize situations and can help establish
positive relationships with students40.
Sometimes students who disrupt learning are

Make a student aware of the impact of their

behaviour through the use of a rhetorical question.

I Message
A three-part message41:
1. A simple description of the misbehaviour
2. A description of its tangible effects on the
students/teacher
3. A description of the teachers feelings
about the effects of the misbehaviour
Direct Appeal
Courteously requesting that a student stop a
behaviour. Not made in a pleading or begging way.
Positive Phrasing43
Often we fall into the trap of emphasising the
outcomes of negative behaviour. This technique is
about identifying positive short-term outcomes of
appropriate behaviour. Usually takes the form of
as soon as you do _____, we can do _____.
Glassers Triplets44
Direct students to appropriate behaviour with the
use of three questions:
1. What are you doing?
2. Is it against the rules?
3. What should you be doing?
Explicit Redirection
This is a direct order to stop the misbehaviour and
return to acceptable behaviour.
Canters Broken Record46
The teacher begins by giving the student an explicit
redirection statement. If the student doesnt
comply or tries to defend or explain their
behaviour, the teacher repeats the redirection. Do
not repeat more than three times.
You have a choice
Give the student the choice of complying with the
request or facing a logical consequence.

41

(Gordon, 1989)
(Levin, 2005) p 38
43
(Shrigley, 1985) from (Levin, 2005) p 39
44
(Glasser, 1969)
45
(Levin, 2005) p 40
46
(Canter, 1992)
47
(Levin, 2005) p 42
42

genuinely not aware of the effect their behaviour

has on others. Research indicates that students
learn to control their behaviour when made aware
of both its positive and negative effects.
I-messages are intended to help students
recognise the negative impact of their behaviour.
NOTE: This should not be used when a poor
teacher-student relationship exists, as it may result
in an increase of that particular behaviour42.

Should be used when a teacher has good

control/power over a class. Not to be used
otherwise as students may take it as a plea.
The long-term advantage of this technique is that it
helps students learn that appropriate behaviour
leads to positive outcomes, and are hence more
likely to develop internalized control over their
behaviour.
This technique comes with the assumption that
students will answer questions honestly and then
return to normal behaviour. Unfortunately, this is
not always be the case, and as such it is suggested
that using this idea in the form of three statements
can minimise negative confrontation45.
The advantages of this technique are its simplicity,
clarity, and closed format. One major disadvantage
is that it involves public confrontation.
This technique clearly communicates to the
student that the teacher will not engage in verbal
bantering and intends to make sure that the
student resumes appropriate behaviour. It is a very
good technique for avoiding verbal battles with
students.
Teachers cannot control student behaviour, they
can only influence it47. Phrasing the request in this
way helps the student realise that the positive or
negative outcome of his behaviour is his choice.

6 OTHER CLASSROOM ISSUES

Developing good mental health and positive relationships amongst students
The purpose of education is to develop every childs personality, talents and mental and physical
abilities to their fullest potential Education should prepare children to live responsibly and peacefully in
a free society.
-

UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, Article 29 (paraphrase)

_____________________________________________________________________________________

6.1 MENTAL HEALTH IN SCHOOLS

Mental health = peoples thoughts, feelings, behavior and relationships48.

Mental health problems include depression, anxiety, eating disorders and psychosis.

6.1.1 What does a Teacher need to know about Mental Health?

A teacher can, both as an individual and as part of a wider school community, play a big role in mental
health promotion and prevention. Mental health promotion involves the encouragement of positive
mental health and wellbeing49. Note: teachers do not need to take on counselling roles, but they can
help by referring troubled young people to the school counsellor or other professionals50. As such it is
important for them to be able to recognise the symptoms of mental health problems in their students.
See Appendix 8.12 for more information on mental health problems in adolescents.
Protective factors for preventing mental
health problems in the school context51
Sense of belonging

Positive school climate

Applications for teachers to foster mental health52

Prosocial peer group

Required responsibility and helpfulness

Opportunities for some success and

recognition of achievement

School norms against violence

48

Take an interest in each student as an individual

Encourage a healthy and inclusive classroom
climate (see Class Character Education)
Encourage tolerancetry to prevent bulling,
racism, stigma and harassment
Give students both positive and constructive
feedback
Encourage school community participation
Trust students with certain important tasks, give
them roles and responsibilities in the school
setting.
Set high but achievable goals for students
Help students develop resilience, i.e. the capacity
to bounce back & keep going during hard times
Be fair and consistent

