EE 380:

Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

EE 380: Linear Control Systems

Time
Response

III. System Responses

Frequency
Response
Summary

Department of Electrical Engineering

Pennsylvania State University, University Park, USA
Instructor: Ji-Woong Lee

September 16, 2009

III. System Responses

EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

1 Time Response of Systems

Time
Response
Frequency
Response
Summary

2 Frequency Response of Systems

3 Summary

III. System Responses

EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

1 Time Response of Systems

Time
Response
Frequency
Response
Summary

2 Frequency Response of Systems

3 Summary

Time Response of Systems

Transient Response Vs. Steady-State Response
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

Time
Response
Frequency
Response
Summary

Time Response:
Performance evaluation is based on time responses.
C (s) = G (s)R(s) c(t) = ct (t) + css (t) , t 0
| {z }
| {z }
transient

steady-state

Transient Response ct :
limt ct (t) = 0

Transient response reflects dynamics.

Steady-State Response css :
Steady-state error: css (t) r (t), large t 0

Steady-state response reflects final accuracy.

Performance Objective:
Make transient response and steady-state error small.

Time Response of Systems

Test Signals
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

Time
Response
Frequency
Response
Summary

Unit Impulse
1

Unit Ramp

Unit Step

Unit Impulse R(s) = 1:

Infinite amplitude, infinitesimal width, and unit area
Impulse response = L1 of transfer function

Unit Step R(s) = 1/s:

Jump discontinuity
Useful in evaluating quickness of response
Unit Ramp R(s) = 1/s 2 :
Useful in evaluating ability to follow linear changes

Time Response of Systems

Impulse Response
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

Time
Response
Frequency
Response
Summary

Unit Impulse :
If is unit impulse, then
Z
f ()(t ) d = f (t)

for all t and for all continuous f .

Unit Impulse Response g :
If r = , then R(s) = 1, so
C (s) = G (s)R(s) = G (s)

c = L1 G (s) = g .

System Response for General Input r :

If g is unit impulse response, then G (s) = L(g ), so
Z t
C (s) = G (s)R(s) c(t) =
g ()r (t ) d.
0

Time Response of Systems

Unit Step Response
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

Final Value Theorem

If L(f ) = F (s) and if limt f (t) exists, then
lim f (t) = lim sF (s).

Time
Response
Frequency
Response
Summary

s0

R
R
lim 0 e st dfdt(t) dt = 0 lim e st dfdt(t) dt =
Proof. lim L df
dt = s0
s0
s0
R df (t)


dt
=
lim
f
(t)

f
(0).
Thus
lim
f
(t)
= lim L df
+ f (0).
dt
dt
0
t
t
s0


df
However, L dt = sF (s) f (0), so the result follows.

System DC Gain:
If r is unit step, then R(s) = s 1 , so system dc gain (or
steady-state gain) is
lim c(t) = lim sG (s)R(s) = lim G (s) = G (0).

s0

s0

Time Response of Systems

Step Response of First-Order Systems
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

Standard Form of First-Order Systems:



K
K /
G (s) =
=
s + 1
s + 1/
where K is steady-state gain, time constant.

Time
Response
Frequency
Response
Summary

Steady-State Gain K :
If r is unit step, then R(s) = s 1 , so
K
K
K / 1
=
+
s + 1/ s
s
s + 1/


t/
t/
c(t) = |{z}
K + Ke
, t 0.
| {z } = K 1 e
C (s) = G (s)R(s) =

=css (t)

=ct (t)

Time Constant :
If steady-state gain K = 1, then initial decay rate of ct is


dct (t) 
d
1
=
e t/ 
= .

dt t=0 dt

t=0

Time Response of Systems

Step Response of First-Order Systems (Contd)
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

Time
Response
Frequency
Response
Summary

Step Response of 1stOrder System

K

c(t) = K (1 e t/ )

e t/

2
3
4

1
0.3679
0.1353
0.0498
0.0183

Time Constant (Contd):

Consider e t/ 0 ( within 2% ) for t 4 .
Compare decay of terms in partial-fraction expansion:
K2
K1
G (s) =
+
+
1 s + 1 2 s + 1
Example:
5
2.5
G (s) =
=
c(t) 2.5 for t 4 = 2 sec
s +2
0.5s + 1

Time Response of Systems

Step Response of Second-Order Systems
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems

