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Digitized by the Internet Archive

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2009 with funding from

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Libraries

http://www.archive.org/details/cyclopediaofarch09amer

Cyclopedia
Architecture, Carpentry
and Building
A
ON

General Reference

Work

CARPENTRY,
BUILDING,
ARCHITECTURE,
SUPERINTENDENCE,
CONTRACTS, SPECIFICATIONS, BUILDING LAW, STAIR-BUILDING,
ESTIMATING, MASONRY, REINFORCED CONCRETE, STEEL
CONSTRUCTION, ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING, SHEET
METAL WORK, HEATING, VENTILATING, ETC.

Prepared by a Staff of

ARCHITECTS, BUILDERS, AND EXPER"

THE HIGIipST

PROFESSIONAL STAND.

Illustrated with over Thre'e

Thousand En) rat higs

TEN VOLUMES

CHICAGO
AMERICAN TECHNICAL SOCIETY
1908

Copyright, 1907
BY

AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CORRESPONDENCE

Copyright, 1907
BY

AMERICAS TECHNICAL SOCIETY

Entered at Stationers' Hall, London

All Rights

Reserved

Authors and Collaborators

JAMES

PLANT

C.

Superintendent of Computing Division, Office of Supervising Architect, Treasury,

Washington, D. C.

WALTER LORING WEBB,

C. E.

Consulting Civil Engineer.

Author of "Railroad Construction," "Economics of Railroad Construction," etc

J.

E.

COOLIDGE,

Jr., A.

M.

Architect, Boston.
President, Boston Society of Architects.

Acting Director, Museu_n of Fine Arts, Boston.

VON HOLST,

H. V.

A. B.,

S. B.

Architect, Chicago.
President, Chicago Architectural Club.

FRED

T.

HODGSON

Architect and Editor.

Member of Ontario Association of Architects.
Author of "Modem Carpentry," "Architectural Drawing, Self -Taught,"
Square," '" Modem Estimator," etc

ALFRED

E.

ZAPF,

S. B.

Secretary, American School of Correspondence.

AUSTIN

T.

Civil

BYRNE

Engineer.

Author of " Highway Construction," " Materials and Workmanship."

HARRIS

C.

TROW,

S. B.

Editor of Textbook Department, American School of Correspondence.

American I nstitute of Electrical Engineers.

WM.

H.

LAWRENCE,

S. B.

Associate Professor of Architecture, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

"The

Steel

Authors and Collaborators Continued

EDWARD NICHOLS
Architect, Boston.

H W. GARDNER,

S. B.

Assistant Professor of Architecture, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

ALFRED

E.

PHILLIPS,

C. E., Ph. D.

Professor of Civil Engineering,

Armour Institute

of Technology.

GEORGE

C.

SHAAD,

E. E.

Assistant Professor of Electrical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

MORRIS WILLIAMS
Writer and Expert on Carpentry and Building.

HERBERT

E.

EVERETT

Department of Architecture, University of Pennsylvania.

V
E. L.

WALLACE,
Instructor,

B. S.

American School of Correspondence.

American Institute of Electrical Engineers.

OTIS W. RICHARDSON, LL.

B.

Of the Boston Bar.

WM.

G.

SNOW,

S. B.

Steam Heating Specialist.

Author of Furnace Heating," Joint Author of
Americai! Society of Mechanical Engineers.

W.

HERBERT GIBSON,

C. E.

Expert on Reinforced Concrete.

^^

ELIOT

N.

JONES, LL.

Of the Boston Bar.

B.

" Ventilation of Buildings."

Authors and Collaborators Continued

R. T.

MILLER,
President,

Jr., A. M.,

LL. B.

American School of Correspondence.

WM. NEUBECKER
Instructor, Sheet Metal

Department of

New York Trade SchooL

WM. BEALL GRAY

Sanitary Engineer.
Member of National Association of Master Plumbers.

EDWARD MAURER,

B. C. E.

Professor of Mechanics, University of Wisconsin.

EDWARD

A.

TUCKER,

S. B.

Architectural Engineer.
Member of the American Society of Civil Engineers.

EDWARD

B.

WAITE

of Instruction Department, American School of Correspondence.

American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

Head

Western Society of Engineers.

ALVAH HORTON

SABIN, M.

S.

Lecturer in New York University.

Author of " Technology of Paint and Varnish."
American Society of Mechanical Engrineers.

GEORGE

R.

METCALFE, M.

etc.

E.

Elec. & Mfg. Co.

Formerly Technical EMitor. Street Railway Review.
Formerly Editor of Textbook Department, American School of Correspondence.

Head of Technical Publication Department, Westinghouse

HENRY

M.

HYDE

Author, and Editor

"The Technical World Magazine."

y
CHAS.

L.

HUBBARD,

S. B.,

M. E.

Consulting Engineer.

With

S.

Homer Woodbridge

Co.,

Heating, Ventilating, and Sanitary Engineers.

Authors and Collaborators Continued

FRANK CHOUTEAU BROWN

Architect, Boston.
Author of " Letters

DAVID

and

GREGG

A.

Teacher and Lecturer

CHAS.

B.

Lettering.'

in

Pen and Ink Rendering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

BALL

and Sanitary Engineer.

American Society of Civil Engineer*.
Civil

ERVIN KENISON,

S. B.

Instructor in Mechanical Drawing, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

CHAS.

E.

KNOX,

E. E.

Consulting Electrical Engineer.

American Institute of Electrical Engineers.

JOHN

H.

JALLINGS

Mechanical Engineer.

FRANK

A.

BOURNE,

S.

M., A. A.

I.

A.

Architect, Boston.
Special Librarian,

ALFRED

S.

Department of Fine Arts, Public Library, Boston.

JOHNSON,

Formerly Editor "

The Technical World Magazine."

GILBERT TOWNSEND,
With Post

HENRY

C.

Ph. D.

S. B.

& McCord, New York City.

BUCK,

A. B., A. M.

American School of Correspondence.

American Institute of Electrical Engineers.

Instructor,

Authorities Consulted

THE
of

editors have freely consulted the standard technical literature

America and Europe in the preparation of these volumes. They

desire to express their indebtedness particularly to the following

eminent authorities whose well-known works should be in the libraiy of

everyone connected with building.
Grateful acknowledgment is here made also for the invaluable cooperation of the foremost architects, engineers, and builders in making
these volumes thoroughly representative of the very best and latest practice in the design and construction of buildings; also for the valuable
drawings and data, suggestions, criticisms, and other courtesies.

J. B.

JOHNSON,

C. E.

Formerly Dean, College of Mechanics and Engineering, University of Wisconsin.

Auttr-r of "Engineering Contracts and Specifications." "Materials of Construction,"
Joint Author of "Theory and Practice in the Designing of Modem Framed Structures."

JOHN CASSAN WAIT,

M.

C. E.,

LL. B.

Counselor-at-Law and Consulting Engineer ; Formerly Assistant Professor of Engineering at Harvard University.
Author of " Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence."

^
T.

M.

CLARK
Fellow of the American Institute of Architects.
Author of "Building Superintendence,'' "Architect, Builder, and

Owner

before the

Law."

FRANK

E.

KIDDER,

C. E., Ph. D.

Consulting Architect and Stractural Engineer; Fellow of the American Institute of

Architects.

Author of "Architect's and Builder's Pocket-Book," "Building Construction and

Superintendence Part I, Masons' Work
Part II, Carpenters'
Trussed Roofs and Roof Trusses " " Churches and Chapels."
;

Work

Part in.

AUSTIN

T.

BYRNE,

C. E.

Civil Engineer.

Author of "Insi)ection of Materials and Workmanship Employed

" Highway Construction."

W. R.

WARE
Formerly Professor of Architecture, Columbia University.

Author of

"Modem

Perspective."

in Construction,"

Authorities Consulted Continued

CLARENCE

MARTIN

A.

Professor of Architecture at Cornell University.

Building: Construction."

Author of " Details of

V'

FRANK

SNYDER

N.

Architect.

Author of "

CHARLES

H.

Building- Details."

SNOW

Author of "The Principal Species of Wood, Their Characteristic Properties."

OWEN

MAGINNIS

B.

Author of " How

to

Frame a House, or House and Roof Framing."

HALBERT

P.

GILLETTE,

C. E.

Author of "Handbook of Cost Data for Contractors and Engineers."

OLIVER COLEBJ^N
Author of "Successful Houses."

CHAS.

E.

GREENE,

A. M., C. E.

Formerly Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Michigan.

Author of " Structural Mechanics."

LOUIS

de C.

BERG

Author of "Safe Building."

GAETANO LANZA,

S. B., C.

&

M. E.

Professor of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Author of "Applied Mechanics."

IRA

O.

BAKER

Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Illinois.

Author of " A Treatise on Masonry Construction."

GEORGE

P.

MERRILL

Author of "Stones for Building and Decoration."

^*

FREDERICKW.TAYLOR,M.E.,andSANFORD E.THOMPSON, S.B.,C.E.

Joint Authors of

"A Treatise on Concrete,

Plain and Reinforced."

Autharities Consulted Continued

A.

W. BUEL and

C. S.

HILL

Joint Authors of " Reinforced Concrete."

NEWTON HARRISON,

E. E.

Author of "Electric Wiring, Diagrams and Switchboards."

FRANCIS

B.

CROCKER,

E. M., Ph. D.

Head

of Department of Electrical Engineering, Columbia University

American Institute of Electrical Engineers.
Author of " Electric Lighting."

J.

R.

CRAVATH

Past President,

LANSINGH

and V. R.

Joint Authors of " Practical Illumination."

JOSEPH KENDALL FREITAG,

B. S., C. E.

Author of " Architectural Engineering," " Fireproofing of Steel Buildings."

WILLIAM

H.

BIRKMIRE,

C. E.

Author of "Planning and Construction of High Office Buildings,'' " Architectural Iron
and Steel, and Its Application in the Construction of Buildings," "Compound
Riveted Girders," " Skeleton Structures,"

EVERETT

U.

CROSBY

Joint Authors of "

and

HENRY

A.

etc.

FISKE

Handbook of Fire Protection

for Improved Risk."

CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY

Authors of " Pocket Companion, Containing Useful Information and Tables Appertaining to the Use of Steel."

^
J. C.

TRAUTWINE,

C. E.

Author of "Civil Engineer's Pocket-Book."

ALPHA PIERCE JAMISON,

M. E.

Assistant Professor of Mechanical Drawing, Purdue University.

Author of "Advanced Mechanical Drawing."

FRANK CHOUTEAU BROWN

Architect, Boston.

Author of "Letters and Lettering."

Authorities Consulted Continued

HENRY McGOODWIN
Author of " Architectural Shades and Shadows."

VIGNOLA
Author of " The Five Orders of Architecture," American Edition by Prof. Ware.

CHAS.

D.

MAGINNIS

Author of " Pen Drawing, An

FRANZ

S.

Illustrated Treatise."

MEYER

Professor in the School of Industrial Art, Karlsruhe.

Author of "Handbook of Ornament," American Edition.

RUSSELL STURGIS
Author of

"

tecture.

A. D. F.

A Dictionary

of Architecture and Building," and

"How

'

HAMLIN,

A. M.

Professor of Architecture at Columbia University.

Author of " A Textbook of the History of Architecture."

RALPH ADAMS CRAM

Architect.

Author of " Church Building."

C. H.

MOORE
Author of " Development and Character of Gothic Architecture.'

ROLLA

C.

CARPENTER,

C. E.,

M. M. E.

Professor of Experimental Engineering. Cornell University.

Author of "Heating and Ventilating Buildings."

WILLIAM PAUL GERHARD

Author of "A Guide

I.

J.

to Sanitary

House Inspection."

COSGROVE
Author of " Principles and Practice

of Plumbing.

to

Judge Arcki-

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PATTERN FOR GUSSET SHEET OF BOILER, SHOWING DEVELOPMENT.

For e^vord
HE

rapid evolution of constructive methods in recent

illustrated in the use of steel

years-, as

gcv^

and the increased

size

and concrete,

and complexity of buildings,

has created the necessity for an authority which shall

embody accumulated
variety

experience

correlated

of

Carpentry, and

lines.

Building

is

and approved practice along a

The Cyclopedia
designed

to

fill

of

Architecture,

this

acknowledged

need.

There

close

for

interdependence of

is

its

much

to-day as

The

subsidiary trades.

who knows nothing

example,

struction

Building in the

no industry that compares with

is

out

Steel

of

place

of

or

on

Architect,

Concrete

con-

important work

intelligent estimates, or

who

understands nothing of his legal rights and responsibilities.

as the Contractor

carpenter

who cannot make

must now know something

of

Masonry, Electric Wiring,

and, in fact, all other trades employed in the erection of a building; and the

same

will enter into the

is

true of all the craftsmen whose handiwork

completed structure.

Neither pains nor expense have been spared to make the

present

work the most comprehensive and authoritative on the

subject of Building and

not

merely

to

create a

its allied

industries.

work which

The aim has

will appeal

to

the

been,

trained

and

that will coiuinend

but one

expert,

the

man by

practical

self-taught,

itself also

to

him

giving

beginner

the

a working

knowledge of the principles and methods, not only of his own

particular trade, but of all other branches of the Building Industry as well.
for

home

The various

sections have been prepared especially

study, each written by an acknowledged

The arrangement

the subject.

of matter

student forward by easy stages.

is

authority on

such as to carry the

Series of review questions are

inserted in each volume, enabling the reader to test his knowl-

edge and make

it

permanent possession.

The

been selected with unusual care to elucidate the

The work

which

little

will be found to cover

illustrations

have

text.

many important

topics on

information has heretofore been available.

especially apparent in such sections as those on

This

is

Steel, Concrete,

and Ileinforced Concrete Construction; Building Superintendence;

Estimating;
ples and

and Specifications, including the princi-

methods of awarding and executing Government con-

and Building Law.

tracts;

'^

Contracts

The Cyclopedia

is

a compilation of

able Instruction Papers of the

ence, and the

method adopted

many

American School

of

tests

is

that of practical use

which

has demonstrated

this

and

many

this

years.

collaborators,

without

work would have been impossible.

it

all

to be the

busy w^orking man,

In conclusion, grateful acknowledgment

authors

which

not an experiment, but has stood the severest of

best yet devised for the education of the

'^

Correspond,

in its preparation is that

School has developed and employed so successfully for

This method

most valu-

of the

is

due the

staff of

whose hearty co-operation

Table of Contents
VOLUME

IX

By William Neubeckerf

TiNSMiTHiNG

Page

*11

Shop Tools Methods of Obtaining Patterns Intersections and Developments

Shop Problems

(Pail,

Foot Bath,

etc.)

Elbow Patterns.

...

Sheet-Metal Work

By William Neubecker

Page 63

Shop Tools Methods of Obtaining Patterns Intersections and Developments

Parallel Line

Development Development by Triangulation Approximate De-

velopmentsShop Problems (Sink Drainer, Bathtub, etc.) Useful TablesVentilation

Water

Work Problems

Light-Gauge Metal (Oblique Piping, Rain-

for

Cut-Off, etc.) Coppersmith's Problems (Sphere, Circular Tank, etc.)

Problems for Heavy Metal (Boiler Stacks and

Work

Skylights, Roofing, Cornice

Skylight

Shells,

Pipe Intersections,

By William Neubecker

etc.).

Page 213

Bars Condensation Gutters Reinforcing Strips Weight of Glass

Hip Monitor Skylight Ventilation

Single-Pitch and Double-Pitch Skylights

Roof Mensuration Corrugated Iron

Cornice Brackets, Trusses Raking Mould-

Flat Extension Skylight Metal Roofs

Roofing and Ciding

ings

Shapes

Members

of

of Mouldings Shop Problems in Miter Cutting

Blanks for Curved Mouldings

Hammering by Hand and Machine.

....

Plastering

Interior Plastering

Development of

Lathing

By Frank Chouteau Brown

Page 365

(Wood, Metal) Plaster Materials (Lime, Sand,

Water) Slaking and Working Lime Mixing Mortar Three-Coat Work

Rough Plaster Finish Two-Coat Work Finish Coat Patent Plasters Back
Hair,

Plastering

Plaster

Cracks

Drying

Plaster

Plaster

Moulding Exterior

Plastering.

By A. H. Sabin

Painting

Page 397

Data of Cost Value of Creosoting Priming Coat Dark and Light-Colored

Paints

Oil

Finish Linseed

Oil

(Raw, Boiled)

Mixing and Grinding Thinners

and Dryers (Turpentine, Benzine) White Lead White Zinc Adulterants-

Fillers House Painting (Interior, Ex Repainting Roof Painting Canvas Roofs

Tinting Colors Brushes and their Care

terior)

Painting

Plastered Walls

Painting Structural Metal Varnish

Exterior Varnishing

Enamel

Paints

(Spirit,

Floor

Oleo-Resinous) Shellac Damar

Finishing

Aluminum

and Bronze

Paints Glazing Sheet and Plate Glass Putty.

*For page numbers, see foot of pages.

tFor professional standing of authors, see
front of volume.

list

of Authors and Collaborators at

0-

PATTERN OP TAPERING FLANGE FOR CYLINDER, DEVELOPED BY

TRIANGULATION.

TINSMITH ING,
An

important part of the technical education of those con-

nected with tinsmiths' work

When making
monly

is

a knowledge of laying out patterns.

the various forms of tinware, or, as they are com-

housefurnishing goods, the greatest care must be

taken in' developing the patterns, for if a mistake of but one point
is

called,

made, the pattern will be

useless.

which are applied

cal principles

There are general geometri-

to this

oughly understood, make that part plain

otherwise appear intricate.

work which, when thorand simple, which would

These principles enable the student

to lay out different patterns for various pieces of tinware

the

methods of construction are

Fi-.

tinware, the
this,

the

method

first

similar.

Fig.

1.

Construction.

where

2.

Before laying out the pattern for any piece of

of construction should be

known.

