Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
2 COOKING
rives from the Greek (oruza). The Greek word is
the source of all European words (cf. Welsh reis, German Reis, Lithuanian ryiai, Serbo-Croatian ria, Polish
ry, Dutch rijst, Hungarian rizs, Romanian orez).[7][8][9]
The origin of the Greek word is unclear. It is sometimes held to be from the Tamil word (arisi), or
rather Old Tamil arici.[10][11] However, Krishnamurti[12]
disagrees with the notion that Old Tamil arici is the source
of the Greek term, and proposes that it was borrowed
from descendants of Proto-Dravidian *warici instead.
Mayrhofer[13] suggests that the immediate source of the
Greek word is to be sought in Old Iranian words of the
types *vrz- or *vrinj-, but these are ultimately traced
back to Indo-Aryan (as in Sanskrit vrh-) and subsequently to Dravidian by Witzel and others.
2 Cooking
Preparation
The name wild rice is usually used for species of the genera Zizania and Porteresia, both wild and domesticated,
although the term may also be used for primitive or uncultivated varieties of Oryza.
Milled to unmilled rice, from left to right, white rice (Japanese
rice), rice with germ, brown rice
Etymology
2.3
Dishes
2.3 Dishes
Main article: List of rice dishes
In Arab cuisine, rice is an ingredient of many soups and
dishes with sh, poultry, and other types of meat. It is
also used to stu vegetables or is wrapped in grape leaves
(dolma). When combined with milk, sugar, and honey,
it is used to make desserts. In some regions, such as
Tabaristan, bread is made using rice our. Medieval Islamic texts spoke of medical uses for the plant.[17] Rice
may also be made into congee (also called rice porridge,
A: Rice with cha
fawrclaab,
okayu, Xifan, jook, or rice gruel) by adding
B: Brown rice
more water than usual, so that the cooked rice is satuC: Rice with germ
D: White rice with bran residue
rated with water, usually to the point that it disintegrates.
E: Musenmai (Japanese:
), Polished and ready to boil rice, Rice porridge is commonly eaten as a breakfast food, and
literally, non-wash rice
is also a traditional food for the sick.
(1):
(2):
(3):
(4):
(5):
Cha
Bran
Bran residue
Cereal germ
Endosperm
Rice is the staple food of over half the worlds population. It is the predominant dietary energy source for 17
countries in Asia and the Pacic, 9 countries in North and
South America and 8 countries in Africa. Rice provides
20% of the worlds dietary energy supply, while wheat
Brown rice may be soaked in warm water for 20 hours to supplies 19% and maize (corn) 5%.[18]
stimulate germination. This process, called germinated A detailed analysis of nutrient content of rice suggests
brown rice (GBR),[16] activates enzymes and enhances that the nutrition value of rice varies based on a numamino acids including gamma-aminobutyric acid to im- ber of factors. It depends on the strain of rice, that is
prove the nutritional value of brown rice. This method between white, brown, black, red and purple varieties of
is a result of research carried out for the United Nations rice each prevalent in dierent parts of the world. It
International Year of Rice.
also depends on nutrient quality of the soil rice is grown
in, whether and how the rice is polished or processed,
the manner it is enriched, and how it is prepared before
consumption.[19]
An illustrative comparison between white and brown rice
of protein quality, mineral and vitamin quality, carbohydrate and fat quality suggests that neither is a complete
Rice is cooked by boiling or steaming, and absorbs water nutrition source. Between the two, there is a signicant
during cooking. With the absorption method, rice may dierence in ber content and minor dierences in other
be cooked in a volume of water similar to the volume of nutrients.[20]
rice. With the rapid-boil method, rice may be cooked in
a large quantity of water which is drained before serving. Brilliantly colored rice strains, such as purple rice, deRapid-boil preparation is not desirable with enriched rice, rive their color from anthocyanins and tocols. Scientic
as much of the enrichment additives are lost when the studies suggest that these color pigments have antioxiwater is discarded. Electric rice cookers, popular in Asia dant properties that may be useful to human health. In
and Latin America, simplify the process of cooking rice. purple rice bran, hydrophilic antioxidants are in greater
Rice (or any other grain) is sometimes quickly fried in oil quantity and have higher free radical scavenging activity
or fat before boiling (for example saron rice or risotto); than lipophilic antioxidants. Anthocyanins and -tocols
this makes the cooked rice less sticky, and is a cooking in purple rice are[21]largely located in the inner portion of
style commonly called pilaf in Iran and Afghanistan or purple rice bran.
biryani (Dam-pukhtak) in India and Pakistan.