(Hunter Institute of Mental Health, 2013) p1

(Hunter Institute of Mental Health, 2013) p4
50
(Hunter Institute of Mental Health, 2013) p9
51
(Spence, 1996) from (Hunter Institute of Mental Health, 2013) p5
52
Adapted from (Hunter Institute of Mental Health, 2013) p9
49

6.2 BULLYING
Bullying is a very serious issue in schools, and it is difficult to deal with because there are so many
factors that influence why some people bully and why some people are particularly susceptible to
bullying. Bullying is potentially harmful to the health and well-being of both the victim and the
perpetrator in the long-term. Children who are bullied at school may suffer low self-esteem, poor social
adjustment, physical un-wellness and psychological distress53, and children who bully are more likely to
have high-levels of depression and suicidal tendencies54. See Appendix 8.13 for ways to prevent bullying
in your classroom.

53
54

(Rigby, 2003) p587

(Rigby, 2003) p589

7 PSYCHOLOGY IN EDUCATION
7.1 PIAGET
Piaget believes that how people think does not vary as we age, but that the way we organise our
thoughts (into what he called schemes) is what changes as we grow older55. When we come
across something we dont understand, we experience a disequilibrium, which forces us to adapt
in a new way56. Adjusting an existing scheme to fit the new experience is called assimilation,
whereas using the new information to create a new scheme is called accommodation. When
introducing new material in the classroom, it is particularly important for teachers to have
established that students are ready for the process of adaptation; that the children are ready,
and that their prior knowledge is close enough to the new material for assimilation or
accommodation to take place57.
Piaget believes that students between age 12 and adulthood are in what he called a formal
operations stage. Examples of classroom activities for this stage are in Appendix 8.22.

7.2 VYGOTSKY
Vygotsky believed very strongly that people learn to think through interaction with others58. He
identified a zone of proximal development as the distance between what children can do by
themselves and what they can do with others59. This difference is very important for educators to
learn how to assist learners to progress. Ways of applying these ideas are in Appendix 8.23.

7.3 DREIKURS
Dreikurs believed that teachers should be involved in the ongoing process of helping students
develop inner control of their behaviour, rather than imposing control externally during conflict60.
He believed that student behaviour is motivated by certain mistaken goals, and that identifying
these goals can help teachers address the root cause of the misbehaviour. See Appendix 8.3 for
motives for misbehaviour and recommended responses.

7.4 ERIKSON
People play an active role in their own psychosocial development through their own attempts to
understand everyday experiences, according to Eriksons theory of psychosocial development61.
An important principle that underlies his theory is the idea of psychosocial crisis. In Eriksons view,
people develop their personalities when they successfully resolve turning points, or psychological

55

(K. Krause, 2003) p. 53

(K. Krause, 2003) p. 54
57
(K. Krause, 2003) pp. 54, 55
58
(K. Krause, 2003) p. 64
59
(K. Krause, 2003) p. 63
60
Dreikurs (1968) and Dreikurs & Cassel (1995), from (McInerney, 2002) p 265
61
(Snowman, 2009) p 64
56

crises62. These crises occur when people do not feel ready to adjust to what is expected from
them. For example, an adolescent who strongly doubts their own abilities may struggle making
commitments needed to develop their identity into adulthood63. The stage of psychosocial
development that is most important to high-school teachers is Identity vs. Role Confusion which
is going on in students between 12 and 18 years of age64. As a teacher it is important to keep the
significance of each students search for identity in mind, as well as investing in the development
of interpersonal relationships with students, which research has shown can help in identity
formation65.

7.5 SKINNER
Skinner believed in the principle of reinforcement, which meant that if an action has good
consequences, then the action is more likely to be repeated and hence reinforced66. As such he
believed that positive reinforcement is more effective at changing and establishing student
behaviour than punishment. It is very easy and effective to apply this principle in the classroom by
using praise as positive reinforcement for good behaviour (See Video 11:Nicola). Skinner also
believed that any age appropriate skill can be taught, if teachers adhere to the following steps67:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

62

Clearly specify the action or performance the student is to learn to do.

Break down the task into small achievable steps, going from simple to complex.
Let the student perform each step, reinforcing correct actions.
Adjust so that the student is always successful until finally the goal is reached.
Transfer to intermittent reinforcement to maintain the student's performance.

