Tune 23, 1968 POWER AND THE ENGINEER. A Simple Turbine Plant in New England ‘A Decidedly Interesing Installation in Which the Turbines Are Practically the Only Apparatus to Be Seen in the Engine Room ‘The remark that has been made of some turbine installations, that “it is hard to find the turbine among the auxiliaries,” certainly does not apply to the Curtis in sallation atthe mills of the Nashua Man- tfacturing Company, at Nashua, N. H. The relative levels of the canal and river are such that water will flow tothe barom- frie condenser without pumping, while the condenser head is far enough sbove “This set i also run at night for maintain- ing veatchman’s lights throughout the factory and for lighting the boiler and engine rooms. Through the day excita- tion is furnished by the as-kilowatt induc- tion-motor generator set, shown at the ght in Fig. 2 and in the foreground in Fig. 3 Fig. 4 is a view in the basement, show- jing the 18-inch exhaust main leading the step, the surplus oil being by-passed. Contintity of operation is therefore not endangered by a possible slowing down of the pump to a point where it might stp. With this arrangement and the duplicate pump ready for immediate service, the probability of interruption to the supply fof oil to the step is so remote that in the opinion of Charles H. Austin, the designer fof the plant, the accumulator would be the river to give the fall required for i discharge against atmospheric pressure. ‘The only auxiliary required, therefore, is the step-pump, which is located in the basement, leaving in the turbine room nothing but the turbines, the two ex- citers and the switchboard. ‘The turbine sets consist of two s00-kilo- watt Goo-volt three-phase anits, shown from different positions in Figs.'r and 2 ‘The later figure shows also in the fore- ‘ground the 25-kilowatt Curtis turbine driven exciter set need in starting. up. ont from the turbine to the condenser, ‘which stands outside the wall toward Which the camera was pointed when this View was taken, and which is shown from the outside in Fig. 5 ‘The turbines stand upon substantial brick foundations, circular in form. The step-pumps occupying the center of Fig. 4 are Worthington duplex pumps of the pot-valve type, installed in duplicate. No sccumulator is used, nor automatic regula tion for the pumps, which are run at a speed greater than that required to feed an unwarranted complication of a beauti- fully simple outfit The oil-cooling and ‘fitering tank is shown in the background of Fig. 4 while fon the brick pier at the right are the theostat grids operated by shafts from the Switchboard immediately above, The condenser is a Manning-Bulkley, No des-vacwsm pump is used, nor any special provision ‘made for expelling the air, but a vacuum of between 28 and 29 inches is easily maintained. The canal level ig 7 feet Below the neck of the con-POWER AND THE ENGINEER. Jane 23, 1908 FIG, 3. SHOWING SWITCHBOARD AND MOTOR-GENERATOR IN NASHUA PLANT denser, and the hot-well is 34 feet below the neck, with a fall of about § feet from ‘the hotwell to the river. ‘The initial installation of one turbine wwas made between two and three years ago and proved s0 satisfactory that it was duplicated to meet the increasing de- mand for power. The first unit-was taken apart and examined after being in service for two and a half years, running ten hours per day, and was found in excellent condition, no signs of corrosion or erosion ‘ia, 5, VIEW oP CONDENSER ‘upon the blades, although the steam is not superheated fies considerable: moisTune 23, 1908. Power Plants for Sawmills By W. J. Buckwun ‘The choice now open to the proprietors ‘of sawmill, as to what power they shall buy, is a very perplexing one, and often Aeads to disappointment. So’ many men are ready to fornish details of what they ‘can do with certain plants and of what Title power is needed to drive certain ma- chines, that not only are sawmill proprie- tors led into dificulties, but engineers are also led astray a8 to the requirements of ‘woodworking machinery. For instance, take two sawmills; there ‘may be the same number of machines in ‘each, but the probability is that the power taken by each mill varies by some 30 per ‘cent, oF in another case a mill in which the machines are worked lightly will con- POWER AND THE ENGINEER. question as to whether it would be best to drive a ie Waren Power Paacricatty ELrnerearea In England the question of water power does not come into the problem: in Amer~ iea itis now almost a matter of whether the mills are