Knowing

thought should be Can the pattern be developed and

:

cut from one piece of metal to advantage, as

shown in Fig. 1, or
will it cut to waste, as shown in Fig. 2 ?
Will the articles have
soldered, grooved or riveted seams, as shown respectively by A, B
and C, in Fig. 3 ? Also, will the edges bo wired or have hem edo-es
at the top, as shown respectively by A and B, in Fig. 4 ?
Sometimes the pattern can be laid out in such ". way that the article
may be made up of two or more pieces, su that the patterns may
be laid in one another, as shown in Fig. 5, thereby saving material.
This

is

a plan that should always be followed

When

if

possible.

the patterns are developed, tin plate should be obtained

of such size as to have as little waste as possible.

By means

of the table on pages

45-47

11

tin plate

may be ordered

TINSMITHING
whicla will cut to advantage, for there

is

notliing worse in a tin-

than to see a lot of waste plate under the benches, whereas a

sliop

would have saved material.

Capacity of Vessels. Sometimes the tinsmith is required to
make a piece of tinware which will hold a given quantity of liquid.
little foresiirht in

The methods

orderino; stock

of finding the dimensions are given in Arithmetic

and Mensuration, which subjects should be reviewed before beginning this work.
Shop Tools. The most important hand tool-s required by the
tinsmith are: hammer, shears, mallet, scratch awl, dividers and
The other tinsmith tools and machines will be
soldering coppers.
explained as

we

proceed.

c
Fig.

Fisr. 3.

Fig.

4.

The

Various Methods of Obtaining Patterns.

ing for this course

is

5.

pattern draft-

divided into two classes:

Patterns which are developed by means of parallel lines.

Patterns which are developed by means of radial lines.

1.

2.

The

principles

which follow are fundamental

pattern cutting and their application

is

in the art of

universal in tinsmiths' work.

INTERSECTIONS AND DEVELOPMENTS.

The laying out

of patterns in tinsmiths'

work belongs

to that

department of descriptive geometry, known as development of surfaces,

the

which means the laying out

flat

flat

of the surfaces of the solids,

surfaces in this case being the tinplate.

In Fig. 6

is

one of .the most simple forms to be developed by parallel

that of an octagonal prism.
rules

to

shown
lines,

This problem explains certain fixed

be observed in the development of

all

parallel forms,

which are as follows:

There must be a jylan, elevation or other view of the
lo
article to be made, showing the line of joint or intersection, and

12

TIXSMITHIXG
which n.ust be drawn a section or profile of the article.
Thus, ABCD shows the view of the article, AL the line of joint
or intersection, and E the profile or section of the article.
in line -with

The Projile or section (if curved) must be divided into

equal spaces (the more spaces employed the more accurate will be
the pattern), from which lines are drawn parallel to the lines of
the article intersecting the line of joint or intersection.
Thus
from the corners numbered 1 to 8 in the profile E, lines are drawn
2.

Fig.

6.

parallel to the line of the article, intersecting the line of joint

from 1" to

8".

In Fig.

7,

where the section

is

AL

curved, this

is

divided into equal spaces.

3.

A stretchout

line fshowihor the

article will require) is next

drawn

amount

of material the

at right angles to the line of the

upon which is placed each space contained in the section

or profile.
Thus JF, in" Fig. 6, is the stretchout line, which contains the true amount required to enclose the profile E.
At ricrht angles to the stretchout line, and fi'om the inter4.
sections thereon, draw lines called the measuring lines.
Thu"s,
from the intersections 1' to 8' on JF lines are drawn at right angles
to the stretchout line JF, which are called measuring lines.
5.
From the intersections on the line, of joint draw lines intersecting similarly numbered measuring lines, which will result
in the pattern shape.
Thus lines drawn from the intersections on
article,

13

TINSMITHING

the line

AL

BC

intersect similarly

Then JIIIF
an octagonal prism intersected by the

measuring
for

at right angles to

lines as

shown.

will be the

AL

line

numbered

development

in elevation.

This simple problem shows the fundamental principles in

parallel-line developments.

What we have

taking the prism and rolling

it

out on a

student imagine the prism before

him with

Fig.

Just done
flat

all

is

similar to

surface.

Let the

the corners blackened

7.

and starting with corner 1 turn the prism on a sheet of white

paper until the point 1

is

again reached,

respond to the development shown.

when

the result will cor-

Bearing these simple rules

mind, the student should have no difficulty in laying out or

developing the forms which wdll follow.
in

Fig. 7 shows the development of a cylinder, and also shows

the principles w^hich are applied in spacing circular sections or profiles,

as explained for parallel developments.

or section,

the elevation, and

CD

shows the

profile

the stretchout line or the

go around the circle. By drawing

the measuring lines CF and DE and connecting them by the line
FE, we obtain CDEF, which is the development of the cylinder.
Fig. S shows how to obtain the development of the surfaces

amount

of material required to

of an intersected hexagonal prism, the angle of intersection being

45.

First

draw the

proper position below.

3, as

elevation

ABCD

and the section

Number the corners

in

in the section 1, 2

its

and

shown, from which erect perpendicular lines intersecting the

14

TINSMITHING
AB,

plane

as

shown by

1, 2

and

in plan obtaining the points

the line

which

FH.

S.

Bisect the lines 1

and II

right angles to

shown.

measurinor
ci-

in'

and draw

This line will be used to obtain dimensions with

to construct the developed surface

lines as

respectively,

1 and

on the plane AB.

At

AB

and from the intersections 1^, 2^ and 3^ draw

Parallel to AB draw the line F^
H^. Now,

each instance from the line

FH

in E, take the dis'

them on similarly numbered lines

drawn from the plane AB, measuring in each instance from the
tances to 1, 2 and 3, and place

Fig.

line

F^H^

on either

thus obtaining the points

side,

Connect these points by

8.

lines- as

1', 2'

and

3'.

shown; then J will be the true

development or section on AB.

For the development

KI

at right angles to

section E, as

From

of the prism,

AD, upon which

draw the stretchout

line

place th stretchout of the

shown by similar numbered

intersections

on KI.

draw the measuring lines shown, which intersect with lines drawn from similar
numbered intersections on the plane AB, at right angles to BC.
Through the intersections thus obtained, draw the lines from L to
these intersections, at right angles to KI,

IS

TINSMITHING

M.

KLMI will

Then

be the pattern or development of the inter-

sected prism.
Fior.
is

D shows

the development of an intersected cylinder.

the elevation and

the profile or plan.

As each

half of the

development will be symmetrical, divide the profile B into a number of equal parts, numberincj each half from 1 to 5, as shown.

From

these points perpendicular lines are erected, intersecting the

5^

A stretchout

now made
of the profile B and placed on the horizontal stretchout line CD,
the points being shown by 5', 4', 3', 2', 1', 2", 3", 4" and 5". From
plane 1^

at

l'^

2^

3^

4^ and 5^

Fig.

is

9.

these points measuring lines are erected and intersected

numbered

lines

drawn from the plane 1^

line of the cylinder.

will be the

5'

at right angles to the

through points thus obtained

line traced

development of the intersected cylinder.

the butting edge or joint line of

If the butting

"the

by similar

cylinder

edge were desired on

its

is

on

its

longest side,

In this case
shortest side.
it

Svould be

necessary to change only the figures on the stretchout line

making

1'

start at 5'

and end

CD,

at 5".

"Where two prisms intersect each other, as shown in Fig. 10,

it is

necessary to find the points of intersection before the surfaces

can

be developed.

Thus we have two unequal quadrangular

16

TINSMITHING
prisms intersecting diagonally

at right angles to

We

each other.

draw the section of the horizontal prisms as shown by B in

the end view, from which the side view A is projected as shown.
first

From

the corner

TC, and above

in

the section

in its proper position

and number

vertical prism,

the-

erect the perpendicular line

draw the

corners

1, 2,

section

3 and 4.

of the

From

corners 1 and 3 drop vertical lines intersecting the profile

the

at 1'

and 3', T representing the points 2' and 4' obtained from 2 and 4
in D,
From the points 1' and 3' in B, draw a horizontal line
through the side view, and locate the center of the vertical. prism
as 3", from which erect the perpendicular line 3"
1.
Now take

a duplicate of the section

it

and place

it

as

shown by F, allowing

to liiake a quarter turn (90''); in other words, if

prism from the end view, the point 1 in section

vertical

the

we view

left,

while

if

we

the

faces

stood on the right side of the end view the

The

side

to the right of the

end

point 1 would point ahead in the direction of the arrow.

view therefore represents a view standing

view, and therefore the section
the corner 1 toward the top.

F makes
From

a quarter turn, bringing

points 2 and 4 in section

drop vertical lines intersecting the line drawn from the corner
2'

4" in the side

B, thus obtaining the intersections 2"
Draw a line from 4" to 3" to 2", which represents the

4' in

view.

intersection between the

two prisms.

draw the horizontal stretchout

line HI, and upon it place the stretchout of the profile D as shown
by similar figures on HI. Draw the measuring lines from the
points 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, at right angles to HI, which intersects with
lines drawn at right angles to the line of the vertical prism from
intersections having similar numbers on B. A line traced through
the points thus obtained, as shown by HILJ will be the development of the vertical prism. The development of the horizontal

To develop

the vertical prism,

admit the joining of the

vertical prism is shown in Fig. 11, and is drawn as follows: Draw
any vertical line O^ P^, and on this line place the stretchout of
the upper half of section B in Fig. 10, as shown by similar letters
prism with the opening cut into

it

to

and figures in Fig. 11. From these points at right angles to

Qv pv di-aw lines equal in length to the side view in F'ig. 10. Draw
a line from U to T in Fig. 11. Now, measuring from the line ES
in side view in Fig. 10, take the various distances to points of in.

IT

TINSMITIiraa

10

tvl

CM

(/)

18

ti:n'smithing
tersections 4", 3", 1"

and

2",

and place them

harino- similar numbers, measuring from

sultino- in the intersections

1',

points by lines as shown, then

ment

ii

2\

3'

tlie

and

O^UTP^

of the top of the horizontal prism.

in

Fio;.

11 on lines

O^

P^, thus re-

line

4.

Connecting these

will be the half develop-

The bottom

half will he

similar without the opening.

Having described the

principles relating to parallel forms,

the next subject will be the principles relating to tapering forms.

These forms include only the solid figures that have for a base the
circle, pr any of the regular polygons, also figures of unequal sides
which can be inscribed in a circle, the lines drawn from the corners of which terminate in an apex, directly over the center of the

The forms with which the tinsmith has

base.

to deal are

more

frequently frustums of these figures, and the method used in

developing these surfaces

is

simply to develop the surface of the

and then by simple measurements cut

entire cone or pyi*amid,

part of the figure, leaving the desired frustum.

known forms

in the well-

the dipper, coffee pot, colander, strainer,

of

bowl, bucket, funnel, measure, pan,

cones above referred

to.

as portions of cones,

it

and

of surfaces,

Thus

as

etc.,

we have

we

wash

the fi-ustums of

In speaking here of metal plate

must be remembered that

off

all

articles

patterns are

are dealing with tinplate, these patterns

when formed are not solids, but merely shells. In works upon
Solid Geometry the right cone is defined as a solid with a circular
base, generated
its vertical

This

of a right-angle triangle about

side called the axis.

more clearly shown in Fig. 12, in which is shown a

which contains the principles applicable to all frustums

is

right cone,
of

by the revolution

ppamids and

ABC

cones.

represents the elevation of the cone;

the horizontal section on the line

which

is

BC

being shown by

GDEF,

number of equal parts, as shown by theAs the center or apex of the cone is directly

spaced into a

small fio-ures 1 to 12.

over the center a of the circle, then the length of each of the lines
drawn from the small figures 1 to" 12 to the center a will be equal

both in plan and elevation.

Therefore to obtain the envelope or

and with A in Fig. 13 as

center, describe the arc 1 - 1'. From 1 draw a line to A and starting from the point 1, set off on the arc 1-1' the stretchout or num-

development, use

AB

or

AC

as radius,

19

TINSMITHING

12

her of spaces contained in the circle

by similar figures

A- 1-7-1'

From

in Fig. 13.

will be the

DEFG

shown
A. Then

in .Fig. 12, as

draw a

1'

line to

development of the right cone of Fig. 12.

Suppose that a frustum of the cone is desired as shown by

HICB, Fig. 12; then the opening at the top will be equal to the
small circle in plan, and the radius for the pattern will be equal to

Xow using A

13 as a center with AI as radius, describe

the arc III, intersecting the lines lA and AI' at II and I respectiveThen II- 1- 1'- 7- 1 will be the development for the frustum
ly.
AI.

in Fig.

of the cone.

When

a right cone

to its base, the

method

is

of

cut by a plane passed other than parallel

development

is

somewhat

different.

This

Fig. 13.
is

explained in connection with Fig. 14, in which

cone, intersected
sents the plan of

as

As
it

the intersection of both halves of the cone

line

DE

DE
and

From

From

draw

lines to

these points, erect

Now

FE.

as a radius, describe the arc 7

apex F, intersecting

the intersections thus obtained on the

at ritrht angles to the axis,

secting the side of the cone

the cone, intersecting the base line

these points

as shown.

From

figures 1 to 7.

lines parallel to the axis of

the line

the right

will be necessary to divide only half of plan

shown by the small

of the cone.

is

by the plane represented by the liiie DE. B reprethe base of the cone, whose circumference is divided

into equal spaces.

are symmetrical,

7'.

SO

draw

lines as

using

From

shown,

as center

inter-

and FII

7 draw a line to F, and

TINSMITIiING

13

from the point 7 set off on the arc 7 - 7', the stretchout of
the circle B as shown by the small figures 7-1-7'.
From these
points draw radial lines to the center point F, and intersect them
by arcs struck from the center F, with radii equal to similarly numstarting

FH, and

bered intersections on the side

partly

shown by points

Trace a line through the points of intersections thus

obtained; then 7-7^-7-7' will be the desired development.
7^-l''-7.

These same principles are applicable no matter

the cone is intersected.
For the
section on the line DE, see the

at

what

ano-le

explanation in Mechanical Draw-

ing Part III.

15 shows the principles

Fig.

applicable to the developments of

pyramids having a base of any

In

shape.

this

we have

case,

square pyramid, intersected by the

DE.

draw the elevation

the pyramid as shown by ABC

line

of

and

First

in its proper position the plan

view as shown by 1, 2, 3, 4. Draw

the two diagonal lines 1-3 and

2-4

intersecting each other at A'.

The length

AC

of the line

repre-

sents the true length on A'e, but

is

not

which

the

correct

to strike

true

radius

i
!

with

the development.

length

must be ob-

tained on the line A'4 as follows:

At

right angles to

center A'

3-4

draw the

from the

line A'E'

and

using A' as center and A'4

as

Fiff. 14.

radius, describe the arc 4E' intersectino- A'E'

at E'.
erect the perpendicular line E'l^ intersecting the

From

E'

BC

ex.

base line

tended at

From

draw a straight line to A, which will be

the true length on A'4 and the radius with which to strike the
development. (See also Part III, Mechanical Drawing) Now with
1^.

1^

as center

and A-1^

as radius, describe the arc 1^-3^-1^.

StartinoC3

SI

TINSMITIIING

14

1-2-3-4-1

shown
by 1^-2^-3^-4^-1' on the arc 1' - 1' (1' - 2' being equal to 1 - 2,
etc.), and from these points draw lines to the apex A and connect points by straight lines as shown from 1' to 2', 2' to 3^, 3'
Then Al'3'1' will be the development of the
to 4' and 4' to 1'.
from 1^

set off tlie stretchout of

in plan, as

square pyramid.

To

obtain the cut, in the development of the intersected plane

m,^-

y^
DE, which
draw

represents respectively the points

at right angles to the center line, the lines

intersecting the true length

and

radii equal to

A-D"

Al'

and

at

D" and

A- 1"

radial lines in the development.

22

1".

3'

-4* and l'-2',

D-D" and
Using

E-1",

A as center

numbered
Connect these points as shown
intersect similarly

TINSMITIIING
from 1"

15

to 2", 2" to 3", 3" to 4"

and 4" to 1". Then 1" - lv_ 3v_ iv_

l"-3" will be the development of the intersected square pyramid.

To draw

DE

drop perpendiculars from D and E intersecting the diagonal lines in plan at i c and d a.
Connect lines
as

shown

DE,

in plan

at , 5, c and^^.

take the length

of

To

obtain the true section of the plane

DE

and

shown ia plan
from h to v; through i draw the vertical line /;>i. which is intersected by horizontal lines drawn from points a and d.
Draw a
line from h to m and c to
J which will be the desired section.
place

it,

as

These problems just described should

be thoroughly studied
and practiced on paper, until every step
is well understood.
Practical Workshop Problems will now
be considered, and the
student who thoroughly understands
the principles
.

explained in the
foregoing problems, will be able to
develop the patterns with greater
ease and in less time than is required
by the student, who pays
little attention to the principles,
but simply proceeds to develop the
patterns by blindly following directions.
thorough knowledo-e
of the principles renders the
student independent as far as pat
tern problems are concerned, as
he can apply them to new work.
Short Rules.
There are various short rules, which,
while not
geometrically accurate, are sufficiently
so for all practical purposes
and will be introduced as we proceed.
In developing patterns for
any given article, the problem should be
gone over carefully, locating
the joints or seams, so that it can
be seen, we might say in our
minds' eye; by doing this a shorter
rule may be employed thu
saving time and expense. The student
who pays attention to'these
smaller details will succeed as a pattern
draftsman.

Allowance for Seaming and Wiring. As we are

dealino- with
tm pW.e only, we assume this to have no
thickness, and the!'efore
make no allowance for the shrinkage of the
metal, when bendincr

m the machine folder

or brake.

The amount

of the material to be added to the

pattern for
wiring wil. vary according to the thickness
of the metal.
safe
and practical plan is to use a small strip
of thin metal about i inch
wide and curl this around the wire which
is to be used as shown
in Fig. IG.
This will give the true amount of
material required
whether the wire is to be laid in by hand or
by means of the wirinc^
machine. First bend off with plyers a sharp
corner as shown at a

23

TINSMITHING

16

place the wire in the corner and turn

shown

at B.