(Snowman, 2009) p 65
Marcia (1991) from (Snowman, 2009) p 65
64
(Snowman, 2009) p 66
65
Allison & Schulz (2001) from (Snowman, 2009) p 69
65
(Schacter, 2011) p 17
65
(Skinner, 1968)
63

8 APPENDICES
8.1 WHAT IS A POSITIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT?
A positive learning environment is one where 68:

Students feel safe and comfortable, both physically and psychologically

Learning experiences are structured to lead to important and meaningful long-term goals
Learning experiences are interesting, challenging, and realistic, and give students opportunities
to work collaboratively on open-ended tasks
Students are given the experience of using and discussing the methods of the field of study
Students efforts are valued and encouraged as an important part of successful learning
Students are trusted and given a say in what, when and how they learn, and allowed to
participate in establishing class norms
Students are expected to work hard to achieve high standards that have been made clear
Students are required to be responsible for their own behaviour and learning
Quality learning occurs (i.e. deep learning vs. surface learning69)

8.2 PREVENTION OF MISBEHAVIOUR

Ways of preventing misbehaviour by identifying and avoiding common causes 70

Causes

Prevention

Boredom

Make all activities as interesting as possible

Frustration in learning

Make all activities challenging but within the limits of students

Desire for Attention

Each student will receive regular direct attention from the teacher and
others in the school setting.

Lack of acceptance

Every student will be given responsibility and made to feel a valued part of
the group

Threat to personal dignity

Every student will be treated with respect and encouraged to take

responsibility for the welfare of the class

Egocentric Personality

All school personnel will work to help individual students fit in and show
normal consideration for others

8.3 MOTIVES FOR MISBEHAVIOUR

From Dreikurs.
68

(Killen, 2006) pp. 23-24

(Killen, 2006) p3
70
(Charles C. M., 2002) p 245
69

Goal of the Misbehaviour

Seeking Attention

Getting Power

Seeking Revenge
Displaying Inadequacy

Examples with Teacher Responses

A student may seek attention by coming in late. The teacher should
ignore the lateness but point out calmly that the work missed will
need to be caught up in the students own time.
A student who seeks power by being defiant and argumentative
should have no one to fight with; it is futile arguing when there is
no response.
A teacher should not show retaliation, but rather restitution.
If a student is attempting to gain attention by being inadequate,
the teacher should withhold giving constant help, and instead set
achievable short-term goals for which encouragement can be
given.

8.4 ESTABLISHING CLASS RULES

It is important to set firm boundaries with your class from the very beginning. Once you are
confident with the behaviour of the class as a whole, it is possible to relax. It is much more
difficult to regain control of a class after having started out too soft71.
When establishing rules, take the age level of the class into consideration. The rules required
will vary greatly between a year 8 class and a year 12 class.
Some teachers like to involve students in designing rules, believing that personal ownership
will help develop a positive classroom climate, and that peer encouragement to uphold them is
preferable to teacher enforcement alone72. However, Evertson et al. believe most importantly
that rules for creating such an environment are presented clearly by the teacher, then discussed
by the class73.
Good class rules are both clear and positive. Rules that are vague (e.g. show respect), or
negative (e.g. dont do this) are not constructive74.

8.5 GARDNERS MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

In considering intelligence, Gardner does not focus on how smart someone is, but rather how they are
smart75. He
Linguistic Intelligence: involves words, language, and the ability to master them.
Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: involves the ability to confront and assess objects and abstractions
and understand their relationships and underlying principles.
Musical Intelligence: involves composing and performing, in addition to listening and discerning.
Spatial Intelligence: involves perceiving, modifying, transforming and recreating visual experiences, with
or without physical stimuli.
71

Advice from Tammy Edwards, Tutorial 3, 2013

(McInerney, 2002) p 256
73
(Evertson et al., 2000)
74
McInerney & McInerney (2002),
Educational Psychology Constructing Learning, p 258
75
Christodolou (2009) from (Phillips, 2010) p5
72

Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence: involves having controlled and orchestrated body motions and the
ability to handle objects with skill.
Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Intelligences: involves the ability to recognise feelings, moods and
various mental states of ones self and others, and can use this knowledge as a behaviour guide.
Naturalist Intelligence: involves the ability to nurture and relate to ones natural surroundings.
Existential Intelligence: involves the ability to conceptualise and take on deeper questions about human
existence.