required for season work, fr throughout the year. In most eases, though, even in the States, the power of the sawmill if now confined to either steam, suction gas or electricity Tt may be said that this problem of power is the same in every industry, and that in four mills, factories and other places, the proprietors are seriously de- ating as to which it the most reliable and cheapest power. The sawmill, how- fever, is distinetly diferent, as very few industries make’ suficlent, refuse from their work to supply them with the neces- sary fuel for producing’ power. This does ‘sume about half the power needed in one ‘which is hard-driven All this was of no importance a few years ago. The engineer could make a ‘ough estimate of the power required by the machines and allow a good margin for any excess; then order a power plant which would cover all these requirements ‘This was straightforward sailing, and the ‘worty of underestimating did ‘not enter {nto the calevlation of the engineer Today, things In most ‘cates the sa ‘power plant which Hee is not eager to have any excess or re ‘serve power. If he intends to arrange for fature development of his business, he proposes to put down other power. ‘Take the case of a man stating a mil ‘The engineer is ealled upon to say what it shall be. What are the advantages of Steam, reciprocating or turbine, or both? “What are the advantages of a suction-gas ‘plant for a sawmill? "Then the ever ready (4 VIEW IN BASEMENT, SHOWING STEE-PUMES AND I8-INCH EXHAUST MAIN rot mean that a sawmill must of necessity be driven by steam, but only as 2 result of the working of the mill there must be refuse which is good fuel and should be used if it does not cost t00 much for its collection, ‘At present, then the three powers which are competing for the driving of a saw- ‘mill are: Steam, gas and elects ‘The steam engine holds its place in many cases because it was installed be- fore the gas engine was an ecient power producer, and because it was in the mill before the days of electricity. The en- sine and boiler have perhaps worn un equally. The engine has been completely overhauled; then a new boiler took the place of the old one; then the engine was replaced by a new-one, so that the mill will then have a new engine and a boiler half worn out. So it may be continued indefinitely. This is no “fairy story.” but many engineers have had just such ex- periences os Such concems which are owned by men ‘who will not scrap half-worn-out tools to replace them with a new set, can never be expected to be entirely up-to-date. Their tools will always be a generation behind. With a gas engine this half renewal of 1 plant would not occur; all of it would be removed if old and unserviceable, and the power plant could then be made modern. ‘These little details, which are often un noticed, tend to make the gas engine fuch a serious rival to steam and elec- tricity. Evecrncry ‘The reverse of those feelings which prompt a man never to renew his plant luntil it ie condemned actuates the owner who is keenly alive and desirous of mov- ing with the times to want electricity. Electricity isin the ai, and is sign that the owner of a mill driven by electricity - tas no second-rate, obsolete machines, but i right up-to-date. This has been the ‘ase in many instances, and some of these sawmill proprietors, in. gratifying. theit whims for “up-to-dateness," have been badly burnt Electricity has its advocates as well as gas and steam, and it would be wrong to Say that itis not a capital power for some sawmills, Tt is, but in many cases it is fot. Fitst and foremost, it depends on what you have to pay for electricity, and What kind of work you intend to do in the vil ‘The engineer who rashes in and advises the sawmill proprietor to use electricity because it will save power lost in trans- mission, because it will enable him to place the machine regardless of any Tine fof shaftng, is not counting all the costs, and is not fully aware of all the facts of the ease To understand fully when and why electricity should be’ recommended, it Would be best to state a case in which it would be possible to get good results from this power. Take a saw or joinery mill in which the power is used in various build- ings placed considerable distances apart. Most of the machines are used but for lite time, and there is power required the piling and stacking yards. In this case electricity can be “used advanta- ‘geously. It would save an enormous amount of shafting, and would also save an enor- mous amount of power