The amount

of

is

to be

A, or the allowance

The

heitTht of the pattern is thus obtained.

ware

snugly around the wire as

usually a lock seam as

shown

added

to the

vertical joint in tin-

in Fig. 17.

Three times the

width of the lock a must be added to the pattern. In other words,

the end h has a single edge as <U while the other end c has a double
edge as shown at a and e the two ends of the body joining at/.
;

In allowing these edges for the pattern, some workmen prefer

to add a single edge on one side of the pattern, and a double edge
on the other, while others prefer to allow one-half of the amount
Where the bottom of any
required on either side of the pattern.
piece of tinware

is to

be joined to the body,

it is

generally double

Fig. 16.

seamed as
shown by

Fig. 17.

shown

where the two operations are clearly

A and B whether the seaming is done by hand ar machine, while the lock seam in Fig. 17, is done on the groover.
is

in Fig. 18,

Another important point is the

Notching the Patterns.
notching of the edges of the patterns for seaming and wiring;

The notches should be

article is rolled up and the

special attention should be given to this.

made

in such a

manner

that

when

the

wire encased or the seams grooved, the ends of the wire or seam

allowance will

When

fit

an article

snugly together and make a neat appearance.

is

made and

the notches have not been cut

properly, the wire, or uneven lines, will

seam.

Fig. 19 shows

how

show

at the ends of the

the allowance for wire or locks should

which an allowance has been

made for wire at B and for seaming to the bottom at C. In this
case a single edge D has been allowed at one end of the pattern

be cut.

shows the pattern

to

24

TINSMITHING

17

and a double edcre of the other as shown at E. Then, usino- this

method of allowance for seaming, notch the allowance for wire B
and seam C on a line drawn through the solid lines in the pattern
The notches of the allowance D and E
as shown by aa and hJ>.
should be cut at a small angle, as shown.
Transferring Patterns. After the pattern has been developed on
is

man ilia

paper, which

is

generally used in the shop,

it

placed on the tin plate and

few weights laid on top of

the paper; then with a sharp

a'

scratch awl or prick

hammer,

punch and

prick -punch

slight

marks are made, larger dots inThe paper is

dicating a bend.
then removed and lines scribed

M
Fig. 18.

on the plate, using the scratch

awl for marking the straight lines, and a lead pencil for the
curved lines. After laps are added as required, it is ready'to be
cut out with the shears.

PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.
In presenting the twelve problems w^hich follow, particular
attention has been given to those problems which arise in shop
practice.

These problems should

be practiced on cheap

manilla

them to the most

convenient size, and then proving them by cutting the patterns
from thin card board, andbendjng or forming up the models.
paper, scaling

This will prove both instructive

Fig. 19.

and interesting.
The first piece of tinware for which the pattern will
Pail.
be developed is that known as the flaring bucket, or pail, shown
First draw the center line AB, Fig. 21, upon which
in Fig. 20.
place the height of the pail, as

shown by CD.

the center line place the half diameters

the bottom.

Then

tend the lines

EF

EFFE

CE

On

either side of

of the top

DF

and

will be the elevation of the pail.

until they

meet the center

25

line at B,

which

of

Exwill

TINSMITHING>

18

Now,

be the center point with which to describe the pattern.

with

as center

and divide

it

and

CE

as radius, describe the semi-circle

into equal spaces,

as

EAE,

shown.

This semi-circle will represent the half sec<^11

tion of the top of the pail.

Fig. 21.

For the pattern proceed as follows: With 13 as center and

radii equal to EF and BE, describe the arcs
and IJ. Draw a
(Starting from the point G lay off on the arc Gil,
line from G to B.

GH

the stretchout of the semi-circle

on

GIL

Then

From

GHJI

II

draw a

EAE,

as

shown by similar

line to B, intersectinor the arc

will be the half pattern for the pail, to

figures

IJ

at J.

which laps must

be added for seaming and wiring as shown by the dotted lines.

26

FRONT AND REAR VIEWS OF RESIDENCE OF HENRY STEINBRENNER, BELLFLOWER

AVENUE, CLEVELAND, OHIO
Watterson & Schneider, Architects, Cleveland, Ohio.
Brick Used ou Exterior

is

McCausland Brick. Made at Akron, Ohio.

Imptriar" Red Tile.

Roofs Covered with

TINSMITIIING

19

Funnel and Spout. In Fig. 22 is shown a funnel and spont,

which is nothing more than two frustums of cones joined too-ether.
Fig. 23 shows how the patterns are developed. In this figure
the full elevation

is

drawn, but in practice

it is

necessary to draw

ouly one-half of the elevation, as shown on either side of the center

Fig. 23.

Fig. 22.

line
line

AF

BC.

Extend the contour lines until they intersect the center

at C and A.
Kow, using A^ as a center, with radii equal to
and AE, describe the arcs F'F' and E'E^ respectively. On

the arc E'E^ lay off twice the

semi-circle B, then

draw

number

radial lines

secting the inner arc at F^F',

of spaces contained in the

from E' and E'

to

A\

which completes the outline

27

inter-

for uhe

TINSMITHING

20

Laps must be allowed

pattern.

and

CF

the

amount

spout use

patterri for the

and seaming.

for wiring

as a center,

and with

On

describe the arcs F'F'^ and G'G".

For the

radii equal to

CG

F'F- lay off twice

D, and draw

of spaces contained in the semi-circle

Then F'F-G'G^ will be the patThe dotted lines show the edges allowed.
tern for the spout.
Hand Scoop. In Fig. 24 is shown a perspective view of a
hand scoop, in the development of which the parallel and radial
Thus A and B represent interline developments are employed.
radial lines

from F' and F^

sected cylinders, while

to C.

represents an

right

intersected

cone.

The method of obtaining the patterns for the hand scoop is clearly
shown in Fig. 25; these principles are applicable to any form of
hand scoop.

draw the

First
side
as

view of the scoop

shown, in line with

which place the half

section

divide

this

number of
equal spaces as shown
a

into

by the figures 1

From

these points

draw horizontal

lines

intersecting

curve

the

In line with the back of the scoop draw the vertical

of the scoop.
line 1 -1',

Fig. 24.

to 7.

upon which place the stretchout

of spaces

contained in the half section,

numbers

on

the

of twice the

number

shown by

similar

as

From

stretchout line.

these

draw horizontal lines, which

from similarly numbered points on the curve
stretchout line

to the stretchout line.

points on the

intersect lines

of the scoop parallel

Trace a line through points thus obtained,

will give the outline for the pattern for the scoop, to

which

edges must be allowed as shown by the dotted

for the

drawn

back of the scoop

is

simply a

fiat

line.

disc

of

which

The pattern
the

required

diameter, to which edo;es for seaming are allowed.

When

drawing the handle,

center line of the handle

at 2.

Through

locate the point at

which the

intersect the back of the scoop, as

this point, at its

the center line 2^2^.

with

is to

first

proper or required angle, draw

Establish the length of the handle, and

any point on the center

line as center,

28

draw the

section

TINSMITHING

PATTERN

FOR CONICAL BOSS

_J.Fig, 25.

29

TINSMITHING

22

shown by

as

equal spaces, in this

and

and divide the circumference into

case four.
(In practical work it would be

1^, 2^ 3^,

2^,

more than four). Parallel to the center line and from

these four divisions draw lines as shown intersecting the back of the
scoop at 1, 2 and 3.
For the pattern draw any horizontal line in
S, as 1"3"1", upon which place the stretchout of the section of the
handle as shown by 1" 2" 3" 2" 1" on the stretchout line. From
these points at right angles to the line of the stretchout, draw
ilnes as shown.
Take the various distances measurino; from the
line no in side view to points 1"", 2 and 3, and place them on
lines drawn from similar numbers in S, measurincr from the line
better to use

1"3"1".

line traced

through these points of intersection will be

the pattern for the handle, laps being indicated

To

by dotted

lines.

close the top of the handle no, 'a small raised metal button is

usually employed, which

is

double-seamed to the handle.

To draw

the conical boss in

side view, first locate the points i

and

e^

through which draw a line

intersecting the center line of the

At

handle at y.
Fig. 26.
tj

the

center

draw a

right angles to the center line,

intersecting the center line at

draw a

line

ISfow

(/.

draw

line,

representing the top opening of the boss.

right angles to

the

line

In similar manner, at

from

make

shown by ea,
equal to ge and

e as
(/a

from a to the center/', which will intersect the back of

the scoop as shown and the top of the boss at^'.
With (/ as center
and (/a as radius describe the half section of the cone, divide this
line

into equal spaces as

shown by ahede, from which draw

lines at

right angles to and intersecting the base'of the cone ae as shown.

From

the intersections on the base line

draw

radial lines to the

apexy, intersecting the back of the scoop as shown.

intersections at right angles to the center line,

secting the side of the boss at

shown

in

diagram w.

and/*

in

tc,

a'b'v'd'.

view,

these

lines inter-

For the pattern proceed as

AVith radius equal to fe in the side view

as a center describe the arc a'a".

Draw

a line from

f, and starting from a" set off on the arc a'a"

the number of spaces contained in the semi circle ace in side
From these points
as shown by similar letters in diagram w.

a" to the center

twice

draw

From

80

TmSMITHING
draw

radial lines to the center

describe the arc

/'/'.

Now

f.

using

23

in to as a center

In similar manner, using as X2<.^\\f(i\fh\fc\

f(V and fe in side view, and f' in

vj as center,

describe arcs inter-

secting radial lines having similar letters as shown.

A line traced

through points thus obtained forms the pattern for the conical boss.
1

Fig. 27.

Drip Pan.

The

Fig. 26 shows a view of a drip pan with beveled

pan is that the corners a and h

are folded to give the required bevel and at the same time have the
folded metal come directly under the wired edge of the pan.
A
pan folded in this way gives a water tight joint without any soldering.
Fig. 27 shows the method of obtaining the pattern when
First draw the side
the four sides of the pan have the same bevel.
elevation having a bevel indicated at ^21.
Now draw ABCD, a
rectangle representing the bottom of the pan.
Take the distance
of the slant 1 - 2 in elevation and add it to each side of the rectangular bottom as shown by 1', 1", 1'" and 1"". Through these
points draw lines parallel to the sides of the bottom as shown.
Now extend the lines of the bottom AB, BC, CD and DA intersecting the lines just drawn.
Take the projection of the bevel
sides.

special feature of this

31

TINSMITHING

24

rt

to 1 in side elevation

for example,

from

and place

Draw

a' to 1'.

ceeding in this manner for

it

all

on each corner of

a line from

we

the corners,

1'

to B.

will

bevels are equal on all four sides, the angle l^Bl'

pan,

By

as,

pro-

have the butt

raw edge.

miters, if the corners were to be soldered

tlie

is

Where

the

bisected as

Fig. 28.

follows:

AVith

secting the sides

and any radius draw the arc ff interof the bottom as shown.
Then with a radius
as center

greater than one half of

draw

arcs

which

ff^ with

/and^/"' respectively as centers,

intersect each other at

the intersection i and corner B, extending

Now with

1'

as center,

and radius

Draw

i.

it

less

a line through

outward toward

than one-half of

/'.

I'-l'',

draw arc d-c^ intersecting the line 1' B at J, and intersecting the
line Va' at c. Then with
as center and he as radius, intersect the
arc ccl at e. Draw a line from 1' to c, intersecting the line i] at n.
From n draw a line to 1^. Transfer this cut to each of the corners,
which will complete the pattern desired. Dotted lines indicate the
Z

wire allowance.

Soinetimes a drip pan

is

required whose ends have a different

62

TINSMITHIXG
from those of the sides, and
be bent toward the end, while

flare

to

ners be folded towards the side.

cases,
little

25

in one case the folded corners are

it

may

The

be required that the cor-

principles are similar in both

but as the method of applying these principles may be a

difficult, Fig. 28 has been prepared, which will explain the

application of these principles.

draw the side elevation, showinor the desired flare; also

draw the end elevation, which shows the flare of the sides, beinoFirst

careful that the vertical heights in both views are the same.

Now

draw the pattern of the pan as follows: Take the distance 1-2 in
side elevation and place it on the ends of the bottom as shown on
either side by 1'- 2'. Similarly take the distance 3-4 in end elevation and place it ou the sides of the bottom as shown on either side
by 3'- 4'. Through the point 2' and 4' draw lines parallel to the
ends and sides of the bottom as shown, which intersect lines dropped
fi'om the end and side views respectively,
hfli represent the butt
miters which should be placed on all corners.
If these miters have
been correctly developed, the lengths from li to/' must be equal to
Bisect the angle hfh' by using / as center and drawing the
fli.
arc ah^ then use a and h as centers and obtain the intersection c,
through which draw the line ef. l^ow assume that the folded corner is to be turned towards the end view as shown by ^3.
Using
as a center draw the arc ij.
Then with I as center and li as
radius, intersect the arc ij at in.
Draw a line from A through m^
meeting the line ^at t, and draw a line from t to //.
/^

If the folded corner

were turned towards the side

r'-2" in the side view, bisect the angle

vVs as before, and use

center and proceed as already explained.

The only point

the two corners.

corner

is

the difference in

ISTote

to bear in

s as

mind

is,

that

when

the

to be folded towards the end. transfer the angle of the

end miter; while

if

the corner

is

to be turned towards the side,

transfer the angle of the side miter.

If the corners

folded towai-d the ends of the pan, the cut

corner would be used on

to

shown by

as

all

shown

four corners, while

were

to

be

in the right-hand

if

the corners were

be folded towards the sides, the cut shown on the left-hand cor-

ner would be used.

Tea Pot.

In Fig. 29

tea or coffee pot, for

is

which a

shown the well-known form of the

short method of developing the pat-

83

TINSMITHING

26

tern

is

shown

in Ficr. 30.

This

one of the

is

many

cases

where a

short rule can be used to advantage over the geometrical method.

AVhile it is often advisable to use the true geometrical rule, the

and the method here shown is hardly

Of course, if the body A and spout B were
noticeable in practice.
larger than the ordinary tea pots in use, it would be necessary to
difference between that

use the true geometrical rule, which

Plates

is

thoroughly explained for

II and III.

I,

The pattern

body

for the

of the

tea pot will not be shown, only the short

rule for obtaining the opening in the

body to admit the joining of the spout.

The method of obtaining the pattern for
the body is similar to the flaring vessels
shown in previous problems.
First draw the elevation of the body
Assume
of the tea pot as shown at A.
the point a on the body and draw the
Fig. 29.

center line of

the spout

at its proper

Establish the point 3 of the bottom of

angle as shown by ^h.

the spout against the body, also the point 3^ at the top and draw
At
a line from 3 through 3^ intersecting the center line at h.

and from 3 draw the line 3-1

From 1 draw a line to the center point

right angles to the center line

and make cl equal

to c3.

and from 3^ draw a horizontal

line until

it

intersects the opposite

Then l'-l"-3^-3 will be the side view of

with c as a center draw the half section 1-2-3

side of the spout at 1".

the spout.

Now

and divide it into equal spaces; in this case but two (in practical
work more spaces should be employed). From these points and at
right angles to 1 - 3 draw lines intersecting the base of the
spout as

shown,

center

Thus

J.

draw

and

from these points to the

the body at 1' and the top of the

lines

line V> intersects

spout at 1"; line 1h intersects the body at a and the top of the spout
as

shown, while line 3i cuts at 3 and the top of spout at

From

these intersections at right angles to the center line ah^

lines intersecting the side of the spout at 3, 2, 1 at the

and

1=^,

2^, 3^ at the top.

describe the arc 3" - 3"

Now

with h as center and

/>3

upon which place the stretchout

94

3^.

draw

bottom

as radius,

of twice

TIXSMITHING

27

number of spaces contained in the half section 1-2-3, as

shown by similar figures on 3" -3"; from these points draw radial
lines to the center h, and intersect them by arcs drawn with ^ as a
the

center and radii equal to the intersections contained on the side of

Fig. 30.

- 3^.

To form the pattern, trace a line through

thus obtained and make the necessary allowance for edges.
the spout 3

points

It should be understood that in thus developing the spout, the

fact that the spout intersects a
it

was assumed

round surface has not been considered;

to intersect a plane surface.

difference in the pattern

is

so slight that

35

it

As

already stated the

will not be noticeable

TINSMITIIING

28

Had we

in practice.

geometrical

developed the pattern according to the true

would present a problem of two cones of

rule, it

unequal diameter intersecting each other, at other than at right

angles to the axes.

For the pattern

for the

opening

draw

in the body,

lines at

body from intersections 1', a

and 3 intersecting the opposite side of the body as shown. With
F as a center draw a partial pattern of the body as shown by <le.
From any point/" draw a line to the center F. Now with F as
The distance 1 to 3 on the line
center draw the arcs 1, 2^ and 3.
right angles to the center line of the

F/" represents the length of the opening, while a line

a at right angles

'^^ "Zz^T'PX

'

'^
'

^^

opening.

l>c

Therefore take the dis-

tance from a to 2 and place

^

"*!

to the center line

^^ ^^ spout represents the width of

^^ y
i/
-Xj_J/

>\^Pi

J
kv
I

drawn through

it

as

^^4n

shown from a' on the line /F to

2 -2 on either side on
the arc.

'^^-H

Trace an ellipse through

''

fo^"

Fig. 31.

the shape of the opening.

The pattern
tained

by taking the stretchout

the vertical line

At

//'/'.

1-2^-3-2

of

liji

for the handle

and placing

right angles to

h'i!

it

as

on either

is

ob-

shoMu on
side, at top

and bottom add the desired width of the handle and draw the lines
shown; add edges for wiring or hem edge.
For the pattern for the grasp D which is placed inside on the
handle proceed as

is

shown

in Fig. 31.

Let

larged view of part of the handle in which the grasp

Directly in line with

it

draw the

section

represent an enis

to be soldered.

taking care that the

width from 1 to 1 will not be wider than that portion of the handle
from r to in Fig. 30, being the width at C in the elevation. Divide
the section

draw

in Fig.

31 into a number of equal spaces, from which

vertical lines intersectino- the curve

as shown.