Comparative nutrition studies on red, black and white va-
2.2
Processing
4 Rice-growing environments
Rice can be grown in dierent environments, depend-
3.2
[31]
Comparison of rice to other major sta- ing upon water availability. Generally, rice does not
thrive in a waterlogged area, yet it can survive and grow
ple foods
[32]
[33]
herein
The table below shows the nutrient content of major staple foods in a raw form. Raw grains, however, are not
edible and can not be digested. These must be sprouted,
or prepared and cooked for human consumption. In
sprouted and cooked form, the relative nutritional and
anti-nutritional contents of each of these grains is remarkably dierent from that of raw form of these grains reported in this table.
3.3
Arsenic concerns
1. Lowland, rainfed, which is drought prone, favors medium depth; waterlogged, submergence, and
ood prone
2. Lowland, irrigated, grown in both the wet season
and the dry season
3. Deep water or oating rice
4. Coastal Wetland
5. Upland rice is also known as Ghaiya rice, well
known for its drought tolerance[34]
3.4
Bacillus cereus
5
published in Nature, through a map of rice genome variation, indicated that the domestication of rice occurred
in the Pearl River valley region of China based on the
genetic evidence. From East Asia, rice was spread to
South and Southeast Asia.[5] Before this research, the
commonly accepted view, based on archaeological evidence, is that rice was rst domesticated in the region of
the Yangtze River valley in China.[35][36]
6 Regional history
In a recent study,[43] scientist have found a link for differences in human culture based on either wheat or rice
cultivating races since ancient times.
6.1 Africa
Morphological studies of rice phytoliths from the Diaotonghuan archaeological site clearly show the transition Main article: Oryza glaberrima
from the collection of wild rice to the cultivation of do- African rice has been cultivated for 3500 years. Between
mesticated rice. The large number of wild rice phytoliths
at the Diaotonghuan level dating from 12,00011,000 BP
indicates that wild rice collection was part of the local
means of subsistence. Changes in the morphology of
Diaotonghuan phytoliths dating from 10,0008,000 BP
show that rice had by this time been domesticated.[37]
Soon afterwards the two major varieties of indica and
japonica rice were being grown in Central China.[36] In
the late 3rd millennium BC, there was a rapid expansion
of rice cultivation into mainland Southeast Asia and westwards across India and Nepal.[36]
In 2003, Korean archaeologists claimed to have discovered the worlds oldest domesticated rice.[38] Their
15,000-year old age challenges the accepted view that
rice cultivation originated in China about 12,000 years
ago.[38] These ndings were received by academia with
strong skepticism,[39] and the results and their publicizing has been cited as being driven by a combination of
nationalist and regional interests.[40] In 2011, a combined
eort by the Stanford University, New York University,
Washington University in St. Louis, and Purdue University has provided the strongest evidence yet that there is
only one single origin of domesticated rice, in the Yangtze
Valley of China.[41][42]
The earliest remains of the grain in the Indian subcontinent have been found in the Indo-Gangetic Plain and date 6.2
from 70006000 BC though the earliest widely accepted
date for cultivated rice is placed at around 30002500
BC with ndings in regions belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization. Perennial wild rices still grow in Assam
and Nepal. It seems to have appeared around 1400 BC
in southern India after its domestication in the northern
plains. It then spread to all the fertile alluvial plains watered by rivers. Cultivation and cooking methods are
thought to have spread to the west rapidly and by medieval
times, southern Europe saw the introduction of rice as a
hearty grain.
Asia
Rice spread to the Middle East where, according to Zohary and Hopf (2000, p. 91), O. sativa was recovered
from a grave at Susa in Iran (dated to the 1st century AD).
Aerial view of terrace rice elds in Yuanyang, Yunnan Province,
southern China
REGIONAL HISTORY
The northern region has both low lands and high lands.