which. would be required to tura this shafting. Unless an elaborate system of grouping is planned, and in many mills planning is the excep- tion and not the rule, electricity would sive good results compared with other powers. A cable carrying the current is better than revolving shafting, and only power used would be charged for. This is the ideal condition for electricity as a power for driving a mill; the reverse would be a8 follows: ‘Ail in which there is but a short line of shafting, and from this is driven heavy sawmill machinery which is kept hard at974 work. If the machines were driven by cleetricity, the number of units consumed would be enormous, much more than either steam or gas. "Here, then, the con tice with regard to the powers that could bbe economically used, would be between the steam or gat engine, Before pro- ceeding, it should be recognized that when electricity is mentioned, it does not apply to such as ean be obtained at Niagar with its phenomenally cheap electricity, bout to ordinary towns where electricity is sold from 154 to 4 cents per unit for power. ‘When asked for his decision as to the best power for a proposed mill, the frst thing’ for the engineer to ascertain is the value of trade refuse in that particular town, In some cases the refuse in «mill will more than pay the fuel bill Gas Powes For cleanliness and to lessen the risk of fire, series of gas engines is by far the best outit for 2 sawmill, It is poor economy to make a large-sized mill de- ‘pend upon one power producer. A hitch, perhaps, in some insignificant part and the whole plant is idle for hours. Besides, it 5 not possible with a single large gas en- sine to obtain that grouping of machin- cry which gives the best results. Without going into detail, it might be mentioned that the shafting can be driven by separate engines, arranged so that they canbe easily connected by means of clutches. “A gas engine is almost as self- contained as an electric motor, and it does not require continuous watching. A litle skilful planning would soon effect a way by which these engines could be arranged to work separately or conjointly. Indeed, this problem is one sehich ean be so easily solved that it need not enter into com- sideration There is another problem, however, which may present itself to the engineer who has to arrange power for a sawmill, It is presumed that the owner isi favor cof a gas plant; that modem gxs producers and engines ate to be installed; then it is remembered that a drying kiln for dry- ing timber will require steam for heaters. [At once the questions are raised: Why have two distinct powers in the mill? Why have a boiler for the kiln and gas for the ‘engines? Here is a possibility of further the power of the engines. There are several apparates upon the market for utilizing the waste gases from the engines to raise suficient steam for use in a dry ing kiln. Here, then, is the answer to the ‘questions. The gas engines work the mill, and the exhaust gases raise sficient steam for the drying kiln. This arrange- ment is satisfactory in those ills in Which the trade refuse is sold or cleared away: where it is not, then the great Argument in favor of ‘steam power has mach weight. Te should also. beim Pressed upon gas-engine makers how this fefuse from mills prevents. the sawmill “answered, POWER AND THE ENGINEER. trade from giving universal support to the gascengine people. One or to gas-engine makers adver- tise that their suction-gas plants can be fed with chips and sawdust, and a short time ago a French firm was very jubilant over the fact that they had solved the problem of successfully using mill refuse for suction-gas plants. Still the results were not published in any timber trade paper, and the results of the experiments have up to the present been kept 2 great secret. Tt should be along the lines of ‘tiling wood waste in the production of fas that the gas-engine maker should de- Yelop his product, s0 that the fuel cost to the sawmill ovener will be practically nil Apvavracss oF Steaw: Power ‘Taking steam a5 a power for sawmills, this result of obtaining power at the cost fof upkeep and supérvision of the plant is boeing realized, There are many mills which are being run solely upon the fuel ob- tained from the mill The waste from the machines is sufficient, not only to. pro= Vide efficient power, but also reserve power. In this ese, the question of which fs the cheapest power for a sawmill, is Te is steam, when itis properly ‘made and utilized, ‘The question of which gives