Draw

the

upon which lay off the stretchout of E as shown by

similar figures.
Through these points draw lines which intersect
with lines drawn from similar intersections in the curve D parallel
to al). Trace a line through the points thus obtained as shown at F.
center line ah

Foot Bath.

In Fig. 32

is

shown an oval

ples used in obtaining the pattern of

86

foot bath; the princi-

which are applicable

to

any

TINSMITIIIXG
form

of flaring vessels of

more than two

how

plain

which the section

centers.

29

is elliptical

In this connection

may

it

be well to ex-

to construct an ellipse, so that a set of centers can be

obtained with which to strike the arcs desired.

method

of

given.

Let

width.

or struck from

drawing an approximate

AB
On BA

ellipse,

if

shows the
the dimensions are
Fio-. ,38

represent the length of the foot bath and

measure

BE equal

to CT>.

tance

EA

shown by

Xow

its

divide the dis-

into three equal parts as

and

these parts as

with

CD

Take two of
a radius, or E2, and
2.

as center, describe arcs in-

tersecting the line

BA

at

and

Then with XX^ as a radius

and using X and X^ as centers
describe arcs intersecting each ether at C and D.
Draw lines ff om
C to X and X' and extend them toward F and G respectively.
Similarly fi'om D draw lines through X and X\ extending them
towards I and
respectively.
K'ow with X and X' as centers, and
XA and X'B as radii describe arcs intersectino- the lines ID, FC,
GO and HD at J, K, L and M, respectively. In similar manner
X.\

Fig. 32.

Fig. 33.

and CD as radii describe arcs

which must meet the arcs already drawn at J. M, L and K, respectively, forming an approximate ellipse. In Fig. 34 let ABCD represent the side elevation of the pan, whose vertical height is equal
with

to

and

as centers

and

DC

EC.
In precisely the same manner as described in Fig. 33 draw

87

TINSMITHING

30

the plan as siiown, in correct relation to the elevat'on, letting

be the plan of the top of the pan, and

struck from the centers,
the radii with which to

RE

in Fig.

KC

the plan of the bottom,

0,M,P and N. The next step is to obtain

strike the pattern. Draw a horizontal line

85 equal in length to

vertical height

JKLI

EFGII

in deviation,

NE

Fig Si. Take the

as shown by EC in

in plan in

and place

it

drawn at right angles to KE.

and from the point C, draw the line CJ equal to
Fig. 35 on a line

Parallel to

NJ

RE

in Fig. 34.

Pig. 35.

Now draw

Eto J in Fig. 35, extending it until it meets

the line RC produced.
Then OJ and OE will be the radii with
which to make the pattern for that part of the pan or foot bath
showm in plan in Fig. 34 by EFIvJ and GHIL.
To obtain the radii with which to strike the smaller curves in
a line from

PF

PK

RE

and CJ in Fig.
35 as shown by RF and CK. Draw a line from F through K until it meets the line RO at P.
Then PK and PF will be the radii
with which to strike the pattern, for that part shown in plan in
Fig. 34 by KFGL and IHEJ. I^ ow divide the curve from G to
and
to E (Fig. 34) into a number of equal spaces.
To describe
plan, place distances

and

on the lines

the pattern

draw any

and with O' as

the diagram Y, describe

vertical line E'O' (^ ig- 35)

OJ and OE in
as shown. On the arc ET'

center and radii equal to

the arcs J'K' and E'F'

38

lay off the stretch

TINSMITIIING
out of

31

GH in

plan in Fig. 34 as shown by similar figures in Fig.

From the point 6 on the arc E'F^ draw a line to O' intersect35.
iiig the curve J'K\
Now with PF in diagram as radius and

as a center describe an arc intersecting the line F'O^ at

P^

Then

using P' as a center and with radii equal toP'K' and P'F' describe
the arcs K'L' and F'G' aa

shown.

On

starting

from point 6 lay

the arc F'G'

off the stretchout of

HE.

From 11 draw

Fig. 34.

line to P^ intersecting the

arc

K'L' at L\

E'FG'L'K'Ji

Then

will

be the

Fig. 36.

half pattern, the allowance

and seaming
being shown by the dottt^d
for

wiring

lines.

Should the
desired

two

article

four sections,

in

pieces

of

F^K'L'G'

would be required.

Fig. 37.

be

The

pattern for the bottom of

the pan

shown by the inner ellipse in Fig. 34

edges must be allowed for double seaming.
is

Wash
wash

Boiler.

boiler to

raised cover.

which
First

In Fig. 36
little

is

to

which of course

shown a perspective view

of a

attention need be given, except to the

draw the plan

of the cover B, Fig. 37,

which

shows straight sides with semi-circular ends. Inline with the plan
draw the elevation A, giving the required rise as at C. Let C repi-esent the apex in elevation, and
the apex in plan.
As both

89

TlNSMITHl^or

32

halves ot the cover are symmetrical, the pattern will be developed

for

Divide the semi-circle

one half only.

1-3-1

into a

number

shown by the small Hgiires 1, 2, 3, 2 and 1.

Prom these points draw radial lines to the apex C\ and thronf2;h
C draw the perpendicular (ta. 03" in elevation represents the
of equal spaces as

C'3

true lencxth of

and

plan,

in

to

obtain the

true length of

diagram of
With
as center, and CV^ C'l and C'3
triano-les as follows:
1'
as radii, describe arcs intersecting the center line in plan at a\
C'2, C'l

and CV?,

will be necessary to construct a

it

and

2'.

From

these points at right angle to 3C' erect lines intersecting the base line of the elevation at a", 1", 2"

and

3",

from which draw

shown.

and

Xow, with

C(/',

1^1^ and

lines to the

apex C, as

radii ec^ual to C3", C2",

CI"

and C^ as center describe arcs 3^,2^2^,

a'^a'^.

lar intersectincr

From

C^ erect the perpendicu-

the arc 3^ at 3^.

!Now

set the

dividers equal to the spaces 3 to 2 to 1 to a in

and starting from 3^ step off to sianilar

numbered arcs, thus obtaining the intersections
2xix^^x. fi'om a^ draw lines to C', and trace a line a^S^a^ to get
Allow edges for seaming.
the half pattern for the cover.
plan,

Fig. 38.

The body

no pattern, as that is simply

the required height, by the stretchout of the outline shown in plan.
The handles shown on the body and cover in Fig. 36 are plain
strips of metal to which wired or hem edges have been allowedo
Measure. Fig. 38 shows a flaring-lipped measure with handle attached.

of the boiler requires

Care should be taken in laying out the patterns for

when the measure is made up it will hold a

While there are various proportions used in

these measures, that

given

quantity.

making up the
proportions:
Quantity.

size of the

measure, the following table gives good

TIKSMITHING

method of laying out the pattern for the

First draw the elevation A to the desired sizt?

Fig. 39 shows the

measure and

lip.

33

TTNSMITHING

34

shown

the half section of the bottom of the measure as

Now, with

divide this semi-circle into equal parts as shown.

al and uT' as
From any point (as 1') draw a

a center, and

set off the

number

radii, describe the arcs as

radial line to

r/,

at I);

a as

shown.
at 1'

and starting

of spaces contained in the half section

D,

as

shown by the small figures 1' to 7'. From 7' draw a radial line
to a. Allow edges for wiring and seaming. E represents the half
pattern for the body of the measure. We find that lip B is simply
an intersected frustum of a right cone, which can be developed as
shown in the pattern for conical boss of Fig. 25.
There is, however, a shorter method which serves the jjurpose
just as well; this is shown at F, Fig. 3U. First draw the half section of the bottom of the lip, which will also be the half section of
the top of the measure, as shown by the figures 1'' to 7".
l^ovv^,
1>-1"
with radii equal to 5-1", or
and // in F as center, describe

From V drop

the arc 7^7^.

a vertical line intersecting the arc at

Starting from the point 1^, set off the spaces contained in the

1^.

half section 1"- 4"- 7", as

draw

shown by the

figures 1^ to 7^.

lines throutrh the intersections 7^7^, extendino;

Now

take the distance from 1" to

place

it

as

shown by

l^ri'

in F.

them as shown.

from 7^

sect

c'

on both sides.

to obtain the center

it

draw a

to

e.

and

of the front of the lip

In similar manner take the dis-

tance from 7" to e of the back of the lip and place

From V

Draw a
From

line
e^

from

it

as

to

shown

d\ and

at right angles to

in
bi-

cd\

Then using/' as center,

c'd'e', as shown.
Adding

line intersecting the line Vd! at/.

with radius equal to fd', draw the arc

laps for seaming and wiring will complete the pattern for the

The pattern
in Figs.

for the handle

and grasp

is

lips.

obtained as shown

30 and 31.

40 shows a scale scoop, wired along the

top edges and soldered or seamed in the center.
The pattern is
made as shown in Fig. 41, First draw the elevation of the scoop
as shown by ABCD.
(In practice the half elevation, BDC, is all
Scale Scoop.

that

is

necessary.)

draw the
be drawn.

draw the
E'C,

Fig.

At

indefinite straight line

BD

and from the point C,

CE, on which a true section is to

right angles to

Therefore, at right angles to

lines

CC

and EE'.

From

CE, from points C and E,

E' erect a perpendicular as

on which at a convenient point locate the center F; with

43

.miiiiiiiu

HOUSE AT 123 EAST 73d STREET, NEW YORK CITY

& Potter, Architect, New York.

R. Burnside Potter, of Robertson

A. B. C. Brick. Door and Fence, Wood. Painted; Walls and Lintels, Cremo
Marble; Cornice and Dormers. Cupper, Painted; Roofs of .Slate. Cost,
about $70,000. An lOxcellent Example of a .Simple. DiKniBed
Treatment for a Narrow City Lot. The Treatment of
the Roof, to tiive a Low Effect, is Particularly Good.
For Plans, See
Opposite Page.

Front of

mm
nn
u UuuuuuU U

CUCTAI/S

CLOSET

GECEPT0>H COO/A
life'

l+l-*"

at

riRST riXJOR,

GROUND FLOOR.

PLANS OF HOUSE AT 123 EAST 73d STREET,

R. Burnside Potter, of Robertson

&

NEW YORK

Potter, Architect,

CITY

New York.

Finish Floors from Ground to First Floor. Teak: above that. North Carolina Pine.
Drawing Room Paneled Completelv in Wood. Painted; and Walls throughout Rest of House
Hung in Silk and Other Materials. Front View of House Exterior Shown ou Opposite Page.
"

TINSMITHING

35

FE' as radius, describe the arc HE'I. Then HE'I will be the true
Divide the section into a number of
section on CE in elevation.
equal parts as shown by the figures 1 to 7; through these points,
parallel to the line of the scale BD, draw lines intersecting BC and
CD as shown. At right angles
to BD draw the stretchout line
1-7 and place upon it the stretchout of the section as shown by
similar ficrures.
tig.
lines

and

drawn

DC

at

w.
right angles

- 7 draw
BD, from

^Q 1
to

having similar numbers.

At

lines

right angles

which

intersect

intersections on

BC

Trace a line through these

Fig. 41.

points and thus obtain the desired pattern,

shows the lap and wire allowance.

43

The dotted

outline

TINSMITHING

36

pan with a
lapering handle passing through the back of the pan and soldered
to the bottom.
The first step is to draw the plan and elevation
which is shown in Fig. 43. Let ABC be the side view of the pan.
Directly below it, in its proper position, draw the bottom DEFG.
From the point C in elevation draw a line d'd indefinitely. Now
Throuoh c and F draw the line cch inbisect the angrle EFG.
tersecting the line d(T at d.
From d draw a line to G.
In the same manner obtain Ec7'D on the opposite side, which
In Fig, 42

is

shown a perspective view

of a dust

PATTERN FOR
PAN

7^1 -^

Fig. 44.

Fig. 42.
will complete the plan
in side view,

view of the pan.

Now

locate the point

/*

through which the center line of the handle shall pass,

and draw the line Im Through m, the end of the handle, draw
the line no at right angles to Im, and assume o the half width at
the top and j the point where the contour line of the handle shall

meet the back of the pan, and draw a

secting

the

center line

hn

at

line

Make

/,

from

mn

through

equal

to

/',

inter-

mo

and

draw a line from n to /, intersecting the back of the pan at a*.

Through at right angles to the center line draw ij", giving the
//

diameter of the handle at that point to be used

pletes the elevation of the handle; the plan
lines

and similar

pattern.

letters,

but

is

view

later.
is

This con)-

shown by dotted

not required in developing the

'

For the pattern of the pan proceed as is shown in Fig. 44, in

which DEFG is a reproduction of similar letters of Fig. 48. Take
the distance of BC in side view, Fig. 43, 'and place it as shown by

44

TINSMITHING
BC

iu Fig.

on

both sides

37

44 and through C draw a line parallel to EF as shown.

At right angles to and from EF draw E/" and F/-, then take
the
distance from r to
dva. plan in Fig. 43
SIDE view
and place it as
shown from r to d

Draw the

Fig. 44.

dY

lines

in

and

c/E.

IS'ow nsing

as D

and radius

center,

equal to E^Z des-

cribe the arc st.

Then with td as
radius and* as center,

intersect

E'-f

the

Draw

arc st at d'.

a line from d' to

D. In similar manner obtain ^/'G on G

the opposite

which
plete

Fig. 4S.

com-

will

the

side,

pattern

Allow
for wiring and

for the pan.

laps

edorincr.

The

opening
in the back of the
pan to allow the
-

handle

through

to
is

^h

pass

obtain-

ed by hrst drawinoa

center line

ef^

then take the distances from

h
and h to x in Fio43, noting tha*j
comes directly on the bend B,
/ to

arid place

45

it

in Fig.

44 on the

line ef

TINSMITHING

38

A to .r, placing/ on the bend as shown. Now take the distance from h to i or h. to/' in side view in Fig. 43 and place it in
Fig. 44 from h to i on either side; on a line drawn through the
points yixi draw an ellipse shown.
Fig. 45 shows the method
of drawing the pattern for the tapering handle.
From the figure
from j

we

to

find that w^e have a frustum of a right cone.

step the handle has been slightly enlarged.

??,

o.j^j' in Fig. 43.

Draw

To
??,

illustrate eacTi

Ojj',;" represents

the half section in Fig. 45 as shown,

and divide it into equal parts;

drop perpendiculars as shown to
the

line

points

which

draw
is

and from

no^

lines to the

these

apex

J,

obtained by extending

the lines nj and oj until they

meet at

1).

Where

the radial

lines intersect the line jj

lines

right angles

at

to

draw
the

center line 3b, intersectino- the

side of the handle o J at
3', 4'

and

5'.

Now

Fig. 47.
1', 2',

with J as a center and lo as a radius,

describe the arc 1-1, upon which place twice the

contained in the half section n.

From

number

of spaces

these points on 1-1

draw

and cut them with arcs struck from h as center

equal to l\\ h2\ b3', J4' and b^'. Trace a line through

radial lines to h

and

radii

points thus obtained to complete the pattern.

46 shows another well-known form of tin

ware, known as a colander.
The top and bottom are wired and
the foot and body seamed together, the handles of tinned malleable
iron being riveted to the body.
In Fig. 47 is shown how, to lay
out the patterns.
Draw the elevation of the body A and foot B
and extend the sides of the body and foot until they meet respecColander.

Fig-

46

TISMTTHTTq"G
tively at

C and D

on the center line ah.

Draw

30
the half section on

1-7 and divide it into equal parts as shown. For the bodyuse C as a center and describe the arcs shown, laying off the
stretchout on the lower arc, allowincr edges in the usual manner^
the line

Then

will be the half pattern for the body.

In the usual man-

ner obtain the pattern for the foot shown at F, the pattern being
struck from D' as center, with radii obtained from the elevation

Dl

and Dc

4*7

TABLE OF STANDARD OR REGULAR TIN PLATE5.

Size and Kind of Plates,

Number and Weight

Wire Quage Thickness,

Size.

of

of Sheets in a Box,

Every Kind and

Size.

and

TABLE OF STANDARD OR REGULAR TIN PLATES.===Con

EXAMINATION PLATES.
Drawing Plates

I to

IV

examination

tlie

The student should draw

for this Instruction Paper.

in

inclusive constitute

these plates

ink and send them to the School for correction and criticism.

The construction lines and points should be clearly shown. The

date, student's name and address, and plate number should be
lettered on each plate in

Gothic capitals.

In preparing the plates, the student should practice on other

paper, and then send finished drawings for examination.
The
plates of this instruction paper should be laid out in the

manner and
Parts

I,

of the

same

size as the plates in

Mechanical Drawino-

II and III.

PLATE
On

same

I.

between two right cones is

shown. This problem arises in the manufacture of tinware in
such instances as the intersections between the spout and body
this plate, the intersection

as in a teapot, w^atering pot, kerosene-oil can, dipper handle

body, and other articles.

It is

one of the most complicated prob-

lems arising in tinsmith work.

the center of the sheet

The problem should be drawn

in

making

the diameter of the base

inches and the heio;ht of the cone

from

X to Y

and

13

From

4i

inches.

The

distance

measure down
on the side of the cone a distance of 3^ inches and locate the
point C, from which draw the axis of the smaller cone at an angle
of 45 to the axis of the larger cone.
From C measure on CL
1| inches locating the point 6'; through this point, at right angles
to the axis,

should be 1 inch.

draw

ED

the point

equal to 1^ inches.

From

the point 4' on

up on the side of the cone a distance

by o, and draw a line from o to E, extending
the axis LC at L.
From L draw a line

the base of the cone, measure

of

i inch as indicated

it,

until

through

it

intersects

extending

it

until

Then Dt^t'Ewill represent

it

the

intersects the larger cone at a.

outline of the frustum of

the

smaller cone in elevation.

The next

step

is

to obtain the line of intersection

between

th^ two cones, but before this can be accomplished, horizontal

91

TITs^

sections

SMITHING

must be made through various planes

As

cuttino- into the laro-er.

of the smaller cone

the intersection of each half of the

smaller cone with the larger one

is

symetrical, and as the small

cone will not intersect the larger one to a depth greater than the
point 1 in plan, divide only one-quarter of the plan into a number
of equal spaces as

shown by

figures 1 to 4;

from these points

Also from points 1,

draw radial lines to the center F' as shown.