The farmers usual crop is non-glutinous rice [48] such
as Niew Sun Pah Tong rice seeds. This rice is naturally
protected from leaf disease, and the paddy has a brown
color.[49] The northeastern region has a large area, where
farmers can cultivate about 36 million square meters of
rice. Although most of them are plains and dry areas,[50]
they can grow the white jasmine rice 105 which is the
most famous Thai rice. The white jasmine rice was developed in Chonburi province rst and after that it was
grown in many areas in the country but the rice from this
region has a high quality, because its softer, whiter and
more fragrant.[51] This rice can resist drought, acidic soil,
and alkaline soil.[52]
The central region is mostly composed of plains. Most
farmers grow Jao rice.[50] For example the Pathum Thani
1 rice which has qualities similar to the white jasmine 105
rice. Their paddy has the color of thatch and their cooked
rice has fragrant grains also.[53]
farmers still account for 87% of the worlds total rice production.
6.2.1
Sri Lanka
Thailand
6.4 Europe
Rice is the main export of Thailand, especially the white
jasmine rice 105 (Dok Mali 105).[46] Thailand has a Rice was known to the Classical world, being imported
large number of rice varieties, 3,500 kinds with dier- from Egypt, and perhaps west Asia. It was known to
6.6
United States
20
15
10
0
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
Even before this Australias rice production greatly exceeded local needs,[69] and rice exports to Japan have become a major source of foreign currency. Above-average
rainfall from the 1950s to the middle 1990s[71] encouraged the expansion of the Riverina rice industry, but its
prodigious water use in a practically waterless region began to attract the attention of environmental scientists.
These became severely concerned with declining ow in
the Snowy River and the lower Murray River.
References to wild rice in the Americas are to the unreAlthough rice growing in Australia is highly protable
lated Zizania palustris
due to the cheapness of land, several recent years of seMore than 100 varieties of rice are commercially pro- vere drought have led many to call for its elimination beduced primarily in six states (Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana, cause of its eects on extremely fragile aquatic ecosysMississippi, Missouri, and California) in the U.S.[68] Ac- tems. The Australian rice industry is somewhat opporcording to estimates for the 2006 crop year, rice produc- tunistic, with the area planted varying signicantly from
tion in the U.S. is valued at $1.88 billion, approximately season to season depending on water allocations in the
half of which is expected to be exported. The U.S. pro- Murray and Murrumbidgee irrigation regions.
vides about 12% of world rice trade.[68] The majority of
domestic utilization of U.S. rice is direct food use (58%),
while 16% is used in each of processed foods and beer.
7 Production and commerce
10% is found in pet food.[68]
6.7
Australia
7.1 Production
7.1
Production
9
in India alone enough food would be saved every year to
feed 70 to 100 million people over a year.[78] However,
other writers have warned against dramatic assessments
of post-harvest food losses, arguing that worst-case scenarios tend to be used rather than realistic averages and
that in many cases the cost of avoiding losses exceeds the
value of the food saved.[79]
The seeds of the rice plant are rst milled using a rice
huller to remove the cha (the outer husks of the grain).
At this point in the process, the product is called brown
rice. The milling may be continued, removing the bran,
i.e., the rest of the husk and the germ, thereby creating
white rice. White rice, which keeps longer, lacks some
important nutrients; moreover, in a limited diet which
does not supplement the rice, brown rice helps to prevent
the disease beriberi.
million tonnes.[73] The average world farm yield for rice Either by hand or in a rice polisher, white rice may be
bued with glucose or talc powder (often called polished
was 4.5 tonnes per hectare, in 2012.[73]
rice, though this term may also refer to white rice in genRice farms in Egypt were the most productive in 2012,
eral), parboiled, or processed into our. White rice may
with a nationwide average of 9.5 tonnes per hectare.[74]
also be enriched by adding nutrients, especially those lost
Second place: Australia - 8.9 tonnes per hectare.[74] Third
during the milling process. While the cheapest method of
place: USA - 8.3 tonnes per hectare.[74]
enriching involves adding a powdered blend of nutrients
Rice is a major food staple and a mainstay for the rural that will easily wash o (in the United States, rice which
population and their food security. It is mainly cultivated has been so treated requires a label warning against rinsby small farmers in holdings of less than 1 hectare. Rice ing), more sophisticated methods apply nutrients directly
is also a wage commodity for workers in the cash crop or to the grain, coating the grain with a water-insoluble subnon-agricultural sectors. Rice is vital for the nutrition of stance which is resistant to washing.