the highest percentage of power, the steam oF gas en kine, does not enter into consideration, ‘The gas engine may have the high per- centage of 17 and the steam only 11, still the fact remains that under existing’ cob- ditions chips and sawdust will give the percentage of 11 at a nominal cost. With 4 gas engine the chips and sawdust are not available for power production, s0 the high percentage of 17 per cent. has to be made by other fuel, and the mill ‘owner is still left with his waste. Tt is often pointed out that many mills are run by steam, sell the waste, and still the cost of upkeep exceeds that of a gas- driven plant.” This often ocedrs, and the cause it not far to seek. The engines land boilers are not the best of their type, and they do not have all the auxiliaries recessary to obtain the best results from a steam plant A savenll which isto be run at « nomi: 1 low cost for power, must have boil- ers with large-areas of heating surface and high-pressure steam and. condensing en- ines. The furnaces must be arranged t0 that there is a minimum of Jabor attached to feeding them, and. special appliances used if the wood chips or dust are wet or green. This would mean that an arti- ficial draft apparatus must be used, but with ordinary wood, chips or dust this is fot at all necessar: Given ample furnace room, or for that matter one of the many patent furnaces for burning wood waste there should be no diffieslty in obtaining plenty of power for driving the engine. A necessary addi tion to this plant isan installation for cot- lectin the 2 waste from the ma Jue 23, 1908, chines and blowing them into the furnace. All hese appliances are necessary to thor- ‘oughly equip a mill so that its power cost is simpy that of attendance and upkeep ‘Taking all the powers into consideration and examining ‘the various conditions tunder which they may be worked, steam is by far the cheapest and the most re- Table of the three powers for this indus tty. But it requires every essential for obtaining the greatest. power from the fuel, and it is necessary that the collec- tion of the waste does not cost more than the interest of the money invested in the collecting apparatus. The Water Powers of the World ‘The Reve Electrigue has just published summary of the water powers of the world. The possible horse-power of France is estimated at 4500000, of which ‘only Sooo00 is utilized. The region fof the Alps is the most abundant. About fan equal amount of power is available in italy, but only 300200 horse-power atid. Falls of 10000 horse-power are abundant. ‘The estimate for Switzerland is incomplete. About 300000 horse-power js in use. Germany has 700000 horse power available, with 109000 applied. Nor ‘way has g20900 horse-power available, with a large part already developed. In Sweden there is 763000 horse-power available, but mostly at a considerable dis- tance from any industrial center. In Great Britain there is 79000 horse-power already utilized, and an equal amount in Spain, The resources of Russia are esti- rated 48 11,000,000 horse-power, of which fso00 has been developed. The United States i credited with 1300000 horse power utilzable, Japan has 1,000,000, of ‘which 70000 has been exploited and inthe Indies "so000.horse-power has already been developed American Institute of Electrical Engineers’ Convention ‘The twenty-fifth annual convention of the American Institate of Electrical Engi- neers will be held at Atlantic City, N. J, Jane 29 to July 2. The headquarters will ibe at the Hotel Traymore. A reception and dance will be given at that hotel Monday evening, June 29, and a tea at the Atlantic City Golf Club, Tuesday after- rnoon. These will be the only format functions of the convention, ‘The United States Civil Service Com- Imizsion announces an examination on July 8 to secure eligibles for the postion ‘of engineer in the mint at Denver, Colo, at $425 per day. Application forms 1600 land 1093 will be requiredJane 23, 1908. ‘A Southem Railway Plant By Jawes F. Muss Until recently the citizens of the old- cat city in the United States have not had the convenience of electric light and trans- portation. ‘The St. Johns Light and Power Company, of St. Augustine, Fla, hhas recently completed at that ety an up- to-date power plant, the dimensions of the rain building being 97 by 87 feet. This ‘of concrete and piling for foundations driven walls, engines, boilers and stack. ion, for all Enaie-roow Equiraent ‘The equipment of the engine room is ‘One r2xaj-ineh Reliance POWER AND THE ENGINEER. ric. 