Standard Form of Second-Order Systems:

G (s) =

III. System
Responses

Time
Response
Frequency
Response
Summary

K n2
s 2 + 2n s + n2

where is damping ratio, n natural (or undamped) frequency,

and K dc (or steady-state) gain.
(n 0)
Transient and Steady-State Step Responses:
If r is unit step, so that C (s) = G (s)R(s) = G (s)s 1 , then
C (s) =

K n2
=
s(s 2 + 2n s + n2 )

K
s
|{z}

steady-state

K (s + 2n )
.
s 2 + 2n s + n2
|
{z
}
transient

Two Poles of Transfer Function G (s):

Characteristic equation s 2 + 2n s + n2 = 0 has two roots
p
s = n jn 1 2 .

Time Response of Systems

Step Response of Second-Order Systems (Contd)
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems

Root Locus of Characteristic Equation s 2 + 2n s + n2 = 0:

III. System
Responses

=0
0<<1

Time
Response
Frequency
Response
Summary

n
n

1 2

>1

>1

=1

=0

= 1
< 1 < 1
0 > > 1

Natural Undamped Frequency n :

Under zero damping ( = 0), roots of characteristic equation
are imaginary
Step response is purely sinusoidal with frequency n .

Time Response of Systems

Step Response of Second-Order Systems (Contd)
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

Time
Response
Frequency
Response
Summary

Damping Ratio :

(Assume K = 1)

> 1 (Overdamped):
c(t) = 1 + k1 e t/1 + k2 e t/2 , t 0,
1
1
where 1 =
and 2 =
2
2
n +n

= 1 (Critically damped):

n n

c(t) = 1 + (k1 + k2 t)e t/ ,

where = 1/n

t 0,

0 < < 1 (Underdamped):

1
c(t) = 1 e n t sin(n t + ), t 0,

p
2
where = 1 and = tan1 (/)
= 0 (Undamped): c(t) = 1 cos(n t), t 0

< 0 (Negatively damped): c(t) grows without bound.

Time Response of Systems

Step Response of Second-Order Systems (Contd)
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems

Classification of 2nd-Order System Dynamics:

>1

=1

0<<1

III. System
Responses

Time
Response
Frequency
Response

Summary

1 < < 0

=0

< 1

1
0
1

1: No overshoot (i.e., output never exceeds reference)

> 0: Stable (i.e., output eventually reaches reference)

Time Response of Systems

Step Response of Second-Order Systems (Contd)
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems

Pole Locations of 2nd-Order Transfer Function:

>1

=1

III. System
Responses

Time
Response
Frequency
Response
Summary

1 < < 0

=0
j

0<<1

< 1
j

1: No overshoot (i.e., output never exceeds reference)

> 0: Stable (i.e., output eventually reaches reference)

Time Response of Systems

Time Response Specifications
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

Typical Step Response

Mpt

1+d

css

1.0
0.9

Time
Response

1d

Frequency
Response
Summary

0.1
0

Tr

Tp

Ts

Time Constant : In the case of 2nd-order step response,

Overdamped ( > 1):

=

n n 2 1
Critically damped ( = 1):

Underdamped (0 < < 1):

=
=

1
n
1
n

Rise Time Tr : Time to rise from 10% to 90% of final value css

Time Response of Systems

Time Response Specifications (Contd)
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

Time
Response

Peak Time Tp : Time to reach peak value Mpt

(e.g., First nonzero time dc(t)
dt becomes zero)
In the case of 2nd-order step response,
h
i
dc(t)
d
1 n t
=
1

e
sin(
t
+
)
n
dt
dt

n n t
n n t
sin(n t + )
cos(n t +
e
e
n n t
=
[sin(n t) cos + cos(n t) sin ]
e
n n t

[cos(n t) cos sin(n t) sin ] .
e
p
cos = , sin = , and = 1 2 to obtain

Frequency
Response
Summary

Use

dc(t)
dt

n n t
e

sin(n t).

Putting n Tp = yields
Tp =

= p
.
n
n 1 2

Time Response of Systems

Time Response Specifications (Contd)
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

Time
Response
Frequency
Response
Summary

Peak Response Mpt :

(Assume: K = 1)
In the case of 2nd-order step response,
sin(n Tp + ) = sin( + ) = sin =
Mpt = c(Tp ) = 1 1 e n Tp sin(n Tp + )

/ 1 2
=1+e
.