much of the population in Asia, as well as in Latin AmerIn some countries, a popular form, parboiled rice, is subica and the Caribbean and in Africa; it is central to the
jected to a steaming or parboiling process while still a
food security of over half the world population. Develbrown rice grain. This causes nutrients from the outer
oping countries account for 95% of the total production,
husk, especially thiamine, to move into the grain itself.
with China and India alone responsible for nearly half of
The parboil process causes a gelatinisation of the starch
the world output.[75]
in the grains. The grains become less brittle, and the color
World production of rice has risen steadily from about of the milled grain changes from white to yellow. The rice
200 million tonnes of paddy rice in 1960 to over 678 mil- is then dried, and can then be milled as usual or used as
lion tonnes in 2009. The three largest producers of rice brown rice. Milled parboiled rice is nutritionally superior
in 2009 were China (197 million tonnes), India (131 Mt), to standard milled rice. Parboiled rice has an additional
and Indonesia (64 Mt). Among the six largest rice pro- benet in that it does not stick to the pan during cooking,
ducers, the most productive farms for rice, in 2009, were as happens when cooking regular white rice. This type of
in China producing 6.59 tonnes per hectare.[76]
rice is eaten in parts of India and countries of West Africa
Many rice grain producing countries have signicant are also accustomed to consuming parboiled rice.
losses post-harvest at the farm and because of poor roads,
inadequate storage technologies, inecient supply chains
and farmers inability to bring the produce into retail markets dominated by small shopkeepers. A World Bank
FAO study claims 8% to 26% of rice is lost in developing nations, on average, every year, because of postharvest problems and poor infrastructure. Some sources
claim the post-harvest losses to exceed 40%.,[75][77] Not
only do these losses reduce food security in the world, the
study claims that farmers in developing countries such as
China, India and others lose approximately US$89 billion
of income in preventable post-harvest farm losses, poor
transport, the lack of proper storage and retail. One study
claims that if these post-harvest grain losses could be
eliminated with better infrastructure and retail network,
Despite the hypothetical health risks of talc (such as stomach cancer),[80][81] talc-coated rice remains the norm in
some countries due to its attractive shiny appearance, but
it has been banned in some, and is no longer widely used
in others (such as the United States). Even where talc is
not used, glucose, starch, or other coatings may be used
to improve the appearance of the grains.
Rice bran, called nuka in Japan, is a valuable commodity
in Asia and is used for many daily needs. It is a moist, oily
inner layer which is heated to produce oil. It is also used
as a pickling bed in making rice bran pickles and takuan.
Raw rice may be ground into our for many uses, including making many kinds of beverages, such as amazake,
horchata, rice milk, and rice wine. Rice our does not
10
7.3 Distribution
Because of the importance of rice to human nutrition
and food security in Asia, the domestic rice markets tend
to be subject to considerable state involvement. While
the private sector plays a leading role in most countries,
agencies such as BULOG in Indonesia, the NFA in the
Philippines, VINAFOOD in Vietnam and the Food CorRice combine harvester Katori-city, Japan
poration of India are all heavily involved in purchasing of
paddy from farmers or rice from mills and in distributing
Further information: Paddy eld
rice to poorer people. BULOG and NFA monopolise rice
imports into their countries while VINAFOOD controls
Unmilled rice, known as paddy (Indonesia and Malaysia: all exports from Vietnam.[83]
padi; Philippines, palay), is usually harvested when the
grains have a moisture content of around 25%. In most
Asian countries, where rice is almost entirely the product 7.4 Trade
of smallholder agriculture, harvesting is carried out manually, although there is a growing interest in mechanical World trade gures are very dierent from those for
harvesting. Harvesting can be carried out by the farmers production, as less than 8% of rice produced is traded
themselves, but is also frequently done by seasonal labour internationally.[84] In economic terms, the global rice
groups. Harvesting is followed by threshing, either imme- trade was a small fraction of 1% of world mercantile
11
trade. Many countries consider rice as a strategic food is claimed to have set new national records in rice yields,
staple, and various governments subject its trade to a wide within the last 10 years, in many countries. The claimed
range of controls and interventions.