1. St, JOHNS LIGHT AND POWER PLANT é f Corliss engine diect-connested to a 100" Kilowatt Bullock railway generator, re- volving at 1s revolutions per minute; ‘one 18x30-inch engine directconnected to a 2gprkilowatt, 2300-volt, Go-ycle, three- phate Bullock alternator with speed of 120 evolutions per minute; one. 18x36x30- inch Reliance eross-compound engine, di- ctconnected to a agokilowatt, 2300+ volt, 6o-cycle, three-phase Bullock alter- nator at 120 revolutions per minute, and ‘one go-kilowatt motor-generator set. There is alsor a foundation for a. 3g0-kilowatt cross-compound unit to be installed in the future. Excitation of alternators is ob- tained from separate direct-current gene- ‘ators belted from the main shafts Tn the engine-room basement is a 2400- foot surface condenser, and one 12x20x18- finch vacuum pump and a 16-inch G. M. Davis automatic relief valve gives free exhaust densing outit. Condensing water is sup- 7s plied by a to-inch main from an artesian well 535 feet deep, with a 12-pound pres- Sure and a flow of 3.000000 gallons in 24 hours. With condensed steam returned to the hot well at 120 degrees Fahrenheit, 26 inches of vacuum is easily maintained. Each engine has a Cochrane separator and Davis traps discharging condensation to the hot-well ‘The switchboard is of white marble, and was erected and wired by the Allie. ‘Chalmers Company. Generators are de- signed to run in parallel, and the switch- board is equipped with the necessary instruments for their control. Bowen Roo In the boiler room are three 2schorse- power Stirling boilers, with a foundation for a fourth. The boilers were given a cold-water test of 287 pounds per square inch. From the hot-wel, the feed-water flows to an open exhaust heater, thence is taken by one of two toxGxi2-isth duplex ‘outside-packed plunger pumps, and forced through a Green improved economizer to he temperature of feed-water ves 260 degrees Fahrenheit at ‘The entire piping system was designed and erected by the writer, formerly with the Boston Elevated Railway Company. The ‘main header and all fittings were supplied by the Crane Company, of Chicago, and are extra heavy malleable, no cast iron being used in the plant. ‘The header is supported on roller” brackets, bolted through the center wall, and condensation is drained through a Wright emergency trap. ‘The main header is 12 inches, and the ‘auxiliary header for the pumps is 4 inches, both being 76 feet long. The header is sade up on the unit system, so that any fone unit ean be repaired, while others are in service, and both end units must be out fof service at the same time before the feed-pumps are disabled. For the feed- Fic. 3. MAIN GENERATING UNITS AND stetrcMMDARDed water the line is of extra-heavy sold-brass Constructgn. The entire system has been funder pressure for a year and the sound fof steam cannot be heard. ‘Pumps are #0 piped that they may take water from the exhaust heater, city water, rtesian well, and rain-water tanks, of ‘hich there ‘are two of 100,000 gallons Capacity, which Keep the plant supplied ‘vith all water losses. Pumps can also be ‘sed for supplying several hydrants about the plant for fire protection. ‘The main damper is controlled by a Lawrence regulator, and the ash-pit doors ‘by a Straight Line regulator. The stack, go feet high, was built by the Alphons Custodis Company, of New York City Fuel used is hard. pine, or by the local fname, "light wood” It is first passed through a “hoa” driven by a. so-horse~ power induction motor, then steamed in Petorts, where the turpentine is extracted, after which process itis even better for fuel than the natural wood, making a very hot and clean fire ‘The Safe and Effective Use of the Entropy Diagram By Prop. S.A. Reeve It is only within recent years that the ‘engineering world has come into the habit ‘of using the entropy diagram for portray- ng, and even for “thinking,” its problems land a very good habit it is. But while the ‘entropy diagram portrays excellently well thermal action which is already wnder- stood, yet for portraying that which is not fundersiood—for “thinking out” obscure Situations —it is a dangerous weapon. Its ‘fiectiveness compares with that of the {indicator diagram mach as does that of gunpowder with the bow and arrow; for Hf not properly handled it is equally de- structive 10 the user, For the safe and effective use of the en- ‘copy diagram the prime essential is an lccurate idea of the nature of entropy. ‘This statement is axiomatic. The ac- cepted attitude of the profession upon this