8.6 THE IMPORTANCE OF FLEXIBILITY

It is important for teachers to develop flexibility so that having planned for learning in particular
ways, there is a capacity to deviate from such plans, providing it is in the best interests of the
students and their learning76.
Learn to read your students and respond to their behaviour. Have a number of back-up activities
prepared, e.g. games, quizzes, problem solving exercises, which you can introduce if other
activities arent going to plan.
8.6.1

Power sharing
Allow students some flexibility within their work. Let them adjust assignments to suit their own
interests, abilities and personalities. By allowing students an input into what and how they learn,
we let them create ownership in their learning experience, we forge a better classroom
community (rather than teacher vs. child), and we shift responsibility onto students, which is
good practice for the rest of their lives77.

8.7 DREIKURS
Dreikurs believed that student behaviour was motivated by a need to be recognised and to
belong, and that misbehaviour is the product of efforts to achieve this recognition by satisfying
four mistaken goals78:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Attention getting
Power seeking
Revenge seeking
Displaying inadequacy

As such, Dreikurs believed that teachers should determine which of the four goals of
misbehaviour is being satisfied by their reaction. Therefore to deal effectively with misbehaviour
teachers can help students by not reacting in the expected way, thus helping the student

76

(Scully, 2005) p 48
(Doyle, 2011) p 81
78
Dreikurs (1968) and Dreikurs & Cassel (1995), from (McInerney, 2002) p 265
77

eliminate the destructive behaviour and substitute other means of developing a sense of
belonging79.

8.8 RESTORATIVE JUSTICE80

Restorative justice is a way of getting to the core of issues that arise in schools in order to find a
way to fix the underlying problem. Rather than just giving consequences such as suspension to
incidents of bad behaviour, restorative justice looks for answers, and offers the promise of
healing and hope. Most restorative justice sessions end with a renewed sense of empathy, mutual
respect, and understanding.
The Process:
The group that attends is made up of the students involved, and depending on the incident, their
parents or teachers as well. The group sits themselves in a circle. There is a facilitator who works
through the structures process with the group and ensures an atmosphere of respect is
maintained, even when emotions run high.
The process is designed to get participants to think through three main points:
1. What happened? - Gain a common understanding of what brought them to the circle
2. Who was affected? - The facilitator asks questions to help everyone understand who
was affected by the incident and how they were affected.
3. How do we heal the harm? - The facilitator helps the group make decisions about
what needs to be done to heal the harm
Whats powerful about restorative justice is that it addresses the real problem in a nonthreatening way. It gives the community, the parents, the teachers and the students an
opportunity to be real, to be honest, and to get to the core of the issue.

8.9 STUDENT LEARNING PREFERENCES BY TEMPERAMENT

The table below gives an insight into the preferred learning styles of different personality types, as
classed by David Keirseys temperaments81.
Topic
Instructional
Mode

Learning
Mode

79

Guardian
Sensing Judging
Lectures:
procedures and
past facts, how to
(the right way)
Workbook
completion, paperand-pencil drills

Artisan
Sensing Perceiving
Performance:
Personal
manipulation of
materials to learn
subject matter
Experimentation
with tools

Idealist
Intuition Thinking
Lectures: about
real people,
fantasy, unmet
people, needs

Rational
Intuition Feeling
Lectures: abstract
and intellectual;
future trends

Creative writing
with a people
focus

Intensive study of
subjects that
fascinate

Dreikurs (1968) and Dreikurs & Cassel (1995), from (McInerney, 2002) p 266
(Restorative Justice Introduction, 2008)
81
(Fairhurst, 1995)
80

Learns Best
Through

Favoured
activities

Sensitive to
Praise
Rewards
Discipline

Teacher-led
question and
answer; rote drill
and recitation
Review; repetition;
practice for
learning
requirements
Unfairness
Recognition of a
job well done
Responsibilities or
leadership position
Clear, fair rules
with followthrough

Demonstration with
action; results of
hands-on work
Hands-on
manipulatives;
personal
experimentation
Confinement
Recognition of flair
or timing
Free time, games
Follow-through and
allowance for
wiggle room

Small group
discussion, oneon-one
interaction
Group discussions
or projects;
opportunities for
self-expression
Criticism
Recognition of
unique self
Personalised
attention
One-on-one,
caring with
affirmation of
personal worth