Chinese and Indian yields have yet to be demonstrated on
over two conDeveloping countries are the main players in the world seven-hectare lots and to be reproducible
[91][92][93][94]
secutive
years
on
the
same
farm.
rice trade, accounting for 83% of exports and 85% of
imports. While there are numerous importers of rice,
the exporters of rice are limited. Just ve countries
Thailand, Vietnam, China, the United States and India
in decreasing order of exported quantities, accounted
for about three-quarters of world rice exports in 2002.[75]
However, this ranking has been rapidly changing in recent years. In 2010, the three largest exporters of rice,
in decreasing order of quantity exported were Thailand,
Vietnam and India. By 2012, India became the largest exporter of rice with a 100% increase in its exports on year
to year basis, and Thailand slipped to third position.[85][86]
Together, Thailand, Vietnam and India accounted for
nearly 70% of the world rice exports.
The primary variety exported by Thailand and Vietnam
were Jasmine rice, while exports from India included aromatic Basmati variety. China, an exporter of rice in
early 2000s, was a net importer of rice in 2010 and will
become the largest net importer, surpassing Nigeria, in
2013.[84][87] According to a USDA report, the worlds
largest exporters of rice in 2012 were India (9.75 million tonnes), Vietnam (7 million tonnes), Thailand (6.5
million tonnes), Pakistan (3.75 million tonnes) and the
United States (3.5 million tonnes).[88]
Major importers usually include Nigeria, Indonesia,
Bangladesh, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Malaysia, the
Philippines, Brazil and some African and Persian Gulf
countries. In common with other West African countries, Nigeria is actively promoting domestic production.
However, its very heavy import duties (110%) open it to
smuggling from neighboring countries.[89] Parboiled rice
is particularly popular in Nigeria. Although China and
India are the two largest producers of rice in the world,
both countries consume the majority of the rice produced
domestically, leaving little to be traded internationally.
7.5
8 Price
In late 2007 to May 2008, the price of grains rose greatly
due to droughts in major producing countries (particularly Australia), increased use of grains for animal feed
and US subsidies for bio-fuel production. Although there
was no shortage of rice on world markets this general upward trend in grain prices led to panic buying by consumers, government rice export bans (in particular, by
Vietnam and India) and inated import orders by the
Philippines marketing board, the National Food Authority. This caused signicant rises in rice prices. In late
April 2008, prices hit 24 US cents a pound, twice the
price of seven months earlier.[95] Over the period of 2007
to 2013, the Chinese government has substantially increased the price it pays domestic farmers for their rice,
rising to US$500 per metric ton by 2013.[84] The 2013
price of rice originating from other southeast Asian countries was a comparably low US$350 per metric ton.[84]
On April 30, 2008, Thailand announced plans for the creation of the Organisation of Rice Exporting Countries
(OREC) with the intention that this should develop into a
price-xing cartel for rice.[96][97] However, little progress
had been made by mid-2011 to achieve this.
Worlds most productive rice farms million metric tons of paddy equivalent (354,603 of
and farmers
milled equivalent), while the far largest consumers were
12
10.1 Insects
Major rice insect pests include: the brown planthopper
(BPH),[113] several spp. of stemborers including those
in the genera Scirpophaga and Chilo,[114] the rice gall
midge,[115] several spp. of rice bugs[116] notably in the
genus Leptocorisa,[117] the rice leafroller and rice weevils.
10.2 Diseases
Main article: List of rice diseases
Work by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture to
measure the greenhouse gas emissions of rice production.
10
Several nematode species infect rice crops, causing diseases such as Ufra (Ditylenchus dipsaci), White tip
disease (Aphelenchoide bessei), and root knot disease
(Meloidogyne graminicola). Some nematode species
such as Pratylenchus spp. are most dangerous in upland rice of all parts of the world. Rice root nematode (Hirschmanniella oryzae) is a migratory endoparasite which on higher inoculum levels will lead to complete
destruction of a rice crop. Beyond being obligate parasites, they also decrease the vigor of plants and increase
the plants susceptibility to other pests and diseases.