point, to which the writer has hitherto Consttuted himself a Tonely and lonesome ‘rception, may be expressed in two sim- ple statements, viz: (a) There is no physical reality to entropy. (2). As a mathematical abstraction it was completely and accurately deined by its originator, Professor Clausits. All that is necessary for its complete and efi- cent use is to memorize this defcition, Briefly quoted, this definition is that ecairayy > 42, wherein the sign of equality refers to *re- Yersible” processes and that of inequality to “irreversible” ones, And as all natoral processes are more or less “irreversible.” POWER AND THE ENGINEER. in the sense contemplated by Professor Glausius, Professor» Zeuner concluded from this equation that “the entropy of the universe is steadily on the increase.” ‘This broad fact Lord. Kelvin broadened into the general principle that the avail- ability of the energy of the universe for transformation is dying ovt. In other ‘words, the universe is Hike some great clock, which was wound up “originally” ‘once ‘and for all, and is now engaged in fgradually running down Tn contemplating this aspect of our uni- verse the imagination ie staggered, not #0 much by the picture of the ultimate wni versal stagnation, ruin and desolation ‘which must be the result of the “degrada- tion” of all availability and the end of all ‘energy transformation—no motion, 90 (perceptible) heat, no light, no life, any- whereas il is by the attempt to grasp what mast have been the terife condition Of the mainspring of the heavens when “originally” wound up tight. For cer- tainly, for two billion billion years in the past, and perhaps for a few weeks more, i has already been engaged in ranning down, ‘The writer breathes more easily to feel that what of cold-blooded mathe- matical philosophy he has yet been able to master indicates rather an eternity, past and fature, of indestructible, unde- gradable availability of energy, with its ternal conservation ofall the present life, light and happiness of the world, beyond the peradventure of any imaginable heay- cenly catastrophe to diminish it, rather than this pessimistic degradation theory. ust see what problems are kindled by a lite equation, of only six symbols, if it bbe inaccurate or incomplete! For the equation fails to answer two questions, viz: (1) What is meant. by reversibility and iereversbiity? (2) What is meamt by €Q? ‘The frst of these questions need not be discussed here. It sufices to say that, 0 the author at least, the terms. reversible and irreversible, after years of study of them, remain virtually meaningless. In so far as they mean anything they class themselves with such quantities as clas ticity and inelastcty, vie, a8 things which always occor together and everywhere, there being no. instance where either occurs alone ‘As to dQ, that is universally defined as any “addition of heat" That is how itis Gefined in Professor Heck’s textbook, and in every other also, so far as Tam aware. But if thie is the sole necessary definition. then the equation stated above easily transforms into Saozfran. This equation, applied to the entropy diagram rhich i ieelf nothing But a fraphial means for illustrating the def ition of entropy), enfoees the concusion That iv ony care where a heal process ts Tune 23, 1908, Portrayed by © curve on an entropy dioe {gram the “heat added” is measured by the ‘rea beneath the curve. And since the definition of entropy is a simple, funda- ‘mental fact, this conclusion must rank as 2 fundamental principle Now comes the trouble. Two familiar engine-room processes give the denial to this “fundamental principle” First, in wire-drawing occurs a rapid increase in entropy; yet there is no. “addition of heat.” ‘This trouble has been dodged by the writer, in the past, by the explana- tion that dQ meant the addition of heat from anything externel to the molecule; for the later is the thermal unit. Thus, aven the inner surface of a steam pipe fof throttle valve must be considered as fextemal to the steam, Hence frition Against these surfaces engenders heat, which heat is immediately thereafter “added” to the steam, to the increase of its entropy. And this fresh entropy is just as able to do work, hammer-head fashion, a8 is any received from the fur- nace heat Indeed, this wirexdrawing process re- minds one much of the test of a canvas- trough fire escape which once occurred in 4 mukiple-storied public school. Appar ‘ently the builders had a definite quantity ‘of pupils to lower safely from each floor But in