Self-determined
study, debates

Individual projects
with emphasis on
research and
reports
Humiliation
Recognition of high
competence
New intellectual
challenge
One-on-one,
discussion of
assumptions and
expectations

8.10 EFFECTIVE PLANNING OF THE CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT

Teachers should ensure that82:

82

The main instructional purposes of the learning space have been considered in order to plan
the most appropriate layout of student seating, storage, equipment and materials
High-traffic areas are free of congestion: wherever possible, make sure that students do not
have to crowd or negotiate other students desks in order to leave or enter the room, consult
the teacher to gain access to equipment, resources or their belongings
Student and teacher are able to see each other easily: check that students can be monitored at
all times from any location in the classroom at which the teacher will be teaching and
interacting with students
Frequently used teaching materials and students supplies are readily accessible: Use shelves to
store and display books, storage trays to hold and distribute materials, hooks to keep bags and
coats tidy and accessible, trolleys can also be handy
Students are able to see/hear instructional presentations and displays easily: Check that all
students will be able to participate in whole-group instructional activities without having to
move their furniture or themselves excessively. If students have to strain to see or hear, or have
to turn around or leave their seats, the opportunity for inattention and disruption increases.
Students are able to move quickly into small-group activities without disturbing others: ensure
that furniture can be easily and quietly moved on wheels or carpet.
Optimal physical conditions exist for learning: classroom lighting, ventilation and heating.

(McInerney, 2002) p253

8.10.1 Questions to ask yourself when planning lessons83

a. What assumptions am I making about the attitudes and skills students will bring
with them to this learning experience? On what basis do I make these
assumptions?
b. How might my planned learning content and activities meet students needs, and
at what level? How might I differentiate my lesson plans to meet different need
levels within and among students?
c. How might I respond during the lesson if it becomes evident that lower order
needs are not met?

8.11 THINK: PAIR: SHARE84

The process is as follows:
1. Pair off students.
2. Pose question.
3. Get students to think deeply for 30 seconds or more and generate as many answers as
possible.
4. Get students to share their answers with their partner, discuss similarities and differences,
and agree on an answer.
5. Get students to share answers with the class.
See also Mixed Ability Groups.

8.12 MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS IN ADOLESCENTS

In adolescents, depression symptoms include85:

Irritability
Disruptive behavior
Social Withdrawal
Changes in sleep or appetite (i.e. potentially change in tiredness/weight loss)
Aches and pains
Anxiety
Poor concentration

Eating disorders are a significant cause of mental health problems in young people. Anorexia is
experienced by around 2/100 Australian girls, whilst Bulimia is experienced by up to 3/100 Australian
girls86.

83

(Maslow, 1985) from (Scully, 2005) p 50

(Frangenheim, 2006) p. 94
85
(Hunter Institute of Mental Health, 2013) p1
86
(Hunter Institute of Mental Health, 2013) p2
84

8.13 PREVENTING BULLYING

Bullying is overwhelmingly prevalent in Australian schools. Despite this, only a very small percentage of
children ever tell anyone they are being bullied, and teachers are the least likely to be told87. For this
reason it is particularly important for teachers to know their students and to be able to read the warning
signs that can identify when bullying is occurring.
Children who bully tend to have88:

High energy levels

Good verbal skills and an ability to talk themselves out of trouble
A high estimation of own ability
An ability to manipulate individuals or groups
An enjoyment of conflict and aggression
A delight in getting their own way
The appearance of being popular, but often disliked

Physical and verbal bullying is more obvious, and occurs more often amongst boys, but more indirect
forms of bullying, including isolation, are more common amongst girls89. An effective anti-bullying
teacher must promote a safe and supportive learning environment, and stand as both a role model and
a guardian90. To develop and encourage a positive class climate, a teacher should91:

Attend to how students learn, as well as what they learn

o Include cooperative tasks promote inclusion and participation
o Enforce no put-downs
Develop relationships with each individual as well as with groups
Dont take it personally when students misbehave (**important fact! For teacher wellbeing too)
Practice effective discipline
o Rules protect the students right to learn
o Be fair and consistent
o Dont label your students dont encourage stereotyping recognise the uniqueness of
the individual

8.14 CLASS CHARACTER EDUCATION

Class character is described as a composite of individual students ethical qualities and personality traits
that reflect the nature of the class as a whole92. Character education is about strengthening character
traits and developing good habits in students which improve the classroom environment for teachers
and students in the short-term, but it also make for responsible and agreeable adults in the long-term.