2, 3 and 4 erect vertical lines intersecting the base
1', 2', 3' and 4' respectively, from which points draw

of the cone at
radial lines to

the apex F.

Now

with

0'

on the line

ED

as a center describe the circle

shown, which represents the true section on ED,

Divide each

same number of divisions as shown by the

From these points at
small figures D, 5, 6, 7, and E on either side.
riti-ht ansfles to ED draw lines intersecting; the center line ED at 5'.
6' and 7'.
From the apex L draw lines through the intersection 5', G'
and 7', and extend them until they intersect the axis of the large cone
The student may naturally ask
at e and the base line at k and n.
why the radial lines in the small cone are drawn to these points.
semi-circle into the

As

it is

one,

we

not

known how

far the smaller cone will intersect the larger

obtain such sections on the planes gust drawn, as

we think

be required to determine the depth of the intersection. Thus

the radial line drawn through 5' intersects the radial lines through
will

4', 8', 2'

The

and

1'

radial line

in the larger cone, at b,

through

6'

e,

d and

e respectively.

intersects radial lines in the larger cone

aty, li, i,j and the base line at k, while the radial line drawn
through the point 7', intersects the radial lines of the larger cone
at I and
and the base at n. We know that the line Da and E6>

of the smaller cone intersect the larger cone at points

a and o

re-

and determine the true points of intersection these are

shown in plan by a' and o', and therefore no horizontal sections
For the horizontal section on
are required on these two planes.
the plane h c, drop vertical lines from the intersections b, c and d
on the radial lines, intersecting radial lines having similar numspectively,

bers in plan as

shown by b\

c'

and

d' .

To

obtain the point of in-

draw from the point e a horithe cone at e^^ from which point

tersection in plan of e in elevation,

zontal line intersecting the side of

drop a perpendicular line intersecting the center line in plan at e^

52

3:

.J

TINSMITHIXG
Then

rising F'<;^ as radius, describe an arc intersecting the radial

line 1 at

Through the points

e'.

e',

d',

c'

and

h'

draw a curved

which is the half horizontal section of 5 6 in elevation. In

the same manner obtain the sections shown in plan by
f', h\ i', /'
and I'; and 7', m' and ^2.', which have similar letters and fio-ures ip
both plan and elevation. The next step is to obtain the intersections where the radial lines of the smaller cone will intersect these
line,

To

sections in plan Just obtained.

which would otherwise occur,

avoid a confusion of lines

a reproduction of the plan

and

ele-

vation has been transferred to Plate II.

PLATE
The

n.

figures on this plate are similar to those on Plate

have similar

letters

and

and

figures; those letters

omitted which are not necessary.

and

fio-ures beino-

This plate should be studied

The reproducing from Plate lean

carefully before proceeding.

be best done by using a needle point or the small needle which is

usually found in the handle of the drawing pen, when unscrewinothe pen from the handle, and pricking through Plate
indistinct prick marks.

where

it

Omit'

that

all

is

and some

very small

omitted in Plate

will be noticed that the radial line in

larger cone,

I,

II,

elevation, of the

of the various small letters in plan are not

represented.

To

obtain the plan view of the smaller cone, proceed as follows: Extend the line pi 4 in plan as shown by pi pi.
Prom the
apex L of the smaller cone drop a vertical line intersectincr pi pi at
Pi,

which represents the apex of the smaller cone in plan. With

as center and radius equal to the radius 6' D describe the circle
E^ Di and divide the circumference into the same number of spaces

as

PD, being

careful to

reason for doing this

Assume
lies

that

PD

on a plane

is

PD,

number

and

is

there shown.

The

may

be better understood from what follows:

a pivot on which the circle turns, so that it

then by looking

6 and 6 appear as shown by

A better

the spaces as

6'

and

down from

6'

illustration is obtained

the top, the points

in plan.

by cutting a card-board

disc

and numbering the points hold it in various

positions until all the points become clear.
Kow from the intersections on PD in elevation, drop lines, intersectincr horizontal
lines draw^ from similar numbered points in the profile P^ D^,
after spacing

it

55

Ti:NSMITIimG
6^

intersection D^, 5^,

thus obtaining the points of

7'

and

Trace a curved line through these points, which will give the
the top view of
])oints

5',

()'

and

7'

intersect

elevation

the radial lines drawn through

As

ED.

ED

on the line

the

section

tively, the radial lines in ])lan

the

of

the

smaller cone in

and In respecdrawn through the apex L' and

lines

fh

e^

and 7^ must intersect similar section lines in plan

V e'yf h' and I' n' respectively, as shown by points 5^^, 6^^ and 7^^.
The points a' and o are obtained by dropping perpendiculars from
points 5^,

G'^j

and o in elevation onto the line E^ F^ in plan.

Through the points thus obtained, draw the curved line f(\ 5'', (>'',
7^^, <>' which will represent the plan view of one-half of the interpoints a

the

two cones, the other half being similar.

from the intersections 5^, 6'* and 7^^ on the section

section between the

Now
h'

e\

k' 2^n^

I'

n' respectively, erect

perpendicular lines

secting similar section lines in elevation b

e^fk and In

as

lines
inter-

shown

and 7.
A curved line traced through , 5, 6, 7 and o will represent
At
the line of intersection between the two cones in elevation.
right angles to the axis of the smaller cone and from the intersections a, 5, 6 and 7 draw lines intersecting the side of the
cone E 6* at D-^ 5^ 6^^ and 7'^.
For the pattern of the smaller

by points

respectively

cone proceed as

is

5,

shown

in the following plate:

PLATE
On

this plate the

of the sheet.

III.

two patterns should be placed

Take the radius

of

LD

a vertical line as shown

by

L E\

in Plate

DD

DD.

Upon

uring from- either side of the point E, lay

the semi-circle E, 7, G, 5,

and with

in Plate II

Fig. 1 of Plate III as center describe the arc

in the center

in

From L drop

the arc
off the

DD

meas-

stretchout of

Has shown by similar letters

III.
From the apex L and

and figures on
in Fig. 1 Plate
through these points draw radial lines as shown and intersect them
by arcs whose radii are etpial to L D^, L 5^, L 6^, L 7-^ and L E'^ in

Plate II, as shown by similar letters and figures in Plate III.. Trace
a line

through points thus obtained, and D, E, D,

will be the pattern for the small cone.

larger cone

how

is

As

opening

to

E^, D-^,

the pattern for the

obtained in the usual manner,

to obtain the

D-^,

we

will

only show

be cut into one side of the larger

56

n
N

r
N

5!

TIKSMITITING

We

cone to admit the iutersection of the smaller.

From

ao-ain refer, to Plate II.

in elevation

draw

the intersections ,

lines at right angles to the line

must now

5'',

G, 7,

and

of the axis,

intersecting the side of the cone at 4^, 5^, 0^, 7^ and I^.

Also in addition
it

to the spaces 1, 2, 3

and 4

in the plan view,

will be necessary to obtain the points of intersection

on the base

where the radial lines would intersect drawn from

the apex F^ through the points of intersections between the two
This is accomplished by drawing lines from F^ through
cones.
5^, 6^ and 7^ until they intersect the base line in plan at 5, 6 and
All these points form the basis with which to develop the
7.
pattern shown in Fig. 2 of Plate III, in which draw the vertical
line F 4, and with F as a center and radii equal to FY, and F P

line in plan,

in Plate

YY

II draw the arcs

and

PP

in Fig. 2 of Plate III as

from the point 4 on the arc PP on either

side, lay off the stretchout of 1, 6, 5, 7 and 4 in plan in Plate
From
II as shown by similar numbers in Fig. 2 of Plate III.
the points 6, 5, 7 and 4 on either side draw radial lines to the
shown.

Kow

starting

apex F, which will be used to obtain the pattern for the opening.
Now with F as center and radii equal to F 4^, F 5^, F 6^, F 7^
and F 4^ in Plate II, describe arcs intersecting radial lines havinosimilar

numbers

in Fig. 2 of Plate III as

A line

having similar numbers.

shown by

intersections

traced through these points will

be the required opening to be cut out of the pattern of the larger

cone, one-half of which

is

shown by drawing

radial lines

from the

points 1 and 1 to the apex F.

PLATE

IV.

In drawing this plate, the same size paper and border lines

The subject for this

wooden racks. The prob-

should be used as for the preceding plates.

plate

is

an

oil

tank resting on inclined

lem invokes patterns in parallel and radial-line developments.

The drawing can be made to any convenient scale until the problems are understood and should be proven by paste-board models.
It
rill

should be drawn to a convenient scale, placing the pattern to

the sheet and

make

a neat appearance.

The

section, stretch-

out lines, construction lines, and developments should be

num-

bered or lettered, so as to prove the thorough understanding of

the problem,

and then sent

to the School for correction.

59

The

var-

TINSMITIIING
and patterns have similar letters. A
B shows
represents the tank hody, the pattern being shown by A^.
The cone top C and
the bottom, the pattern being shown by B^.
ious parts in

inlet

tlie

elevation

D are

outlet

and F^

shown developed by C^ and D^ respectively, while the

and opening F in elevation are shown developed byE^,

in the

bottom

B^

60

ELBOW PATTERNS *
In
miter
of

all

elbow work the

By

line.

difficulty lies in obtaining the correct rise of the

the use of a protractor this

drawing a complete quadrant

illustration the rise

pipe

is

is

is

avoided.

overcome and thus the necessity

Following the rule given in the

can be easily found, when the

tliroat

and diameter

of the

known.

In the irpper table are shown A-arious

degrees

when

finished,

terns shown, the

and the

first for

pjieced elbows,

vai-ious miter lines.

having different

There are six miter pat-

a 6-pieced elbow having 90 when completed; the

second for a 4-pieced 90 elbow; the third for a 3-pieced 90 elbow; the fourth
for a 2-pieced 70 elbow; the fifth for a 2-pieced 90 elbow,

and the sixth

for

a 2-pieced 105^ elbow.

Xo matter what
or

number

size of throat the

elbow

full girth of

is

have, or what diameter

of pieces, always follow the rule given in the illustration

the miter line; then place the half profile in

By

may

shown

the pipe on the line

its

and obtain

proper position and place the

in the pattern

by

similar numbers.

reversing the cut opposite the line 1-7-1 the pattern for the middle j^ieces

obtained, after which one cut can be placed into the other as

Page 48 Sheet Metal Work, Part

*

The

I.

illustration referred to will

be found on the back of this page.

shown on

10

<

a
<
J
I

W
o

to

D
O

r,

a
m

7
l

SHEET^METAL WORK.
PART

I.

The sheet-metal worker of today who wishes to succeed must

know far more than was necessary years ago. There are many
good, practical sheet-metal workers in the trade who are handicapped because/they are unable to lay out the patterns that arise
in their daily work. Notwithstanding the introduction of labor-

demand

good workmen has increased.

While most sheet-metal workers acquire practical knowledge in the
saving machinery, the

for

shop, they lack the technical education necessary to enable

become

and draftsmen.

proficient as pattern cutters

them to
In this

course, special attention is given to the fundamental principles

and science of pattern drafting.

Practical workshop problems will be presented, such as

that underlie the art

in

everyday practice, thus

giving

the

student

the

arise

practical

experience that usually comes only after long association with the
trade.

CONSTRUCTION.
In constructing the various articles made from sheet metal,
various gauges or thicknesses of metal are used. For all gauges
from No. 20 to No. 30 inclusive, we assume in the .development
of the pattern, that we are dealing with no thickness, and we make
no allowance for bending or rolling in the machine. But where
the metal is of heavier gauge than No, 20, allowance must be made
for shrinkage of the metal in the bending and rolling operations,
which

will

be explained in connection with development in heavy

sheet-metal work.

What

has been said about wiring, seaming,

and transferring patterns in the Tinsmith's Course is applicable to

It is sometimes the case that the capacity of a
this course also.
vessel or article must be determined, when the rules given in
Mensuration should be followed.

When

figuring on sheet-metal

work, the specifications sometimes call for various metals, such as

galvanized sheet iron or

gteel,

planished iron, heavy boiler plat^

63

SHEET-METAL WORK
band
brass;

iron,

square or round rods for bracing,

etc., zinc,

copper, or

and the weight of the metal must often be calculated together

with that of stiffening rods, braces, etc. On this account it is

necessary to have tables which can be consulted for the Vcirious
w'eights.

TABLES.
There

is

a Midf difference between gauges in use, wdiich

very annoying to those

who use

is

by different
would be well

sheet metal rolled

firms according to the various gauges adopted.

It

do away with gauge numbers, and use the micrometer caliper

shown in Fig. 1, w:hich determines the thickness of the metal by the
to

decimal or fractional parts of an inch.

Fig.

1.

method for the average mechanic

who works sheet metal manufactured by firms using different
gauges. The tables on pages 61 to 74 can be consulted when
This

the most satisfactory

is

occasion arises.

SHOP TOOLS.
In allowing edges for seaming and weiring, we must bear in
mind that when a seam is to be grooved by hand or machine the
allowance to be made to the pattern should conform to the rolls in
the machine or the
are usually bent

hand

tools in use.

on the sheet-iron

The edges

of the ijattem

folder, or brake, while the

seam

can be seamed or grooved with the hand groover or giant grooving

machine.
the

Wliere round

slix) roll

former

pi]pe

work

is usivl, wliile

is

done in lengths up

square or rectangular pipes are

bent up on the brake in 8~foot lengths.

94

to 3 feet,

Where

pijpes,

elbows,

SHEET-METAL WORK
stove bodies, furnace shells, metal drums,

etc.,

are made, the sheets

are cut square on the large squaring shears, rolled, grooved,

and
by beading both ends in the beading machine, using
ogee rolls. There is also a special machine for seaming the cross
seams in furnace pipes, also a set of machines for the manufacture
stiffened,

As

of elbows used in sheet-metal work.

machines are at hand,

before mentioned,

if

these

be well to make slight modifications

in the patterns so that both the machines and patterns may work
it

will

to advantage.
*"

PATTERNS OBTAINED BY VARIOUS METHODS.

In this course

be exi^lained the four methods used in

developing patterns for sheet-metal work, namely, parallel line,
will

radial line, triangulation,

and approximate developments.

What

was said on j)arallel and radial line developments in the Tinsmith's

Course is applicable to this course, also.

INTERSECTIONS AND DEVELOPMENTS.

The following problems on

developments have
been selected because they have a particular bearing on pij)e work
parallel line

arising in the sheet-metal trade.

All of the problems that will

follow should be carefully studied,

drawn on cheap paper, and

proven by cardboard models. These models will at once show any
error in the patterns which might otherwise be overlooked. As
only the Examination Plates are to be sent to the School, the
student should draw all the other plates given in this course.
The first problem to be drawn is shown in Fig. 2, being the
intersection between a cylinder and octagonal xjrism. In drawinothese problems for practice, make the cylinder and octagonal prism
both 2 inches in diameter. The height of the cylinder from B to
E should be 4^ inches and the length of the prism from G to H,
3 inches. Let A represent the plan of the cylinder, shown in
elevation by B C D E and F, the section of the prism, shown in
plan by G H I J. Niunber the corners of the section F as shown,
from 1 to 4 on both sides and from these x^oints draw horizontal
;

3
lines intersecting the plan of the cylinder at 2
'

sides

as shown.

'

and

1 '4

'

on both

Establish a convenient intermediate point of

intersection between the

comers of the prism, as a and a

65

in A,

from

SHEET-METAL WORK

which draw horizontal lines intersecting the section F at ',','

Take a tracing of the section F with its A^arious interand a
sections, and place it in its proper position as shown by F\ in the
.

ELEVATION

IN

U
OPENING
CYLINDER y

r~1

-^ - Er^^
4

Jo'

va'

center of the cylinder

BODE, allowing

the section to

make

quarter turn, and bringing the points h' l' vX the top and bottom

on a

vertical line, while in the section F, 5

66

'

I' are

on a horizontal

SHEET-METAL WORK
line.

From

the various intersections in

drawn from
the plan A, as shown in

F\ draw

intersecting vertical lines

similarly

sections in

elevation.

through these points

will represent the joint

horizontal lines

numbered

line

inter-

drawn

between the cylinder

and prism.
For the development for the prism, extend the line H I in plan
as N K, upon which place the stretchout of all the points contained
in the section F, as shown by similar figures and letters on N K.
Through these i)oints, at right angles to N K, draw lines which
intersect with lines drawn from similarly numbered points and
letters in plan, at right angles to

thus obtained, and

I.

Trace a line through points

K L M N will be the desired pattern.

To

obtain

the development for the oj)ening in the cylinder, extend the line

DE

in elevation as

S O, upon which

place the stretchout of

all

the

shown by similar numbers

and letters on S O. At right angles to S O and through these
points, draw lines intersecting horizontal lines drawn from intersections having similar numbers and letters in elevation, thus
obtaining the intersections shown by T U V W, which will be the
points contained in the half -circle A, as

shape of the opening to be cut into one-half of the cylinder.

In Fig. 3
quadrangular

is

shown the

j)rism, the

intersection between a hexagonal

and

hexagonal prism being placed in elevation

an angle of 45 to the base

When

drawing this j)roblem

for i^ractice, make the height of the quadrangular i^rism 4^ inches,
and each of its sides 2 inches. Place the hexagonal prism at an
at

angle of 45 to the base

line.

line,

placing

it

in the center of the

quadrangular j)rism in elevation as shown; and inscribe the hex2| inches. Let A
rei3resent the plan of the quadrangular prism placed diagonally as
agonal section in a circle whose diameter

shown, above which draw the elevation

is

BODE.