practice they had not. The boys first down from the top floor found shoot- ing the chutes in the canvas trough so enjoyable that they re-entered the build ing, climbed to the floor beneath the top, there joined the paniestricken multitude awaiting chances to escape and so gained Additional slides, Nominally cach pupil tmbodied only one unit of “extent” of sliding energy, just as each bit of entropy rominally embodies only a certain poten: Kiality for work performance as it drops in femperature. But let a given mass of en- tropy drop one degeee, in wire-drawing fashion, and it will make of itself addi- tional recruits for dropping the next de- tree, schoolboy fashion. "And herein dQ has picked up an add tional meaning to that frst stated It must be re-defined as the “sddition of heat and work.” The word work may not be ‘omitted just beeause, in the particular ease cited, the work happens to have come Originally from the steam eat itsel jn another instance of growing familiarity, the compression of air by turbo-compres sots, the increase in entropy comes froin work which never was a part ofthe body's and of heat at all” The ease is purely an increase of entropy by the addition of un- disguised work ‘This is the shoe that fits the Knoblauch experiments Tf dQ=heat plus work Addition, then the heat addition must be 4Q minus the work addition; and all is fs plain sailing a5 Dr. Heck’s article ‘would indicate But now again comes trouble from the other sie. How about adiabatic com pression? There work is added, yet roJune 23, 1908. increase in entropy occurs. The quantity 4Q remains zero. Nor will the writer agree to crawl out of this quandary by the “irreversibility” knot hole. It is too small. ‘The wire-drawing process is just a8 re- versible as is any other, though it be too long a story, just now, to prove it Yet the distinction is easily stated. Adiabatic compressive or expansive work performance (with dQ and dN equal to zero) can occur only sehen motion occur normal 10 the body's surface. On the other hand, entropy-begetting work (with 44Q and dN positive quantities) can be done only when motion occurs parallel with the body's surface Here isthe foundation, then (2) As fong as the hot body remains at rest relatively to its surroundings, dQ is heat addition, and heat addition only. Such, for instance, is the case inthe ‘eam boiler. (2) When the hot body moves rela tively to its surroundings, if the motion bbe normal tthe surface the above still holds true. Such, for instance, is the ease fof the steam piston engine. (3) But when the hot body moves relatively to is surroundings and the mo POWER AND THE ENGINEER. tion is parallel to the surface, then d Q is hheat addition plus work addition. Such, for instance, occurs in turbo-compres: sors, ete In other words, radial motion relatively to the hot body (imagining it sphere, for instance) has nothing to do with en- tropy, oF the “extent” of heat, as T have called it in my textbook, but only with temperature ofits "intensity." Tangential motion, on the other hand, has nothing to do with intensity of heat, but everything with its extent. These two pairs of terms wrradial action with intensity of energy, and tangential motion with “extensity” of fenergy-—will be found to compass the un- derstanding of heat, as well as of other forms of energy. Yet is the task of defining dQ com- plete, even now? To meet the condi- tions already known to him, the writer several years ago formulated a definition ‘of the sources of dQ, a8 follows: (1) Thermal conduction, (2) Absorption of radiation, (3)_Bxothermic chemical action, such as combustion, (4) Electrical resistance and ” (5) Work performance parellel with the surface; but distinetly excluding (6) Work performance normal to the surface But whether this definition be correct for complete of not, for all the problems ‘which engineers may meet, a8 well as for those which they have already not only met, but tumbled over, the writer cannot say. Only the professional physicists and chemists can answer this ques- tion. But these gentlemen pay litle atten- tion to these questions of fundamental definitions of basic quantities, such as heat, eneray, ete. They seem t consider them beneath their dignity, as problems St to entrap only the humble engineer. ‘Those who. wish to read a complete statement of the views held by the "itre- versiilty” school of doctrinaires will do swell to secure a copy of James Swin- bburne's book, “Entropy; or Thermodyna- mies for Engineers" (igo4). It is most frankly and clearly stated, and