87

(Mind Matters, 2013) p10

(Mind Matters, 2013) p11
89
(Mind Matters, 2013) p10
90
(Mind Matters, 2013) p12
91
Adapted from (Mind Matters, 2013) p12
92
(Charles C. C., 2004) p. 173
88

Character education should be an integral, ongoing part of school life93. Research has shown that merely
urging good values and certain ways of behaviour onto students has little or no effect94. What is more
effective is a long-term commitment to honest, thoughtful discussion and practical activities on moral,
ethical and personal qualities that are integrated into the curriculum and modeled by teachers. A
number of whole-school approaches to character education have been very successful95, and are
encouraging examples to other schools who desire to follow in their footsteps.

8.15 ADVANCE ORGANISERS

When planning a lesson, it is beneficial to prepare an advance organiser96. This should involve:
1. Verbal material that is a reminder of something that the learner already knows, to make it
easier for them to subsume the new information they learn into a larger framework of
knowledge.
2. Identifying relevant skills and then breaking them down into a hierarchy from the simplest to
the most complex. Often the teaching of a new skill is simply a matter of using all the simpler
known skills.
3. Allowing opportunities for much practice and success in their set tasks, in order for the
students to gain familiarity and to develop positive attitudes.

93

(Charles C. C., 2004) p. 175

(Kohn, 1997) from (Charles C. C., 2004) p. 178
95
The Emerald Way and the Oakland, California program (Walters, 1997).
96
(Brady, 1985) p 27
94

8.16 BLOOMS TAXONOMY

Blooms Taxonomy is a model that classifies thinking in six levels of
complexity97. A revised version was published in 2001 which was
designed to be more relevant for teaching in the 21st century98. It is
important for teachers to understand Blooms Taxonomy in order to
encourage their students to reach a higher level of thought. When
designing tasks, teachers should make use of Blooms Verbs and
Matching Assessment Types, which are meant to be feasible and
measurable and therefore make it easier for students to know
exactly what is required of them.

Revised Blooms Taxonomy

8.17 BLOOMS VERBS AND MATCHING ASSESSMENT TYPES

Figure 2 - Used with permission (c) 2001 St Edward's University Centre for Teaching Excellence, available from the
internet at http://www.clihome.com/Docs/CM/BloomsWheel.pdf

97
98

Forehand (2005) from (The University of Adelaide, 2013) Reading 3.1 Blooms Taxonomy
(The University of Adelaide, 2013) Reading 3.1 Blooms Taxonomy

8.18 REFLECTION
The most distinctive characteristic of these very good teachers is that their practice is the
result of careful reflection, of advance planning which predicts what might occur and which
accommodates the particular needs of all their students w hose strengths and weaknesses they
know intimately. Nothing is left to chance.
They themselves also learn lessons each time they teach, evaluating what they do
and using these self-critical evaluations to adjust what they do next time.
-

Organization for Standards in Education (Ofsted), UK

A good teacher is constantly reflective99. They evaluate what techniques and strategies work well, or not
so well, for every situation, and continually seek to improve their practice. At the same time, they are
ever mindful of students needs for security, hope, acceptance, dignity, power, enjoyment, and
competence, and [seek to] see that these needs are met and not thwarted100.
The following questions are designed to provoke reflection:
1. How did you cater for different learning styles and different personality types within the lesson?
a. Did you have opportunities for both introverts and extroverts to flourish?
b. Did you present material in ways that catered to each learning style?
2. How did you allow for students to use multiple fnces, and recognise their use?
3. What opportunities for lateral thinking did you include in the lesson?
4. What were the interpersonal relations in the classroom like? What was positive, and why? And
which aspects need work, and why?
a. Teacher-student
b. Student-student
5. Were there any situations in which students may have felt like they failed in certain aspects?
How did you debrief them on any of the mistakes that occurred in a way that allowed them to
learn and enhance their understanding?
6. Were there any situations where students had to take risks? If so, how did you encourage them
to take risks, and how did you remind them that risk-taking is an important part of the learning
process?
7. What behaviour management techniques were required in the lesson? Which were most
effective, and why? And now you have the time to reflect, are there any other techniques which
may have worked better in the situations you were faced with today?
8. Was the lesson structured similarly or differently to normal? How did the students respond to
the lesson structure?
9. Which particular aspects of the lesson worked well, and why? E.g.,
a. Capturing student interest
b. Maintaining student interest
c. Lesson structure
d. Behaviour management