In

its

proper

and proj^er angle, draw the outline of the hexagonal prism

as shown by 1'^ 1" 4" A^; and on 1" 4" draw the half section as
shown by F, numbering the corners 1" 2" 3" and 4". From the
corner 1 in the plan A, draw the center line 1 4. Take a tracing
of the half section F, and place it as shown by F', placing the
points 1" 4" in F on the center line in F' as shown. From the
corners 1, 2, 3, and 4, draw lines parallel to thecenter line, intersecting the two sides of A (5 1' and V a) at 2' 3' and 1' 4', as shown. From

position

'

'

67

ISHEET-METAL

WORK

these intersections draw vertical lines, which intersect by lines

drawn parallel to 4" 4"' from corners having similar numbers in F,

thus obtaining the points of intersection 1^ 2^ 0^ and 4"^. Drox^ping

vertical lines from the intersections on the plane 1" 4" in elevation,

and intersecting

similarly

horizontal section of 1" 4",

numbered lines in plan, will give the

as shown by V 2 3" and 4.

Pig. 3.

For the development of the hexagonal i^rism, extend the line

4" 1" as shown by
J, nijon which place the stretchout of twice

the

mmiber

of sjpaces contained in the half section F, as

shown by

on the stretchout line

J. From these points, at
right angles to
J, draw linos as shown, which intersect by lines
drawn at right angles to the line of the prism from intersections
similar figures

1^ to 4', thus obtaining the points of intersection

68

I''

to

4''.

Lines

SHEET-METAL WORK
traced from point to i^oint as

The shape

required development.

quadrangular
elevation as

x)rism,

N O,

shown by J

is

KL

H,

will

of the opening to be cut into the

obtained by extending the line

u^jon which

be the

DE

in

place the stretchout of one-half

the section A, with the various points of intersection, as shown by

similar figures on

these

points,

numbered

O N.

which

At

right angles to

intersect

by

lines

ON

erect lines from

drawn from

similarly

intersections in elevation at right angles to the quad-

rangular lorism, thus obtaining the iDoints of intersection 1'" to 4'"

on both

sides.

Then

X O P R will be the half development.

Fig. 4 shows the intersection between two cylinders of equal

diameters at right angles.

Make

the height of the vertical cylinder

3 inches, that of the horizontal cylinder 1^ inches, and the diameters

Let

of both 2 inches.

A rej)resent the plan of the vertical cylinder,

and B its elevation. Draw the plan of the horizontal cylinder C,

shown in elevation by D x^laced in the center of the vertical
cylinder. Draw the half section E in plan and divide it into
equal parts, as shown from 1 to 3 to 1. In a similar manner draw
the half section E' in elevation, which also divide into the same
number of spaces as E, reversing the numbers as shown.

The

following suggestions are given to avoid confusion in

numbering the points or corners of irregular or round sections in

]Aan and elevation. If the half section E were bent on the line 1-1
and turned ui)ward toward the reader, and we should view this
section from the front, the point 3 would be at the tojp, or, if bent
downward, would be at the bottom therefore the points 3 and 3 in
elevation are placed at top and bottom. Now if the section E^ in
elevation were bent on the line 3-3 either toward or away from the
reader, the j)oint 1 when looking down would show on both sides as
shown in plan, which proves both operations. No matter whether
the form is sim^jle, as here shown, or complicated as that which
will follow, the student should use his imaginative power.
Study
the problem well close your eyes and imagine you see the finished
article before you, or, failing in this, make a rough model in the
shop or a cardboard model at home, which will be of service. Now
from the intersections in E,draw horizontal lines intersecting the
circle A at 1', 2' and 3' on both sides.
From these points erect
perpendicular" lines and intersect them with horizontal lines drawn
;

69

!0

SHEET-METAL WORK

Fig.

70

4.

SHEET-METAL WORK

11

from similarly numbered intersections in E^ Lines traced through

these points 3" 2" 1" and 1" 2" 3" will be straight because both
branches are of equal diameters.

For the development of the cylinder D in elevation, extend

the line 3-3 as shown by F G, upon which place the stretchout of
twice the niimber of spaces contained in E\ as shown by similar
on the stretchout line F G.
From these points, at right angles to G F, draw lines, and
intersect them by lines drawn parallel to the cylinder B from similar
to 1 to 3 to 1 to 3

numbers 3

numbers

in the joint line.

the development,

when F

Trace a line through these points in

GHI

be the desired shape.

will

For the opening to be cut into the cylinder B to receive the

cylinder D, extend the base of the cylinder B as shown by 1^ 1^,
upon which place the stretchout of the half circle A in plan, as
shown by similar figures on the stretchout line 1^ 1^. From these
l^oints erect perpendiculars, which intersect by lines drawn from
similarly

numbered

intersections in elevation at right angles to the

line of the cylinder B.

thus obtained; J

Trace a line through the intersections

K L M will be the shape of the opening.

Fig. 5 shows the intersection of two cylinders of iinequal

diameters at an angle of 45.

Make

the diameters of the large and

small cylinders 2 inches and 1^ inches respectively; the height of

the large cylinder 3 inches; and the length of the small cylinder

measured from

its

shortest side in elevation, 1 inch, placed at an

represents the
angle of 45 in the center of the cylinder B.
plan of the large cylinder struck from the center a and shown in
elevation

Draw

by B.

the outline of the small cylinder

at its

in its position as
proper angle, and place the half section
shown; divide it into a number of equal spaces, as shown from

points 1 to
line

a 5

section

Through the center a

5.

and with

D with

5 as a center

in plan,

draw the horizontal

describe a duplicate of the half

the various points of intersection, as shown by

placing the points 1 and 5 on the horizontal line a

intersections in
circle

A at 3

'

to

5.

From

D\
the

D^ draw horizontal lines intersecting the large

3 as shown, from which points erect perpendicular
'

them bylines drawn

smaller pipe from similarly numbered

lines; intersect

71

parallel to the lines of the

intersections in D.

A line

SHEET-METAL WORK

12

traced through the

thus obtained will represent the inter-

x^oiiits

section or miter joint between the two pijies.

These same

ijrincii^les

are applicable jio matter what diameters

the pipes have, or at what angle they are joined, or whether the

Fig. 5.

pipe

in

is i)laced

as

shown

in plan or at one side of the center line.

For the development of the small cylinder extend the line 5-1
elevation as shown by F E, upon which place the stretchout

72

SHEET-METAL WORK
of the. circle D' in jAnn, or twice the
as

shown by

angles to

F E and

through these small

drawn

from

small cylinder

E F G

in elevation,

At

E.

draw

lines

to the lines

intersections

right

which
of

the

in

the

Trace a line through the points thus

be the development for the cylinder C.

will

extend

the lines of

shown

cylinder in elevation as

numbered

obtain the opening in the large

cylinder

by

figures,

at right angles

similarly

miter line in elevation.

To

of

similar figures on the stretchout line

intersect with lines

obtained;

amount

13

J,

upon which

x)lace

the

large

at the base

the stretchout

of the intersections contained in the circle

A, being careful to transfer each siDace

separately (as they are unequal) to the

H J.

Through these points

and at right angles to HJ erect lines which
intersect with horizontal lines drawn from
stretchout line

similar j)oints in the miter line in elevation

line

traced

obtained, as

through the points thus

K L M N, will

shown by

be

the desired development.

Fig. 6 shows the intersection between

a quadrangular iDrism and sphere, the center

of the prism to come directly over the center
of the sphere.

Make

the

diameter of

sphere 2^ inches, the sides of the

prism 1^ inches, and the height from /"
the

to c' 2| inches.

sphere

A which

Draw
is

the elevation of the

struck from the center

Fig.

6.

from which erect the perpendicular a h. With any point, as c,

as a center and using the same radius as that used for A, describe the
plan B. Through c draw the two diagonals at an angle of 45, and
draw the plan of the prism according to the measurements given.
a,

Now draw

prismyc' and/"' c, the sides of the

prism intersecting the sphere at c and c
From either of these points
draw a horizontal line intersecting the center line a at d. Then
using a as a center and a d as the radius, describe the arc e e'
intersecting the sides of the x)rism extended at e and e' f e e'
the elevation of the

'

1)

t73

SHEET-METAL WORK

14

be the development for one of the sides of the prism.

will

In

practice the four sides are joined in one.

Fig. 7 shows the intersection of a quadrangular prism

sphere

when the

center of the prism

center of the sphere.

Make

is

and

placed to one side of the

the diameter of the sjphere the same

through x in the plan draw the 45

as in the preceding figures;

and make the distance from a? to A ^ inch, the sides of

the prism 1 inch, and the height from E to c in elevation 1| inches.
Having drawn the elevation and plan of

diagonal,

the sphere, construct the plan of the prism

as

A B C

shown by

D.

Parallel to the

center line x y i^roject the prism in elevation intersecting the sphere at a and c.

Now

since the center of the sphere

is

on

one of the diagonals of the prism in plan,

either two of the sides meeting at one end

BC

and

D, will be
alike, and both will be different from the
other two sides A B and A D, meeting at
of that diagonal, as

the ox)posite end of the diagonal.

There-

a in elevation will be used

in obtaining the development of D O in
fore the line

plan, while the line

obtaining
sides

DA

Now

c will

the development

be used in

for the

two

and A B in x^lan.
from a draw a horizontal

line

intersecting

the

center

line

x y at

h,'

and using y as a center and y h &s the

radius, describe the arc
l^ig- 7.

the

and H. Then E F G
prism shown in plan by

is

sides

of

GH

intersecting

the ijrism extended to

the development for each side of the

D C and C B.

In a similar manner, from

the intersection e in elevation draw a horizontal line intersecting

the center line x y at d.

Then using y

as center

and y d as

radius,

describe an arc intersecting the sides of the jjrism at e and/*.

show the development for either side of the prism shown

in plan by D A and A B.
By connecting the points G and f it
will be found that the line is a true horizontal line, which proves
FJ' e

will

74

^-^'^

1-1

<
Ou,

<
o

0)

o
p.

3
a
o
o
b

<!;

>

.2

Cd
Ou
1-5

H
b

O
<
P-.

SHEET-METAL WORK
the two develoj)ments.

on the sphere that

all

15

Should the plan of the j)rism be so placed

sides would be different, then two elevations

would be necessary so that the intersections of all the sides could

be shown.
Devslopments by Triangulation. In developing sheet-metal

work

of irregular forms, p)attems are required

developed by either the parallel or radial-line

which cannot be
methods.
These

formed that although straight lines can be

drawn upon them the lines would not run parallel to one another,
nor would they all incline to a common center. In the methods
irregular shapes are so

previously described, the lines in parallel develojiments rmi

to

one another, while in radial-line developments

at a

common

Hence

center.

all

x^arallel

the lines meet

development of any irregular

in the

becomes necessary to drop all previous methods, and

simi3ly proceed to measure up the surface of the irregular form,
part by part, and then add one to another until the entire surface
To accomplish this, one of the simplest of all
is developed.
geometrical problems is made use of and shown in Part II of
article, it

Mechanical Drawing, Plate Y, Problem

a triangle having given the three
it is

of

11, entitled '"To construct

To carry out

sides-.""

this

method

necessary only to divide the surface of the plan or elevation

any irregular

article into a

number

of equal parts.

Use the

distances in j)lan as the bases of the triangles, and the distances in

elevation as the altitudes or heights of the triangles, or vice versa;

hypothenuse by connecting the two given lengths.

To illustrate this simple principle Fig. 8 has been prepared.

and then
Let

find the

ABCD

represent the plan of a plane surface,

shown

in

by A^ B^. We know that the true length of the plane

equal to A^ B^ and the true width is equal to A D or B C in plan.

elevation
is

We

also

know

that the vertical height from the bottom of the jDlane

A' to the top B'

is

equal to B' h as shown.

But suppose we want

to obtain the true length of the diagonal line

To

developed plane.
the length of

obtain this

D, place

it

from

it

will

h to

BD

in plan

on the

be necessary only to take

D\ and draw

D\ which is the length desired.

While this may look very simj)le, it

a line as shown

from B^ to

triangulation,

principle

and

if

is

all

that there

is

to

the student thoroughly imderstands the simple

and studies the problems which

75

will follow,

he

will

have

lO

SHEET-METAL

WOKK
To

no trouble in axjplying this ^jrinciple in complicatt'd work.

make it still clearer we

Take the distance of A^
comx)lete the rectangle

will

prove the length of the line B^ D^.

B^, x^lace

it

in plan as

A B"^ C^ D.

shown by

A B'^,

and

Draw the diagonal B- D, being

D^

the length sought, which will be found to equal B^

in elevation.

Wlien drawing this problem in practice, make the i)lan 4 by 6 inches

and the vertical height in elevation 5 inches.
In obtaining developments by kiangulation. the student should
ase all of his conceptive powers as i^reviously exj^lained.

making any drawing,

lie

must

him

in his

speak,

before

down on

jjaper.

see the article before

mind's eye, so to

he can

put

Therefore

it

Before

we want

to

imiDress

iipon the student the necessity of

drawing

all

the i)roblems that will

follow in this part

tical

should

Workshop
be

angulation

and

in the Prac-

Problems.

understood
is

not

that

given

alternative method, but

It
tri-

as
is

an

used

when no other method can be

employed, and without

no true i)attern could be obtained for

these irregular shapes, hence the necessity of close study.
In Fig. 9 is shown an irregular solic whose base and toj) are
triangles crossing each other, and in which the principle just
exijlained will

it

be put to practical test

Inscribe the triangles

shown in plan in a circle whose radius is equal to a 1, or \\ incheSj

and make the height of the article in elevation 2 inches. The
dotted triangles 1 2 3 in plan represent the section of the article on
the line 2-3 in elevation: and the solid triangle 1^ 2^ 3^ in plan, the
section on the line 2' 3^ in elevation. Now connect the two sections
in plan by drawing lines from 1 to 2^ and to 3^ from 2 to 2^ aiid to
1\ and from 3 to 1^ and to 3^. In a similar manner connect the
points in elevation as shown. It now becomes necessary to obtain
a

triangle giving the true length of the lines connecting the

corners of the triangle in plan, and as all of these lines are equal
only one triangle is necessary
Therefore take the distance from

76

SHEET-METAL WORK
1 to 2^ in ijlan

as

and

shown from 2

17

on the line 3-2 extended in elevation,

and draw a line from 1 to 2\ which is the

x^lace it

to 1,

desired length.

For the i^attern, proceed as, is shown in Fig. 10. Take the
distance of any one of the sides in the triangle, as 1-2 in Fig. 9.
ele vation 2'
and j)lace it on the horizontal line 3^
1-2 in Fig. 10. Then using 1 and
2 as centers, with 1 2^ in elevation
in Fig. 9 as radius, describe the

arcs in Fig. 10 intersecting each

other in 2\

Then

1 2 2^ will

be

the pattern for one of th^ sides

shown

in -plan in Fig. 9

by

1 2

2^.

Proceed in this manner in Fig. 10

as

shown by the small

tracing

may be

arcs; or a

taken of the one

and traced as shown

until six sides are obtained, which
will be the full pattern and which
is numbered to correspond to the
numbers in plan.
Fig. 9.
In Figs. 11, 12, and 13 are shown the methods used in develop
ing a scalene cone. The method of obtaining the development of
any scalene cone, even though its base is a perfect circle, is governed
by the same principle as employed in the last problem on trianguside 1 2 2\

Fig. 10.

lation

drawn

It is well to

remember that any

have the same shaiDe (differing of

This is equally true of articles whose

parallel to its base will

course in size) as the base.

section of a scalene cone

77

SHEET-METAL

18

WORK

bases are in the shape of a square, rectangle, hexagon, octagon, or

any other polygon.

What

has just been explained will be proven

ABC

which
represents a side
elevation of a scalene cone, whose jjlan is shown by 1 4^ 7 4 C^.
Draw any horizontal line, as A D, on which set off the distances
in connection Avith Fig. 11, in

AB

equal to 3 inches and

vertical height

D C equal

BD

equal to

to 4^ inches.

2^ inches, and the

Draw

lines

which completes the elevation. In its

below the line A B, draw the plan of A B as 1 4
the center C. Through C draw the horizontal
to C,

78

from

and

proj)er position

7 4^ struck
line

from

C C\ and

SHEET-METAL WORK
intersect

it

by a

vertical line

19

drawn from the apex

Draw

thus obtaining the apex C^ in plan.

lines

in elevation,

from 4 and

4^ to

C\

which completes the plan.

As both

halves

the scalene cone 'are symmetrical,

oi.

necessary only to divide the half plan

14

7 into a

number

it

is

of equal

shown by the small figures 1 to 7, and from points

thus obtained draw radial lines to the apex C\ Then these lines
in x)lan will represent the bases of triangles which will be constructed, whose altitudes, are all equal to D C in elevation. Therefore in Fig, 12 draw any horizontal line, as A B, and from any
spaces as

as C, erect the perpen-

I)oint,

dicular line

C^ equal in

height to

D C

Now from

C^ in plan take the

in Fig.

11.

various lengths of the lines 1

and place them on the

to 7
line

AB

in Fig. 12, measur-

-^

ing in every instance from

the point C, thus obtaining
the intersections 1 to

7,

from

which lines are drawn to the

apex C^. Then these lines will
represent the true lengths of
similarly

numbered

lines in

plan in Fig. 11.

With C

For the pattern proceed as is shown in Fig.

center and radii equal to C^ 7, 6, 5, 4, etc., in Fig.

13.

arcs 7-7, 6-6, 5-5, 4-4, etc., in Fig. 13 as shown.

Now assuming
cone, as C B in

that the

seam

is

to

come on the short

side of the

Fig. 11, set the dividers equal to one

of

as

12, describe the

the equal spaces in

the i3lan; and starting on the arc 7-7 in Fig. 13, step from arc 7 to
arc

6,

up

to 7.

to arcs 5, 4, 3,

7-1-7,

2,

and

1,

and then continue

to arcs 2, 3, etc.,

Trace a line through these intersections as shown by

and draw

from 7 and 7 to C, which completes the

lines

pattern.

Now

cut parallel to
size),

its

draw any

any section

an oblique or scalene cone

base, has a similar shape to its base (differing in

to prove that

line as

of

h in Fig. 11 i^arallel to

79

B,

From C

in

SHEET METAL WORK

20

X)lan erect

A B

a vertical line intersecting the base line

which draw a

line to the

apex C, cutting the line a

at

1>

from

at d,

Then

e.

the distances e a and e l will be eqnal; and using e as a center and

e 5 as radius, dciscribe the circle

afh

i,

which

is

on a

the true section

Then

7j.