in a style niost enconraging in that it finds humor compatible with thermodynamics. If one could only accept the monstrous doctrine of irreversibility, with the conclusions which it enforces, all would be well (ALLISCCHALMERS ENGINE AND GENERATOR 18 THE MANUFACTURE OF QUAKER OATS. THE VIEW stows 1 ‘ALL OVER THE WORLD. THE UNIT SHOWN 15 AN BoO-KILOWATT, 240-V0LT, 3+ tASE, OO-CVCLEsto POWER AND THE ENGINEER. Jane 23, 1908 Burning Oil for Power and Heating Pertinent Discussion ofj Temperature, ‘Draft and Smoke; Proper- ties, Possibilities and Limitations of Fuel Oil; How to Buy Oil BY PROF WILLIAM D. ENNIS Bunwine On Wirsour Swoxe ‘There is no dificuty in barning oil ‘without smoke, providing the furnace is properly designed and the boiler is not too heavily overloaded in proportion to the capacity of the furnace. In practice, the presence of an excess of air is more apt to be experienced than that of smoke; consequently it is considered good prac- tice to diminish the air supply to such a point that smoke just begins to appear. A Jow temperature of the oil, or any varia- mia. 1. mNstALLATION oF “esr” aU: ton in its pressure or temperature is Tiable to.result in emoke. ‘Regulation of the air supply is partic larly easy in the case of off fuel, since there is no fuel bed to introduce varia- tons in the flow of air, and in view of the essential relations of air supply to ficiency of combustion, no pains should bbe spared, in operation, to have this mat- ter at all times under fall control. For ‘observations on this point, with relation to smoke production, peep-holes should bbe provided in the front and back wall, and elsewhere if possible. ‘These should bbe #0 constructed as not to result in in- ward leakage of ‘Teurmaroms, Dear ano Evaronarion For the reasons given, oil may be bbumed more readily at high efficiency than almost any other fuel. High efici- tarders in the fue the highest gas tem- fency of combustion means high furnace perature was 484" degrees, evaporating temperatures, usually accompanied by 388 pounds of water per square foot of rapid deterioration of boilers. Fire cracks heating surface per hour, and showing @ fon shells near the seams, leaks at boiler efficiency close to 89 per cent. the tube ends, and blisters on shells of “Under forced draft conditions, in marine horizontal boilers or on tubes of watet- service, drafts as high as 9 inches of pres tube boilers are apt to be found. sure have been maintained in the furnace Fig. 1 shows a simple form of furnace, system, these de- furnace of a Scotch marine boiler on the $5 high as 167 pounds, with fue tempera represents the furnace of a locomotive Lot noes ices eraeegiece meet nee as Seco nes arc ce ese ieee eat ci ce ne 626 degrees, with rates of evaporation of tion, Sulphur may be determined by from 33 t0 44. pounds of steam per oxidation with fuming nitric acid in an square foot of heating surface per hour, open capsule. Professor Blasdale gives and equivalent evaporation per pound of the following results of examination of fll of from 135 to 16 pounds. With re- eight samples of California fuel oil Sarple No. 1 Set a ck oe Supe “oatsJane 23, 1908. ‘The average heating value of oil free from Bau. The United States Naval Liquid Fuel Board gives the following results from one sample of California oil: Heat- unig Bp ate hosing val (vg Dull’ iors) je sbaur at 21 deg Fah 212 degrees Fahrenheit, 12:20 per cent; specific gravity, 0966; vaporiza- tion point, 290 degrees Fahrenheit; flash POWER AND THE ENGINEER. and burning point, 311 degrees Fahren~ heit; ultimate analysis, C, 81.52; H, 11.01; S, 035; N+ 0, 692; parts in too. Two analyses of Beaumont, Texas, oil give, {from the same source: code ee aS qgee IEEE Dower ofthe carbon la that du to gs carbon (11,828 ea), not st of sald carbon forms a ‘thinner liquid than the Califo and may consequently be handled an regulated with more facility. With app MiG 4. RURNING OIL 1H LocoMorIVE 8 ances properly adapted to the nature of the oil, there is no. diference in the evaporative efficiency of the two oils. The California ol weighs almost exactly eight pounds per gallon. Its fash point is never Pia § Locomorne sURNER WITH 1WO below 200 degrees. The proportion of moisture and sediment, as the oil is now marketed, is guaranteed not to exceed 2 per cent, and the heating value is of great iformity. The coeficient of expansi fs about 0.0006 per degree Fahrenheit. ‘The carbon is a litle lower, and. the ‘oxygen a litle higher than in the Texas ‘ils, and the heating value rather less.