99

(Office for Standards in Education, 2013)

(Charles C. M., 2002) p 236

100

The questions below are a selection from Chapter 1 of Roy Killens Effective Teaching Strategies101.
1. It is not always easy for teachers to identify the most important knowledge in a subject because
different sources emphasise different things. A useful starting point for identifying the
important knowledge is to ask yourself the question: If I only had ten minutes to tell someone
what was important on this subject, what would I tell them, and why?
2. Every subject has its jargon. In the subjects you will teach, what jargon is most difficult for
learners to understand, and why?
3. Make a list of things that you have experienced as a student that encouraged you to engage
seriously with the things you were learning. Make another list of things that you have
experienced as a student that hindered your engagement in learning. How can you use these
two lists to help you engage the students you will teach in the future?
4. Are you an academic risk-taker? Why? Develop a short narrative that you could use to show
your students how you take academic risks to help you learn.
5. Do you feel comfortable with the idea of giving learners a lot of control over what and how they
learn? Why?
6. Under what circumstances might a learners prior knowledge be a barrier to their learning of
new concepts or principles? How will you deal with these situations as a teacher?

8.19 WHAT CAN A TEACHER CONTROL?

Teachers know that they cannot control every aspect of the classroom. For example, they have no
control over:

What is going on in students minds

What is going on in students homes

So what do they have control of in the classroom?

THEMSELVES
o Their attitude
o Their delivery
o Their body language
o The way they relate to the students
The classroom environment
o The classroom layout (e.g. seating arrangements, mixed ability grouping)
o The lesson material
o The sequence of activities

Sometimes teachers will be tempted to try to interfere with things out of their control but trying to
control what you cant control will only leave you stressed and troubled102. A good reflective teacher
has a good understanding of what they can control in the classroom, in order for them to be able to
make appropriate changes when required.

101
102

(Killen, 2006) pp. 43, 44.

(Mathews, 2013) Lecture 2.1

8.20 ESSENTIALS OF USING ASSERTIVE BODY LANGUAGE TO MANAGE BEHAVIOUR103:

1. Move with confidence and energy
2. Maintain self-control and dignity at all times
a. Take several deep breaths before disciplining a student
3. Look directly but briefly into the eyes of the offending student
4. Use facial expressions instead of words when possible.
a. Disapproval can be shown by tight lips, shake of the head, narrowing or flashing eyes
b. Approval can be shown by a wink, smile, or wide eyes
(See Video 12: Jenny & Video 13: Its Not Fair).

8.21 SOLO TAXONOMY

In a similar way to Blooms taxonomy, the SOLO taxonomy describes levels of increasing
complexity in a students understanding of a subject104. It is divided into five stages105:
1. Pre-structural: students acquire bits of unconnected information, which have no
organisation and make no sense
2. Uni-structural: simple and obvious connections are made, but their significance is not
grasped.
3. Multi-structural: a number of connections may be made, but the bigger connections are
missed, as is their significance for the whole
4. Relational: the student is now able to appreciate the significance of the parts in relation
to the whole
5. Extended Abstract: the student is able to make connections beyond the given subject
area and to generalise and transfer the principles.

8.22 PIAGETIAN APPLICATIONS

For formal operational students, Piaget recommends106 classroom activity that involves fantasy and
paradox, hypothesising and deducing, and understanding and appreciating irony and satire. Examples of
activities that suit his ideas include providing students with the opportunity to:

Extend their knowledge and ideas

Challenge current assumptions
Express their ideas in written forms through a variety of genres (including poetry and prose)
Express their ideas orally by engaging in discussion and debates on hypothetical and theoretical
topics.