Percent Overshoot:

Mpt css
100.
css
In the case of 2nd-order step response,
2
percent overshoot = e / 1 100.
Settling Time Ts : Time to settle within 2% of css .
Approximately four time constants are required for 2nd-order
step response c(t) = 1 1 e n t sin(n t + ) to settle to
4
within 2% of css , so
Ts = 4 =
.
n
percent overshoot =

Time Response of Systems

Example
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems

Closed-Loop System:
e

+
Time
Response

Gc

Gp (s) =

Gp

Frequency
Response
Summary

Motor

Amplifier

III. System
Responses

0.5
s(s+2)

Gc (s) = Ka

Gp (s)Gc (s)
Y (s)
0.5Ka
=
= 2
R(s)
1 + Gp (s)Gc (s)
s + 2s + 0.5Ka

Control Objective:
Fastest step response (i.e., smallest Ts ) without overshoot
Compensator Design: Choose critical damping = 1.
s 2 + 2s + 0.5Ka = s 2 + 2n s + n2 = s 2 + 2n s + n2
2n = 2 and n2 = 0.5Ka n = 1 and hence Ka = 2.
Achieved Settling Time: Ts = 4 =

4
n

= 4 sec

Time Response of Systems

Time Response and Pole Locations
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

Time
Response
Frequency
Response

Settling Time Specification:

For
( 2nd-order systems,
Characteristic equation: s 2 + 2n s + n2 = 0
p
Pole locations:
s = n jn 1 2
4
4
Ts =
=
n
real(s)

Summary

4/Ts,max

Speed of response is
increased by moving
poles to left in s-plane.

If Ts Ts,max is
required, then place
poles s.t.
n 4/Ts,max .

Time Response of Systems

Time Response and Pole Locations (Contd)
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

Time
Response
Frequency
Response

Overshoot Specification:
p
For 2nd-order systems with poles s = n jn 1 2 , let
p




1 2
1  imaginery(s) 
1
= tan 
=
tan
real(s) 

2
percent overshoot = e / 1 100 = e / tan 100

Summary

j
p
jn 1 2

max
n

Decreasing angle
reduces percent
overshoot.
If max is
required, then place
poles s.t.
12
.
1+tan max

Time Response of Systems

Example: RLC Circuit
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

Closed-Loop System:
L
+
r(t)

Time
Response
Frequency
Response
Summary

+
C

y(t)
{

Gp (s) =

VC (s)
IL (s)

1/C
s+1/RC

Gc (s) =

IL (s)
VL (s)

1/L
s

Y (s)
Gp (s)Gc (s)
1/LC
K n2
=
= 2
= 2
R(s)
1 + Gp (s)Gc (s)
s + (1/RC )s + 1/LC
s + 2n s + n2

Design Specifications:
Percent overshoot no more than e 100% = 4.32%
Settling time no more than 2 sec
Goals:
Given R choose C that meets specifications.
Determine range of L that meets specifications.

Time Response of Systems

Example: RLC Circuit (Contd)
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

Time
Response
Frequency
Response
Summary

Choice of Capacitance C :
p
System poles s = n jn 1 2
Settling time Ts = 4 n = 8RC Ts,max = 2

2n = 1/RC
1
C 4R

Range of Inductance L:
% overshoot e / tan 100 e 100 max = 45
Damping ratio 1 2
= 12 = 0.707 (common spec)
Natural freq n =

1+tan max
1
1 =
1
2RC 2(1/ 2)RC
LC

L 2R 2 C

j
j2
2

0
j2

Ts,max = 2 is met if
4
real(s) Ts,max
= 2.
Percent overshoot 4.32%
if 12 , which holds if
45 .