BA

be the frustum of

will

a scalene cone.

Extend

the line a h parallel to

A D, cutting the diagram

of triangles in Fig. 12

from a

Then with

to h.

radii equal to the dis-

tances from C^ to the

various intersections on

the line a
^

h,

and using

in Fig. 13 as center,

numdrawn

intersect similarly

bered radial lines

from 7

to 1 to 7 to the

apex C.
as

line traced

shown from 7

to 7
cut,

'

'

to 1

be the desired
and 7-7-7 '-7' will
will

be the pattern for the

[vj

frustum.

Tlie jDractical

use of this method

is

in

shown

in diagram

Fig. 11; a'

tum

is

the frus-

of the oblique cone,

on the ends of which are

connected round pipes
Fig.

^'

H.

and

c'

an irregular. solid whose base is

square and top is round, both top and bottom on horizontal planes
D E and
are developc>d. The corners in i)lau F 1 j G, G C H,
It is

shown

in Fig. 14

how

iu

EAF

should be considered as sections of scalene cones.

by drawing the plan

ABCD

3^-

Proceed

inches square, which represents the

80

SHEET-METAL WORK
plciii

and the

of the base of thie article;

circle

21

E FG

2| inches

which shows the i)lan of the top of the article; the

height to be 3 inches, shown from a to 5. As the circle is in

in diameter,
vertical

making the four corners symmetrical, it is

necessary only to divide the one-quarter circle into a number of
equal parts as shown by the small figures 1, 2, 2, 3, from which draw
lines to the apex B.
Complete the elevation as shown by IJ K L.
Now using B as center, and radii equal to B 1 and B 2 in plan,
describe arcs intersecting A B at 1' and 2' as shown. From these
points erect jDeri^endiculars intersecting the top of the article I J
the center of the square,

in elevation at 1"

and

2",

from which draw

K. Then K 1"
shown in plan by

lines to

and

K 2" will

and B 2 resxoectively on the finished article.

For the half pattern proceed as follows; In Fig. 15 draw any

be the true lengths of the lines

horizontal line, as

Now with K

B, equal in length to

1" as radius

and A and

arcs intersecting each other at 1

intersecting
in Fig. 14,

AB

at

K.

Then

AB

in plan in Fig. 14.

B in Fig. 15 as centers, describe

From

1 dro^D a vertical line

K should equal

which represents the true length through

81

in elevation

GN

in plan.

SHEET-METAL WORK

5^2

Now with

radii equal to

K 1"

and

K 2"

in elevation,

Fig. 15 as center, describe the arcs 1-1'

dividers equal to one of the spaces in

and with

and 2-2'.

G F in plan

Now

Now

1, 2, 2', 1'.

describe the arc

center and with

using 1

as radius,

set the

in Fig. 14; and

numbers

starting at 1 in Fig. 15, step off arcs having similar

shown by

B in

and

as

1' as center,

B 0, and intersect it by an arc struck from B as

B A as radius, as shown at C. Take a tracing of 1

and place it as shown by 1' 01". Now connect the various

to
intersections by drawing lines from 1 to A to B to
l''tol' to 1, which completes the half i)attern. The triangu-

1'

A B

lar pieces 1
article

shown

by

in plan

will represent the flat sides of the

AB

or 3

BO

respectively in Fig. 14;

iDatterns 1-1'

This same rule

is

'

B and I'-l" in Fig. 15, the sections of

cones 1-3-B and H-G-0 respectively in plan in Fig. 14.

and the cone

the scalene

or 1

is

applicable whether the top opening of the article

placed exactly in the center of the base or at one side or corner.

Various problems of this nature will arise in Practical Workshop

Problems; and if the principles of this last problem are thoroughly
understood, these will be easily mastered.

Approximate Developments.

In develoiDing tlie blanks or

patterns for sheet-metal work which requires that the metal be
hammered or raised by hand, or passed between riiale and female
dies in foot or jiower j)resses, circular rolls, or

hammering machines,

the blanks or patterns are develoiDed by the ai)proximate method,

because no accurate pattern can be obtained.

In

all

raised or

work in sheet metal, more depends upon the skill that the
workman has with the hammer, than on the patterns, which are but
approximate at their best. While this is true, it is equally true
j)ressed

that

workman understands the scientific rule for obtaining

approximate patterns a vast amount of time and labor can be

if

these

the

saved in bringing the metal to

for

its proi)er profile.

If the true rule

averaging the various shapes and profiles in circular work

understood, the result

great a flare

Before

and

that the blank has either too

will not form, to its proper profile

proceeding

methods, attention

is

to
is

describe

the

aj)proximate

little

is

not

or too

and curve.

development

called to the governing principle underlying

such operations. We have previously shown how tlie patterns

are developed for simple flaring ware; in otlier words, how to
all

82

SHEET-METAL WORK

23

The patterns for curved or any

other form of circular or hammered work are i^rodnced nxDon the
same princij)le. The first illustration of that iDrincix)le is shown in

develop the frastum of a cone.

Fig. 16, in which

composed of

A B C D represents a sphere

sis horizontal sections, struck

3 inches in diameter

from the center

a.

Fig. 16.

Divide the quarter circle

AC

into as

many

parts as there arc

sections required in the half s^^here (in this case three),

horizontal lines through the ball as shown.

The

and

various radii for

the patterns are then obtained by drawing lines through

and

G A.

Thus C h extended meets the

83

center line

di-aw

ED

at e,

5,

Z*

c,

which

SHEET-METAL WORK

24

is

the center for striking the blank for

number

3,

using the radii

In similar manner draw a line from h to 6", extending

Then d c and d will be the radii for
it until it meets E D at f7.
blank number 2, while A c is the radius for blank 1 shown at S
The lengths of the pattern pieces are determined in the same
e h

and

e C.

1)

manner

as would be the case with an ordinary flaring

producing

the

tin ware,

patterns for

and

will

be

pan

in

explained

PLAN
Fig. 17.

thoroughly

in

the

Practical

Worksho^j Problems

which

will

shortly follow.

shown another elevation of a sphere composed of

twelve vertical sections as shown in plan view. While the method
used for obtaining the pattern is by means of parallel lines, and
In Fig. 17

is

would be strictly accurate if the sections in plan remained straight

cts from 4 to 4, the pattern becomes approximate as soon as we start
to raise it by means of machine or hammer to conform to the profile
B in elevation, because the distance along the curve a from 4' to 4'

84

SHEET-METAL WORK

25

in plan is greater than a straight distance

from 4 to 4. The pattern

method is obtained as follows Let B represent the elevation
of the sphere, and A the plan of the same, which is
divided into as

by

this

many

sides as the sphere is to have vertical sections, in

this case
12, being carefnl that the two opposite sides 4-4 and 4' 4' in

phm

run parallel to the center line as shown.

Make

the diameter of the

sphere4-4" 3 inches.
Divide the half elevation into an equal

number of spaces
shown from 1 to 4
1,

as
to

and from these

points drop lines at

right angles to 4-4"

intersecting the miter lines 1-4 in plan

as shown.

Now draw

any horizontal line,

as 1 '--1 upon which
',

place the stretchout

of 1-4-1 in elevation

shown by l'-4'l' onthelinel'-l'

inO. Through these
points draw lines at
as

right angles to 1'1',

by

which

intersect

drawn from
similarly numbered
intersections on the
^^S- 18.

plan, at right angles to 4-4.

obtained as shown by

lines

miter lines 1-4 in

line traced through points thus

will be the desired pattern.

In Fig. 18 is shown the principle used in obtaining the radii
with which to develop the blank for a curved or circular mould

when

it is

to

be hammered by hand.

In

this connection, only the

employed will be shown, leaving the full development and

also the development for patterns which are to be raised
by hand
principle

85

SHEET METAL WORK

26

be explained in problems which will

follow in Practical Workshop Problems. Draw this problem double
the size shown. First draw the elevation A B C D, and through

and hammered by machine,

to

the elevation draw the center line

G.

Then using

G as a center,

A^ B^ and C^ D^ representing respectively the

horizontal i)rojections of A B and C D in elevation. Now draw a
line from A to E in elevation, connecting the corners of the cove
as shown. Bisect A E and obtain the point H, from which at right
angles to A E draw a line intersecting the cove at J. Through J

draw the

circles

parallel to

Take the

M as shown respectively from J to L and from J to K.

will M L and M K be the radii with which to strike the

the line

Then

A E draw a line intersecting the center line F G at M.

stretchout from J to A and from J to E and place it on

From J dro^D a vertical line intersecting the line D^ G in plan at N. Then with G as center strike the
quarter circle N O. Now using M as center and M J as radius,
strike the arc J P. Then on this arc, starting from J, lay oP 4 times
pattern or blank for the cove.

the stretchout of

understood that

NO

when

in plan for the full pattern.

stretching the cove

stationary and the metal from

respectivol}^

toward J

to

A and J E.

It should be

A E, the j)oint J remains

and from J to K is hammered

For this reason is the stretchout

obtained from the point J.

PRACTICAL WORKSHOP PROBLEMS.

In presenting the 32 j^roblems which follow on sheet-metal
work, practical x^roblems have been selected such as would arise in
every-day shop

i)ractice.

In this connection we wish to impress upon the student the necessity of

working out each and every one of the
32 problems. Models should be made
from stiff cardboard, or, if agreeable to
the proprietor of the shop, the patterns

can be develoj)ed at home, then cut out

of

scrap

metal

lunch hour, and

Our
drainer.

first

the

shop during

x^'fo'^^^^n

in this way.

in

and is known as a sink

often the case that the trap under the kitchen sink

problem

It is

Fig. 19.

is

shown

in Fig. lU,

86

SHEET-METAL WORK

27

choked or blocked, owing to a collection of refuse matter. To

avoid this a sink drainer is used, and is fastened in iDosition through
the wire loops a^ 5 and c. The refuse matter is poured into the
drainer, from which it is easily remoVed after the fluid has passed
through the perforations. These drainers may be made of tin or of
is

black or galvanized iron, but where a good job

wanted 16-ounce
coiDper should be used. To obtain the pattern for any sized drainer,
First draw the
X^roceed as follows:
is

AB

plan of the drainer

in Fig. 20,

making A B and B O each two inches

and forming a right angle. Then
using B as center and A B as radius,
draw the arc A
In its proper i^osi-

tion above the plan construct the side

elevation,

E D 2 inches high,
line F D.
Then will

making

and draw the

FED

be the side elevation.

the arc

A C into equal s^mces as shown

by the small
pattern use

figures 1 to 5.

FD

as radius,

Divide

For the
and with

in Fig. 21 as center strike the arc

From

1 5.

step off on 1-5 the

same number of

sxDaces as contained in

Fig. 20, as

in Fig. 21.

Then

will

D and

1 draw a line to

A C in plan in

shown by similar

Draw a

line

figures

from 5

to

1-5-D be the pattern

D.
for

the front of the strainer, in which perforations should be

To

Fig. 20.

join the

use 1 and 5 as centers, and with either

radius, describe the arcs

center and

shown

DE

sides of

FE

and E^ in Fig.

or
21.

AB

this

pattern,

in Fig. 20 as

Now

using

as

E and E^ as
to E^ to .D to E to 5, which

in Fig. 20 as radius, intersect the arcs

in Fig. 21.

Draw

comx)letes the XDattem, to

at the toj)

punched as shown.

and seaming

lines

from 1

which edges must be allowed

for wiring

at the back.

When

joining a faucet or stop cock to a sheet-metal tank it is

usual to strengthen the joint by means of a conical ''boss," which

87

SHEET-METAL WORK

28

problem the cone method is

employed, nsing principles similar to those nsed in d(!veloping a
frustum of a cone intersected by any lint;. Therefore in Fig. 23 let
is

indicated by

in Fig. 22.

In

this

Fig. 21.

AB

represent the

-piiTt

i)lan of

extending back to the tank

line,

the tank,

and

FG

jDortion of the faucet

HI

the conical "boss"

around a faucet. When

drawing this problem make the
to

fit

D A equal
to 3^ inches, and from D draw
Make
the vertical line D E.
the distance from G to H equal
radius of the tank

to

2|-

inches, the diameter of the

faucet

I 14 inches and

vertical height K.

the

1| inches

G to H intersecting the center line D E at K.

Draw

a line from

K as center describe
the half section G J H as
shown. Divide J H into equal

Then using

parts

shown from

1 to 4,

oo

from

as shown,
which drop vertical lines intersecting the line G
from which draw radial lines to the apex E cutting the i^lan line

88

SHEET-METAL WORK
of the tank

AB

29

From these intersections draw horizontal lines intersecting the side of the
cone
at 1, 2', 3', and 4'.
Now use
as center, and with radius equal to
E 1 dLscribe the'
as shown.

HI

-ID

Fig. 23.

arc l-lx as s^^own.

1

set off

on V-l^

Draw

toivr

a line from 1 to E, and starting from

times the number of spaces contained in

89

SHEET-METAL

30

WORK

shown by cimilar numbers on 1 1"^. Draw a line

from 1^' to E, and with E I as radius describe the arc N L inter,
E at N and L respectively.
secting the radial lines 1 E and
From the varioiis numbers on the arc 1 1^' draw radial lines to
the apex E and using E as center and with radii equal to E 4
E 3 and E 2 draw arcs intersecting similarly numbered radial

in iDlan, as

1'^'

'

'

'

lines as

shown.

1 1 1^

Trace a line through points thus obtained; then

be the pattern for the "boss."

In Fig. 24 is shown what is known as a hip bath. In drawing
out the problem for practice the student should remember that it is
similar to the j)receding one, the only difference being in the outline

will

of the cone.

Make

the top of the cone I

in Fig. 25 equal to 3^

CD

to 5
If inches, the vertical height from
2| inches, the diameter of the foot E F 2^ inches, and the vertical
height 5 '-5" ^-inch. Through the center of the cone draw the

inches, the

bottom

center line

L, and at pleasure

draw the outline of the bath as

shown by A J B. It is immaterial of what outline this may be,
the principles that" follow being
applicable to any case.

the

side

lines

B C

extend

elevation,

and

Thus, in

T>

the

they

until

intersect the center line at L.

similar

Fig. 24.

of the foot inece

ED

and

FC

manner extend the

until they intersect

the

In

sides

center

Now

with 5' as center and with radius equal to 5'

D, which divide into equal
or 5' C, describe the half section C
spaces as shown by the small figures 1 to 9. From the i3oints of

line at

R.

division erect vertical lines meeting the base line of the bath

From

DC

and through these

points draw radial lines intersecting the outline B J A, from which
horizontal lines are drawn intersecting the side of the bath B C
as shown from 1 to 9. For the imttem for the body use L as center,
and with L C as radius draw the arc F L^ Now starting at any
C as shown
point, as 1, set off on F L^ twice the stretchout of D
by similar numbers on the arc F L^ From the apex L and through
the small figures draw radial lines, which intersect by arcs
at iwints 1, 2', 3', etc., to 9.

the apex

90

'

FRONT AND REAR VIEWS OF RESIDENCE OF M^. H. T. L0CMI3, MAGNOLIA DRIVE,

CLEVELAND, OHIO
Watterson & Schneider, Ai-ehiteets, Cleveland, Ohio.
Cost, about $35,0C0.

First-Story Walls of McCausland Briuk,

Combination Etd

Tile.

Made

at Akron, Ohio.

Roofs of

FRONT AND REAR VIEWS OF RESIDENCE Or MRS. H. M. COBB, MAGNOLIA DRIVE,

CLEVELAND, OHIO
Watterson & Schneider, Architects, Cleveland, Ohio.

SHEET-METAL WORK
struck from

31

as center with radii equal to similarly

numbered

B C.
N P F will

intersections

on

Trace a line through points thus obtained,

and Li
be the pattern for the body of the bath
to which laps should be added at the bottom and sides for seamincr.

^<
Pig. 25.

The pattern

by using as radii R D and

R E, and striking the pattern using R^ as center, the half pattern
being shown by E^ T E^ B^ T>\ and the distance D^ D^ being equal
for the foot is obtained

to the stretchout of the half section

91

DHO

in side elevation.

SHEET-METAL

32

WORK

bead along the edges of the top of a bath as

For this purpose tubing is sometimes
in Fig. 24.

Tt is usual to i3ut a

sliown at a and h
used,

made of

brass, zinc,

may be

fer

coi)iDer

and bent

to the required sliape;

by hand, filled with

heated white sand or hot rosin, and bent as needed. The tube or
bead can be soldered to the body as shown in (A) in Fig. 25. Here
a reijresents the bead, in which a slot is cut as c, and which is then
slipped over the edge of the bath and soldered. Another method
is shown in (B), in which the bath body h is flanged over the bead
a and soldered clean and smooth at c, being then scraped and
sandpapered to make a smooth joint. A wired edge is shown at c
in Fig. 24, for which laps must be allowed as shown in Fig. 25 on
or zinc tubes

rolled an(^ soldered

the half pattern for foot.

shown the perspective view of a bath tub; these

tubs are usually made from IX tin or No. 24 galvanized iron. The
bottom and side seams are locked and thoroughly soldered, while
In Fig. 26

is

the top edge is wired with handles

riveted

in

position

as

The method used

at A.

shown
in de-

veloping these patterns will be

the cone method and triangula"

In drawing this problem

tion.

pjo-, 26.

draw the center line "VV 8 in i^lan and using

a as center with a radius equal to \\ inches draw the semicircle
C-12 D. Now make the distance aioh ^ inches; and using l as
center with a radius of 1| inches draw the semicircle E-7-H.
for practice (Fig. 27). first

C 12 D will
and from C to H. D E 7
In this case we assume
.be the plan of the bottom of the bath.
that the flare between the top and bottom of the narrow end of the
bath should be equal; therefore using a as center an^with a radius
B. At the upper end
equal to 1| inches draw the semicircle A
of the bath the flare will be miequal; therefore from h measure a
distance on line
8 of 1 inch and obtain c, which use as center,
and with a radius equal to 2 inches describe the arc F 8 G. Draw
A will be
lines from F to A and from B to G; and A F 8 G B
Draw

lines

from

to

the plan of the top of the bath.