Rice pests are any organisms or microbes with the potential to reduce the yield or value of the rice crop (or of
rice seeds).[110] Rice pests include weeds, pathogens, insects, nematode, rodents, and birds. A variety of factors
can contribute to pest outbreaks, including climatic factors, improper irrigation, the overuse of insecticides and
high rates of nitrogen fertilizer application.[111] Weather
conditions also contribute to pest outbreaks. For example, rice gall midge and army worm outbreaks tend to follow periods of high rainfall early in the wet season, while
thrips outbreaks are associated with drought.[112]
10.6
Parasitic weeds
that farmers pesticide applications are often unnecessary, and even facilitate pest outbreaks.[126][127][128][129]
By reducing the populations of natural enemies of rice
pests,[130] misuse of insecticides can actually lead to
pest outbreaks.[131] The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) demonstrated in 1993 that an 87.5% reduction in pesticide use can lead to an overall drop
in pest numbers.[132] IRRI also conducted two campaigns in 1994 and 2003, respectively, which discouraged insecticide misuse and smarter pest management in
Vietnam.[133][134]
13
tibiosis, and tolerance.[142] Nonpreference (or antixenosis) describes host plants which insects prefer to avoid;
antibiosis is where insect survival is reduced after the ingestion of host tissue; and tolerance is the capacity of a
plant to produce high yield or retain high quality despite
insect infestation.[143]
Over time, the use of pest resistant rice varieties selects
for pests that are able to overcome these mechanisms of
resistance. When a rice variety is no longer able to resist pest infestations, resistance is said to have broken
down. Rice varieties that can be widely grown for many
years in the presence of pests and retain their ability to
withstand the pests are said to have durable resistance.
Mutants of popular rice varieties are regularly screened
by plant breeders to discover new sources of durable
resistance.[142][144]
Rice plants produce their own chemical defenses to protect themselves from pest attacks. Some synthetic chemicals, such as the herbicide 2,4-D, cause the plant to increase the production of certain defensive chemicals and
thereby increase the plants resistance to some types of
pests.[135] Conversely, other chemicals, such as the insecticide imidacloprid, can induce changes in the gene expression of the rice that cause the plant to become more 10.6 Parasitic weeds
susceptible to attacks by certain types of pests.[136] 5Alkylresorcinols are chemicals that can also be found in Rice is parasitized by the weed eudicot Striga hermonthica.[145] which is of local importance for this crop.
rice.[137]
Chloroxylon is used for Pest Management in Organic Rice Cultivation in Chhattisgarh, India
Among rice cultivars, there are dierences in the responses to, and recovery from, pest damage.[116][139]
Many rice varieties have been selected for resistance to
insect pests.[140][141] Therefore, particular cultivars are
recommended for areas prone to certain pest problems.
The genetically based ability of a rice variety to withstand
pest attacks is called resistance. Three main types of plant
resistance to pests are recognized as nonpreference, an- Rice seed collection from IRRI
14
12
BIOTECHNOLOGY
West Africa.
The high-yielding varieties are a group of crops created intentionally during the Green Revolution to increase
global food production. This project enabled labor markets in Asia to shift away from agriculture, and into industrial sectors. The rst Rice Car, IR8 was produced
in 1966 at the International Rice Research Institute which
is based in the Philippines at the University of the Philippines' Los Baos site. IR8 was created through a cross
between an Indonesian variety named Peta and a Chinese variety named Dee Geo Woo Gen.[154]
On December 16, 2002, the UN General Assembly declared the year 2004 the International Year of Rice. The
Rice cultivars also fall into groups according to environ- declaration was sponsored by more than 40 countries.
mental conditions, season of planting, and season of harvest, called ecotypes. Some major groups are the Japantype (grown in Japan), buly and tjereh types (Indonesia); aman (main winter crop), aus (aush, summer), 12 Biotechnology
and boro (spring) (Bengal and Assam).[147][148] Cultivars exist that are adapted to deep ooding, and these are
12.1 High-yielding varieties
generally called oating rice.[149]
12.6
ber 9, 2007), trumpeted as miracle crops that will dramatically increase rice yield in Africa and enable an economic resurgence. Ongoing research in China to develop
perennial rice could result in enhanced sustainability and
food security.