Time Response of Systems

Step Response of Higher-Order Systems
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

Time
Response
Frequency
Response
Summary

A Third-Order System:
K n2 /
(s + 1/ )(s 2 + 2n s + n2 )
K
K2 n2
K3 n2 s
+ 2
+ 2
=
2
s + 1 s + 2n s + n
s + 2n s + n2

G (s) =

3rd-Order Step Response: c(t) = c1 (t) + c2 (t) + c3 (t) where

c1 (t): Step response of a 1st-order system
c2 (t): Step response of a standard 2nd-order system
c3 (t): Derivative of 2nd-order step response
Estimate of Settling Time for 3rd-Order Responses:
Ts 4 max {, 1/n }

Estimate of Percent Overshoot for 3rd-Order Responses:

2
Percent overshoot e / 1 100

Time Response of Systems

System Response to Faster Test Signals
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

Time
Response
Frequency
Response
Summary

Unit Ramp Response of First-Order Systems:

If r is unit ramp, then R(s) = 1/s 2 , so
K / 1
K
K
K
C (s) = G (s)R(s) =
+
= 2+
2
s + 1/ s
s
s
s + 1/

t/
c(t) = |Kt
{z K } + |K e{z }, t 0
=css (t)

=ct (t)

If K = 1, then css (t) = t

= time constant for step response
= steady-state delay in ramp response

To track fast input, system is necessarily of high order.

Relation Between Test Signals:
Unit impulse response: Derivative of unit step response
Unit step response: Derivative of unit ramp response

III. System Responses

EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

1 Time Response of Systems

Time
Response
Frequency
Response
Summary

2 Frequency Response of Systems

3 Summary

Frequency Response of Systems

Complex Exponential Function
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

Time
Response
Frequency
Response
Summary

Representations of Complex Numbers

(a) If x, y R, then x + jy = Re j = R 6 with

p
Magnitude: R =
|x + jy | = x 2 + y 2 ,

if

tan1 |y /x|

tan1 |y /x|
if

Angle:
=

tan |y /x|
if

+ tan1 |y /x| if

x, y 0;
x < 0 y;
y < 0 x;
x, y < 0

(b) If R, R, then Re j = x + jy with

Real part: x = R cos ;

Imaginary part: y = R sin .

p
p
p


2 x/ x 2 + y 2 + jy / x 2 + y 2 =
Proof.
(a) x + jy = x 2 + yp
p


x 2 + y 2 (cos + j sin ) = x 2 + y 2 e j . (b) Re Re j = Re j






+Re j /2 = R cos ; Im Re j = Re j Re j /2j = R sin .

Frequency Response of Systems

Sinusoidal Response
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems

Sinusoidal Test Signal:

r (t) = A cos 1 t, t 0

III. System
Responses

Time
Response

R(s) =

s2

As
+ 12

Sinusoidal Response of Linear System:

If r is sinusoidal, and if C (s) = G (s)R(s), then
C (s) = G (s)

Frequency
Response
Summary

As
k1
k2
=
+
+ Cg (s)
(s j1 )(s + j1 )
s j1 s + j1

Assumption: limt cg (t) = 0 (i.e., lims0 sCg (s) = 0)

k1 =

A
2 G (j1 ),

k2 = k1 =

A
2 G (j1 )

Sinusoidal Steady-State Response:

If G (j1 ) = Re j and G (j1 ) = Re j , then
css (t) = k1 e j1 t + k2 e j1 t =
= AR cos(1 t + ).

AR j(1 t+)
e
+ e j(1 t+)
2

Frequency Response of Systems

Sinusoidal Response (Contd)
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

Time
Response
Frequency
Response

Frequency Response of Linear Systems

If C (s) = G (s)R(s), then G (j), as a function of [0, ),
is called the frequency response function. For r (t) = A cos 1 t,
t 0, the steady-state response is given by
css (t) = AR cos(1 t + ),

where steady-state gain R and phase shift satisfy

Summary

G (j1 ) = Re j .
Example: G (s) =

5
s+2

and r (t) = 7 cos 3t, t 0.

5(2j3)
5
10
15
6
G (j3) = 2+j3
= (2+j3)(2j3)
= 10j15
22 +32 = 13 j 13 = R
q





2
2
10
R=
+ 15
= 1.387; = tan1 15/13
180
13
13
10/13

= 56.3

css (t) = 7R cos(3t + ) = 9.707 cos(3t 56.3 )

c(t) css (t) after 4 = 2 sec.

Frequency Response of Systems

Frequency Response of First-Order Systems
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

Time
Response
Frequency
Response
Summary

Standard Form of First-Order Systems:

K
G (s) =
s + 1
Frequency Response of Standard 1st-Order Systems:
K
K (1 j )
G (j) =
=
= |G (j)|e j() ,
1 + j
1 + 2 2
where
K |1 j |
K
|G (j)| =
=
,
2
2
1+
1 + 2 2
() = tan1 ( ) = tan1
System Bandwidth B :

Frequency at which gain is 1/ 2 times gain at zero frequency.