8.23 APPLYING VYGOTSKY IN THE CLASSROOM

When interpreting Vygotskys ideas for classroom application, teachers need to do the following107:
103

(McInerney, 2002) p265

(The University of Adelaide, 2013) Reading 3.1 SOLO taxonomy
105
(The University of Adelaide, 2013) Reading 3.1 SOLO taxonomy
106
(K. Krause, 2003) p. 59
104

In assessment, take account of what children can do independently and also what they can do
with assistance or support.
Focus instruction not on what children can already do independently, but on tasks that are
within the range of the ZPD of what those children can achieve with a more advanced partner.
Centre instruction at the point between what the child can do without support and what can be
achieved with the assistance of an adult/more advanced peer/even an interactive computer
program.
Take advantage of existing strengths, amplifying these while also working with the behaviours
that are on the edge of emerging.
Structure tasks by breaking them into manageable parts, repeating instructions, limiting the
number of components to being presented one at a time, or providing appropriate resources.
Create a construction zone where the teacher is aware of the goal, what the child understands,
and what is expected to be achieved.

8.24 CREATING SURPRISE

Ideas for interest-motivating surprises in the classroom108:

Display an artefact or mystery object

Appear as a fictitious or historical character
Play a sound effect or a piece of music
Stage an incident
Play a video clip
Recite a poem
Sing a song
Display an image
Show a newspaper headline
Make a controversial statement

8.25 COMMUNICATE EFFECTIVELY

When discussing behavioural improvement with students, a teacher should at no stage put up
roadblocks such as moralising (you should know what happens if you...), judging (that wasnt a
very smart thing to do), stereotyping (thats typical behaviour for someone like you!), advising
(what you need to do is) or sympathising (when I was your age, I found it difficult too.)109.

107

(K. Krause, 2003) p. 66

(Scully, 2005) p 55
109
(McInerney, 2002) p 264
108

8.26 THE EXERCISE IN LEARNING REVOLUTION

Exercising before (n.b. NOT during) learning has been found to have a profound impact on ones ability
to focus and learn. During exercise the brain releases neuro-chemicals that increase synaptic plasticity
and strengthen the underlying systems that support plasticity110. In other words, exercise helps all of the
key brain functions that make learning easier.
The sort of exercise that helps learning can be any wide variety of aerobic exercises; even walking has
been shown to have effects on improving cognitive function. Doyle says that any movement is better
than no movement when it comes to enhancing learning111.
The most notable example of the benefits of exercising before learning is the case study of City Park
High School in Saskatoon, Canada112. It is an alternative school for kids with learning disabilities, and
over half of the students have been diagnosed with ADHD. The classrooms were equipped with
treadmills, and the students all did 20 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise before each maths class.
Within 5 months, nearly every student was achieving a whole grade higher than they had previously.
The exercise greatly improved their behaviour and altered their brain chemistry enough to make
learning possible.
Some ways of integrating more movement into the classroom113:
1. Allow students to stand and stretch when needed during class. Allow them to do so
whenever they feel that they are losing their attention. Doyle has found personally that it is
not disruptive to the class and he can be sure that students are paying him their utmost
attention.
2. Take more breaks during lectures. New media has caused a shortening of attention spans
among students114. One way to help students focus us to let them move and breathe for
periods of time as short as 30 seconds. Give them short breaks after periods of learning to
rise and stretch and think about what they have just learned and discuss it with a friend (see
Video 5: Carrie, designing talking time into a lesson).
It is important to try and sell your students the value of exercise and the benefits of including it in their
daily lives.

110

(Doyle, 2011) pp. 151-153

(Doyle, 2011) p 153
112
(Doyle, 2011) p 156
113
(Doyle, 2011) p 158
114
Swing, Gentile, Anderson & Walsh (2010), (Doyle, 2011) p 158
111

8.27 FINALLY, SOME ENCOURAGING ADVICE

Dont be a perfectionist!
Lets face it, it is not a total disaster if a few students muck around in your first lesson. The world is not
going to end. You are not going to get the sack. You will learn some valuable lessons from the
experience. And you will have plenty of time to win the class back.
- Sue Cowley, Getting the Buggers to Behave, 2006, page 34
Youre on a 5 year learning curve!
Do not put pressure on yourself to be the best from day one. Remember that you are on a learning
curve, and it will take on average five years to feel completely competent as a teacher. Remember that
you are in this for the long haul. You need to be able to nurture and protect yourself from the stressors
of early years in teaching.
- Lecturer Robert Mathews, Wednesday 13th April
Be loving!
Love is patient, love is kind It does not dishonor others, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it
keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects,
always trusts, always hopes, always perseveres. Love never fails.
- 1 Corinthians 13 vs. 4-8

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