12.3
Golden rice
15
Sub1 was developed via marker-assisted selection, with
the ability to withstand prolonged periods of around 14
days beneath a ooded plain.[161][163] The submergence
tolerance ability of this variety is conferred by the presence of the Sub1A gene, introgressed from the Indian cultivar FR13A into the ood-vulnerable (but high yielding)
cultivar Swarna.[161][163] Swarna Sub1 eectively enters a
dormant, energy conserving state upon being submerged
in a ooded rice paddy, a process that involves the nely
controlled metabolism of enzymes such amylases, starch
phosphorylase and alcohol dehydrogenase, allowing the
plant to survive with limited oxygen and sunlight unlike
its standard variety relatives.[161][163] Given that the presence of the Sub1A gene does not impact upon the quality or quantity of the rice obtained,[161] this variety has
been very popular, with 1.7 million hectares of land in
India having Swarna Sub1 and other ood resistant varieties used instead of conventional rice crops.[164]
12.5
Flooding is an issue that many rice growers face, especially in South and South East Asia where ooding annually aects 20 million hectares.[161] Standard rice varieties cannot withstand stagnant ooding of more than
about a week,[162] mainly as it disallows the plant access
to necessary requirements such as sunlight and essential
gas exchanges, inevitably leading to plants being unable
to recover.[161] In the past, this has led to a massive losses
in yields, such as in the Philippines, where in 2006, rice
crops worth $65 million were lost to ooding.[163]
The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) conducts research into developing drought tolerant rice varieties, including the varieties 5411 and Sookha dhan, currently being employed by farmers in the Philippines and
Nepal respectively.[166] In addition, in 2013 the Japanese
National Institute for Agrobiological Sciences led a team
which successfully inserted the DEEPER ROOTING 1
(DRO1), from the Philippine upland rice variety Kinandang Patong, into the popular commercial rice variety
IR64, giving rise to a far deeper root system in the resulting plants.[167] This facilitates an improved ability for
the rice plant to derive its required nutrients in times
of drought via accessing deeper layers of soil, a feature
demonstrated by trials which saw the IR64 + DRO1 rice
yields drop by 10% under moderate drought conditions,
compared to 60% for the unmodied IR64 variety.[167]
[168]
Soil salinity poses a major threat to rice crop productivity, particularly along low-lying coastal areas during the
dry season[165] for example, roughly 1 million hectares
of the coastal areas of Bangladesh are aected by saline
In response to this hazard, a variety of rice named Swarna soils.[169] These high concentrations of salt can severely
16
14
14 See also
Articial rice
Rice production
13
Rice plays an important role in certain religions and popular beliefs. In many cultures relatives will scatter rice
during or towards the end of a wedding ceremony in front
of the bride and groom.[173]
The pounded rice ritual is conducted during weddings in
Nepal. The bride gives a leafplate full of pounded rice to
the groom after he requests it politely from her.[174]
In the Philippines rice wine, popularly known as tapuy,
SEE ALSO
Rice wine
Risotto
Straw
System of Rice Intensication
Wild rice
Upland rice
17
15
References
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Rydra Wong, Khalid Mahmood, HurricaneWilson, Oroso, NatureA16, Oren0, KVinod Kumar, Utc-100, FisherQueen, Paul Gard, MartinBot, Ebizur, A suyash, ProteinGod, It334, Vamooom, Mschel, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Nono64, Gunkarta, PrestonH,
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Ascton, Uthantofburma, Sbrockway, (jarbarf), Xarqi, Comp25, Warut, Molly-in-md, Nwbeeson, Super sped 2, Touch Of Light, Alnokta,
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Juliancolton, Plindenbaum, Mercredi-Soir, Tweisbach, Gwen Gale, Nivetitha, Geekdiva, Vagr7, Treisijs, Agrofe, Mike V, Bkwyrm, Wisdom Like Silence, Khargas, Bonadea, Doubleyouyou, Nvram, Pdcook, IceDragon64, PedroDeGalles, SoCalSuperEagle, Rexparry sydney,
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