1
|G (jB )| = |G (j0)|
2
K
K
1

= = 0.707K B =
2
2

2
1+

Frequency Response of Systems

Frequency Response of First-Order Systems (Contd)
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

Time
Response

Typical Frequency Response of 1st-Order Systems:

Magnitude of G(j)

Phase Angle of G(j)

0

K
0.707K

45

Frequency
Response
Summary

90

Two plots completely describe frequency response.

Here, frequency (rad/sec) is in log scale.
Phase angles are in degrees (radians 180/).
= time constant for 1st-order step response
= steady-state delay in 1st-order ramp response
= inverse of 1st-order system bandwidth

Frequency Response of Systems

Frequency Response of Second-Order Systems
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

Time
Response
Frequency
Response
Summary

Standard Form of Second-Order Systems:

K n2
K
G (s) = 2
=
2
2
s + 2n s + n
(s/n ) + 2(s/n ) + 1
Frequency Response of Standard 2nd-Order Systems:
K
G (j) =
= |G (j)|e j() ,
1 (/n )2 + j2(/n )
where
K
|G (j)| = q
2 ,
2 
1 (/n )2 + 2(/n )

tan1  2(/n )2  ,
n < 1;
1(/
 n)

() =
+ tan1  2(/n )2  , > 1.
n
1(/n )

System Bandwidth B :

2 
2
|G (jB )| = 12 |G (j0)| 1(B /n )2 + 2(B /n ) = 2

Frequency Response of Systems

Frequency Response of Second-Order Systems (Contd)
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems

Typical Frequency Response of 2nd-Order Systems:

III. System
Responses

Magnitude of G(j)

Time
Response
Frequency
Response

Phase Angle of G(j)

= 0.1
= 0.25
= 0.5
= 0.707

90

= 0.1

Summary

=1
0

=1

B /n

180
0
/n

/n

Here, normalized frequency /n is in linear scale.

Given a , increasing n increases bandwidth B .
We know, given a , increasing n decreases peak time Tp .
Increasing n also decreases Tr , as well as Ts .

Frequency Response of Systems

Frequency Response of Second-Order Systems (Contd)
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

Time
Response
Frequency
Response
Summary

BandwidthRise Time Product B Tr :

1.6 B Tr 2.2

for 0

If = 0, then c(t) = K (1 cos n t) and


2 
2 
2
1 (B /n )2 + 2(B /n ) = 1 (B /n )2 = 2.
Tr = t2 t1pwhere c(t1 ) = 0.1K and c(t2 ) = 0.9K .

B Tr = 1 + 2n (t2 t1 ) = 1.6.

If 1, then c(t) = K + K1 e t/1 + K2 e t/2 with

1
1
1 =
and 2 =
.
2
2
n +n

e t/2 )

c(t) K (1
B Tr ln 9 = 2.2.

n n

for 1.

B Tr constant 2 for all 0

Frequency Response of Systems

Frequency Response of Second-Order Systems (Contd)
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

Time
Response
Frequency
Response
Summary

Peak Frequency r :
|G (j)| = q

1 (/n )2

K
2


2
+ 2(/n )



= 0 yields (/n ) (/n )2 (1 2 2 ) = 0.
( p

n 1 2 2 , < 1/ 2;

r = peak frequency =
0,
1/ 2.

d
d(/n ) |G (j)|

Peak Frequency Response Mp :

K
,

<
1/
2;
2
Mp = |G (jr )| = 2 1

K ,
1/ 2.

Resonance: Peaking in frequency response

r = peak frequency = resonance frequency
Peak frequency response is directly related to overshoot in
step response.

Frequency Response of Systems

Frequency Response of Higher-Order Systems
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

BandwidthRise Time Product:

B Tr constant

Time
Response

To increase speed of response, it is necessary to increase

system bandwidth.

Frequency
Response

How to increase B will be covered in later chapters.

Summary

Peak Frequency Response:

The higher peak frequency response, the more overshoot
in step response.
A control system should not have significant resonance.
A common performance specification is given by maximum
allowable Mp .

Frequency Response of Systems

Example: A Third-Order System
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

Time
Response
Frequency
Response
Summary

Transfer Function:
G (s) =

s3

1.524
s + 2.5
1.524
=
s + 2.5
=

8
8
=
+ 9s + 10
(s + 2.5)(s 2 + 2s + 4)
1.008e j2.428
1.008e j2.428
+

+
s +1j 3
s +1+j 3
1.524s + 0.762
+
s 2 + 2s + 4

+ 4.5s 2

1st-Order Term: Time constant 1 = 0.4

2nd-Order Term: Natural freq n = 2, damping ratio
= 0.2, time constant 2 = 1/n = 1
Settling Time:
Estimate: Ts 4 max{1 , 2 } = 42 = 4 sec

Actual value (obtained via simulation): Ts = 3.2 sec

Frequency Response of Systems

Example: A Third-Order System (Contd)
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

Time
Response
Frequency
Response
Summary

Percent Overshoot:

2
Estimate: Percent overshoot e / 1 100 = 16%
Actual value (obtained via simulation):
Percent overshoot = 11%

BandwidthRise Time Product:

Actual bandwidth (obtained via simulation): B = 2.13
rad/sec
Actual rise time (obtained via simulation): Tr = 1.05 sec
Actual bandwidthrise time product: B Tr = 2.24
Rise Time Specification:
Estimated bandwidthrise time product: B Tr 2
If Tr 0.5 is required, then achieve B 4.

Frequency Response of Systems

Example: A Third-Order System (Contd)
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems

G (s) As Parallel Connection of Two Subsystems:

III. System
Responses

G1(s)

1.524
s + 2.5
1.524s + 0.762
G2 (s) =
s 2 + 2s + 4
G1 (s) =

R(s)

C(s)

Time
Response

G2(s)

Frequency
Response
Summary

Frequency and Time Responses:

Step Response of G(s)

Frequency Response |G(j)|

0.8

0.8

0.566

0
0

Frequency Response of Systems

Time and Frequency Scaling
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

Time
Response
Frequency
Response
Summary

Time Scaling: Scaling factor > 0 gives scaled time t by

t = t .
Basic Effects of Time Scaling:
1 Time scaling results in scaled time constant = /.
2 Time scaling results in frequency scaling = .
Example: For damped sinusoidal signal
c(t) = Ke t/ cos(t + ),
the scaled signal is

t 0,

cs (t ) = c(t)|t=t = c(t )
= Ke t / cos(t + ) = Ke t / cos( t + ).
Noneffects of Time Scaling:
Time scaling does not affect amplitude or phase angle.
Time scaling does not affect damping ratio.

Frequency Response of Systems

Time and Frequency Scaling (Contd)
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

Effect of Time Scaling on Derivatives:

d k c(t) 
d k c(t )
1 d k cs (t )
=
=

dt k t=t
d(t )k
k dtk

s k c = k sk cs

Effect of Time Scaling on Transfer Functions:

Time
Response
Frequency
Response
Summary

C (s)
bm s m + bm1 s m1 + + b1 s + b0
=
R(s)
s n + an1 s n1 + + a1 s + a0

The scaled transfer function is

Cs (s )
bm m sm + bm1 (m1) sm1 + + b1 1 s + b0
=
Rs (s )
n sn + an1 n1 sn1 + + a1 1 s + a0
nm bm sm + nm+1 bm1 sm1 + + n1 b1 s + n b0
=
sn + an1 sn1 + + n1 a1 s + n a0

The effect of time scaling t = t is to replace ai , bi with

ni ai , ni bi , respectively.
Gs (j ) = Cs (j )/Rs (j ) = G (j /) with = .

III. System Responses

EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

1 Time Response of Systems

Time
Response
Frequency
Response
Summary

2 Frequency Response of Systems

3 Summary

System Responses
Summary
EE 380:
Linear Control
Systems
III. System
Responses

Time
Response
Frequency
Response
Summary

Time response
Zero-state response to step input
= Step response under zero initial conditions
(Transient response plus steady-state response)
= Sum of lower-order step responses
Frequency response
= Zero-state steady-state responses to sinusoidal inputs
(Steady-state response over all frequencies)
Performance specifications:
Time domain: Settling time, percent overshoot, rise time,
steady-state error, etc.
Freq domain: Bandwidth, peak frequency response, etc.

Reduced-Order Models:
Q: Given a high-order model, how do you obtain a
low-order (e.g., 1st- or 2nd-order) approximation of it?
A: Disregard terms with relatively small time constants.