Now

project the side elevation

from the plan as shown by the dotted

height from I to R 2^ inches and from J to

02

making the slant

3^ inches; draw a line

lines,

SHEET-METAL WORK

33

K to R, and J K R. I will be the side elevation of the bath tub.

In constrncting the bath in practice, seams are located at H G, F E,
from

^-

PATTERN

FOR A-B-C-D
IN

'

PLAN

\
\

\
^

\
^

>

\
\

\
\

\\

>

\,

'

;i

\\

7^4'

li

\\\\\\\Vi
wS
\
^\

\ \

\
'

s"

f^e^

\n\\\\\V
\\v\\\\l|

7"

DIAGRAM OF
TRIANGLES
Fig. 27.

D, and

C B

in

plan, thus

93

making

the tub in four pieces

SHEET-METAL WORK

34

The Icwer end

method as

of

in the last

the bath will be developed by the cone

two iDioblems.

From

the center a droj) a line

Extend the side R I of the side elevation

Now divide the quarter r
until it meets the center line a d at d.
circle 12-9 in plan into equal simces as shown by the small figures
9, 10, 11, and 12, from which drop vertical lines (not shown)
intersecting the bottom of the bath tub in elevation from 9' to 12'.
Then through these points from d draw lines intersecting the top
as shown, from which draw horizontal lines
line of the bath R
indefinitely as shown.

I-R extended
center and d I as

at points 9" to 12".

intersecting the side

as I

Then using d

radius, describe the arc I

as

M,
shown

in plan, as
upon which place the stretchout of D 12
by similarly numbered points on L M. Through these points from,
d draw radial lines, which intersect by arcs drawn from similarly
numbered intersections on I R extended, using d as center. Trace
N P will be the jDattern for the lower
a line as shown, and L
in plan.
Laps should be allowed for
end of the tab
wiring and seaming.
As the patterns for the upper end and sides will be developed
by triangulation, diagrams of triangles must first be obtained, for

ABCD

which proceed as follows:

G8

Divide both of the quarter circles

H7

same number of spaces as shown respecConnect these numbers by

tively from 1 to 7 and from 2 to 8.
dotted lines as shown from 1 to 2, 2 to 3, 3 to 4, etc. From the
various j)oints 2, 4, 0, and 8 representing the top of the bath, droji
lines meeting the base line 3 f in elevation at 2^', 4=^, 6^, and 8^^,
and cutting the top line of the bath at 2', 4', (3', and 8'. Thcui
and

in xjlan into the

will the dotted lines in plan represent the bases of the triangles,

which

will

be constructed, whose altitudes are equal to the various

Take the various distances 1 to 2, 2 to 3,

3 to 4, 4 to 5, etc., in plan uj) to 8, and place them on the vertical
line l"-8" in (B) as shown from 1" to 2", 2" to 3", 3" to 4", 4" to 5",
For example, to obtain the true length of the line
etc., up to 8".
6-7 in plan, remembering that the points having even numbers
represent the top line of the bath and those having uneven
numbers the base line, draw at right angles to l"-8" in (B), from
6", a line equal in height to G'^G' in elevation, and draw a line
from G' to 7" in (B), which is the length desired. For the true
heights in elevation.

04

SHEET-METAL WORK
length of 6-5 in plan

is

it

35

necessary only to take this distance

from G" to 5" in (B) and draw a line from 6^' to 5". In
way each altitude answers for two triangles. In plan draw a
place

it

from 1 to 0.
line 1-0,

Then

will

B G or 0-2.

From

line, as 2' e^ intersecting

Now

line

two more triangles be necessary, one on the

and the other on

a horizontal

this

2' in elevation

draw

the vertical line dropped

and 2, and place them

in (A) as shown by the horizontal lines 0"-l" and 0-'^2^ resj)ectively.
At right angles to both lines at either end draw the vertical lines
0"-0"' and aM)^- equal in height respectively to C^O' and e 0'
in elevation. Draw in (A) lines from 2^ to 0^'and from 1" to 0'",
which are the desired lengths. Before proceeding with the pattern,
a true section must be obtained on 2 '-8' in side elevation. Take
the various distances 2' to 8' and place them on the line 2 '-8' in

from

at e.

Fig. 28.

take the distances

right angles to 2 '-8'

At

draw
lines as shown.
Now measuring in
each and every instance from the

and through the small

figures

center line in plan in Fig. 27, take the

various distances to i^oints

2, 4,

and

6 and place them on similarly niun-

2'

Fig. 28.

bered lines in Fig. 28, measuring in each case on either side of the
line 2 '-8', thus obtaining the intersections 2-4-6.

through these

jjoints will

A line traced

be the true section on 2 '-8' in elevation

in Fig. 27.

For the pattern for the upper end of the tub i^roceed as follows
Take the distance of 7 "-8^ in (B) and place it on the vertical line
7-8 in Fig. 29. Then using 8 as center and with a radius equal
to 8'-() in Fig. 28, describe the arc 6 in Fig. 29, which intersect by
an arc struck from 7 as center and with 7 "-6^' in (B) in Fig. 27
as radius. Then using 7-5 in plan as radius, and 7 in Fig. 29 as
center, describe the arc 5, Avhich intersect by an arc struck from 6
as center and with 6^-5" in (B) in Fig. 27 as radius. Proceed in
this

manner, using alternately as radii first the divisions in Fig.

28,

then the length of the slant lines in (B) in Fig. 27, the divisions
on 7
in plan, then again the slant lines in B, uutil the line 1-2

obtained.

Trace a line through points thus obtained,

shown by 2-8-7-1.

Trace this opposite the line 8-7, as shown

in Fig. 29
as

is

95

SHEET-METAL WORK

36

by

2'

V.

Then

will

2-8-2'-l'-7-l be the desired pattern, to

which laps must be allowed.

For the pattern for the side of the bath draw any line 9-1 in
Now with a radius equal
Fig. 30 equal to 9-1 in plan in Fig. 27.

Fig. 29.

to

9-P

in the pattern

the arc

0,

X and with 9 in Fig.

30 as a center, describe

which intersect by an arc struck from

with l"-0"' in (A) in Fig. 27 as radius.

1 as center

Now taking

a radius equal

in Fig. 30 as center, describe the arc

to 0^-2^ in (A) with

and

2,

which

intersect by an arc
struck from 1 as center,

and with 1-2

in Fig. 20

Draw

as radius.

lines

from corner to corner in

Fig.

30,

which

gives

the desired i)attem, to

Fig.

Tn Fig. 31
pail.

same

These

is

which laps are added

for seaming and wiring.

:50.

sliown a perspective view of a fuuntl strainer

pails are usually

i)rinciples as are

made from IX bright

tin,

and the

used in the development of the pattern are

applicable to similar forms, such as buckets, coal hods, chutes, etc.

This problem presents an interesting study in triangulation, the

principles of which have been explained in previous problems.
I in Fig. 32, at right angles to which
First draw the center line

90

SHEET-METAL WORK

37

H E and H F each equal to 1^ inches. Make

height H C 3^ inches and C D 2 inches. Now make

draw

G, to A, and to

heights measuring from

and 1^

inches,

and draw a

line

G to A If inches,

2| inches, the diameter from

|-inch,

from

and from

projper position

F E, with J as center, draw the

below

G
A to B

Connect points bylines;

to C.

ABCDEFGbe the side elevation of the

then will

the vertical

respectively 1^
the horizontal distance from C to

Make

inches.

the vertical

pail.

plan

In

its

K L M N.

draw the section on A G as O P R S

Now draw the rear elevation making G^ U and G^ V each equal to
H E, and 1" T and 1"-!' each equal to D. Project a line from
Also in

its proj)er

position

in side, intersecting the center line in rear at 4 '

the three points 1' 4'

case

is

T draw

Then through

the curve at X3leasure, which in this

struck from the center a.

W Y X Z represents the opening

on G A in side obtained as shown by the dotted

no bearing on the patterns. Pails
of this kind are usually made
from two pieces, with seams

lines

but having

at

The
the back shown

the sides, as in Fig. 31.

X)attern

by

then for

CDE

H in side elevation in

by the
cone method, struck from the
center I, the stretchout on E^ E^
Fig. 32 will be obtained

in the imttern being

obtained

The pattern
shown with lap

from the half plan.

for

ODE

is

Fig. 31.

and wire allowances by D'^ Yf" Y? Y} and needs no further exiolanation.

F G will be
The front part of the pail shown by A B C
develox)ed by triangulation, but before this can be done a true
section must be obtained on B O, and a set of sections d(weloped

as follows:

parts as

Divide one-half of 1' 4'

shown from

intersecting the line

in rear elevation into equal

1' to 4', from which

B C

as shown.

draw horizontal

From

lines

these intersections

drawn at right angles to B C equal in length to similarly

numbered lines in rear as 3 '-3", 2'-2", and I'-l". Trace a line

lines are

as shown, so that

1'" 2'" 3'" 4'" will

o !3 0. To avoid ^ oo^fusiotj of

be the true half section

Uftes t^e a tracing of

97

ABCHFG

SHEET-METAL WORK

38

and place

it

as

shown by similar

tracings of the half sections in

Now take
E D C, C 1'" B,

letters in Fig. 33.

Fig. 32, as

and the (quarter x)lan N J M, and place them in Fig. 33 on

similar lines on which they represent sections as shown respectively
9' 8' C,
8 B, A 3 G, aiid F 9 H. Divide the half section
by

PO

S,

A3 G

shown by the small figures 1 to 5.

As this half section is divided into 6 imrts, then must pach of the
sections B 8 C and F 9
be divided into 3 parts as shown respectively from 6 to 8 and 9 to 11.
As C 8' and H 9' are equal
respectively to C .8 and H
they are ftjiinbered the same as shown.
into 6 equal parts as

j^

98

SHEET-METAL WORK
Now

at right angles to

various
C8 9
'

intersections

G A, B

C,

C H, and

39

H F,

contained in the sections

and from the

3 A,

8 C,

H 9 F, draw lines intersecting the base lines of the

G A, B C, C H, and H F at ix)ints shown from 1' to 11'.

H, and

'

sections

Now draw

dotted lines from

and then from

H to E to 10'

to 5' to 6' to

to 2', etc

-4'

to 7' to

to C,

mitil all the points are

**^-^

-J/
Fig.

connected as shown.

whose

sections

.33.

These dotted

lines represent the bases of the

altitudes are equal to similar

numbers

in the various

sections.

In order that the student

method

may

of triangulation ^s well as

99

thoroughly understand this

sitiiilar

methods that

will follow

SHEET-METAL WORK

40

in other problems, the

model in Fig. 34 has been prepared, whioli

shows a perspective of Fig. 83 with the sections bent up in their

proper positions. This view is taken on the arrow line in Fig. 33,
the letters and figures in both views being similar. For the true
sections

on the dotted lines in

of the dotted lines

E,

in Fig. 33, take the lengths

7', 7' 4', etc,

horizontal line in Fig. 35 as

From

CEAB

shown by

and

similar

them on the
letters and figures.

i^laee

these small figures, at right angles to the horizontal line,

erect the vertical heights

8,

3,

7' 7, etc., equal to similar

SHEET-METAL WORK
with a radius equal to
radius

and

1 in Fig. 36.

41

Now with F 11 in

Fig. 33 as

in Fig. 37 as center, describe the arc 11,

which

is

by an arc struck from 1 as center and with 1-11 in

Fig 36 as radius. Proceed in this manner until the line 3-9
8 '-9' in Fig. 33 as
in Fig. 37 has been obtained. Then using
radius and 9 in Fig. 37 as center, describe the arc 8, which is
intersected by an arc struck from 3 as center and with 3-8 in Fig.
intersected

.x^

t
Fig. 35.

35 as radius.

Now

use alternately as

radii, first

the divisions in

in Fig. 33, then the length of the slant lines in Fig. 35,
in Fig. 33, and again the distances in
the divisions in E 3
in Fig. 37 has been obtained, which is
Fig. 35, until the line B

BA

Trace a line through points thus

Trace this
obtained in Fig. 37 as shown by A B 8 9 F G A.
Then will B A G A^ B^ 8^
half pattern opposite the line G F.
obtained from

in Fig. 33.

10

2 p-

E2

O'H
Fig. 3&

If f'^r
9 8 be the pattern for the front half of the pail.
any reason the pattern is desired in one piece, then trace onehalf of D^ D2 E^ E^ in Fig. 32 on either side of the pattern in

9'

shown by the dotted lines 8' D^ E^ 9^ and 9

Allow edges for wiring and seaming.
Fig 88 shows the method for obtaining the pattern
Emerson ventilator shown in Fig. 39.
Fig. 37 as

101

ED

8.

for an

42

SHEET-METAL WORK

While the reguUir Emerson ventilator has a flat disc for a

hood it is improved by placing a cone and deflector on the top
To make the iDatterns, proceed as shown in Fig. 38.
as shown.
First draw the center line a 5, on either side of which lay off

102

SHEET-METAL WORK

43

1| inches, making the pipe A, 3 inches in diameter.

usually employed

is

to

make

draw a

liiie

at

an angle of 45 to

sect the line of the j)ipe at

completes B.
the line

diameter as

rule

the diameter of the lower flaTe and

upper hood twice the diameter of the pipe.

diameter oi s d 6 inches. From s and
(7,

The

and

Therefore

make

the

inter-

^/ this

Measure 2 inches above

and make u di the same

Draw the

s d.

be ^ inch
and make the apex

deflector so that the

above the line

apex

bevel of the

will

hood the same distance above u m

as the lower apex is below it. Then draw
Fig. 39.
lines as shown which complete C and D.
Now with c as a center and radii equal to c e and c d draw the
quarter circles ef and d h respectively, which represent the oneof the

HALF PATTERN
FOR

HOOD AND DEFLECTOR

Fig. 38.

Fig. 40.

quarter pattern for the horizontal ring closing the bottom of the

For the pattern for the hood, use ^ as a center and

as a radius. Now draw the arc m ni
Take the stretchout

lower
Z 7?i

flare.

'

103

SHEET-METAL WORK

44

of the quarter circle 1 to 6

m m'
,n' G m

on

as

on

shown from 1-G-l.

and place twice this amount

Draw a line from 1 to I. Then

<:?//,

be the half pattern for the hood. As the deflector

has the same bevel as the hood, the hood pattern will also answer
I,

will

for the deflector.

V>'hen seaming the hood

and

deflector together as

shown

at

double-seamed to the deflector at r, which allows

the water to pass over; for this reason allow a double edge on
the pattern for the hood as shown, while on the deflector but a

n,

the hood o

is

single edge is roquinxL

For the pattern

Edges should

number

in Fig. 40.

i until it

d
Fig. 40 as center describe the arcs * i' and dd'
Then set off on the arc d d
d draw a line to^'

Then with

of spaces contained in

Draw a

radii equal

ioj

and^'

Pig. d2.

Fig. 41.

twice the

be allowed on e d hf.

for the loAver flare, exteiid the line

intersects the center line at J.

and with j in
On one side as

also

line

from d' to

d hin Fig. 38 as shown

and allow edges for seaming.

Then d d' i' i will be the hali pattern for the lower flare.
The braces or supports E and F, Fig. 38, are usually made of
The
galvanized band iron bolted or riveted to hood and pipe.
hood D must be water tight, or the water will leak into the deflector,
from which it will drip from the apex inside the building.
Elbows. There is no other article in the sheet-metal worker's
line, of which there are more made in practice than elbows. On this
account rules will be given for constructing the rise of the miter
line

in elbows of

any

size or diameter, also for elbows

whose

sections are either oval, square or round, including tapering elbows

Before taking up the method of obtaining the patterns, the rule

will

be given

for obtaining the rise of the miter line for

104

any

size

SHEET-METAL WORK
or

number

of pieces.

No

matter

how many

they join together and form an angle of 90.

45

pieces an elbow has,

Thus when we speak

oi a two-i)ieced, three-pieced, four, five or six-pieced elbow, wc;

understand that the right-angled elbow

Thus

is

made up

of that

number

shown a two-pieced elbow placed in

the quadrant C B, which equals 90 and makes
A B a right
angle. From A draw the miter line A at an angle of 45'' to the
base line A B. Then i^arallel to A B and A C and tangent to the
quadrant at C and B draw lines to intersect the miter line, as
of pieces.

shown.

in Fig. 41

Knowing

is

the diameter of the j)ipe as

CD

E B draw
Then C B E D
or

arms of the pipe, as shown.

will be a two-pieced elbow, whose miter line is an angle of 45.
In a similar manner draw the quadrant B C, Fig. 42, in which
it is desired to draw a three-pieced elbow.
Now follow this simple
lines parallel to the

Fig.

which

rule,

is

applicable for any

piece of the elbow represent

number

of pieces:

also the lower piece

1,

piece between the top and bottom add

2.

U.

Thus

1,

Let the top

and for every

in a three-pieced

elbow:

Top

piece equals

Bottom

One

i)iece

equals

piece between

Total equals

Now

1
1

divide the quadrant of 90 by 4 which leaves 22|.

As

one piece equals 22|, draw the lower miter line A a at that
angle to the base line A B. Then as the middle piece represents
two by the above rule and equals 45, add 45 to 22| and draw the
"

Now

tangent to

an angle of 67| to the base line A B.

the quadrant at C and B draw the vertical and

second miter line

5,

at

105

SHEET-METAL WORK

46

horizontal lines shown, until they intersect the miter lines, from

which intersections draw the middle line, which will be tangent to

and B E show the diameters of the pipe,
the quadrant at F.
which are drawn parallel to the lines of the elbow shown.

CD

same rule is
applied.
Thus the top and bottom piece equals 2 and the two
middle pieces equal 4; total 6. Now divide the quadrant of 90^ by
Fig. 43 shows a four-pieced elbow, to wliich the

90

6.

-^

second

=
A

The

15.

7j

Then the

first

45, the tliird

miter line

c 75,

and the

a will equal 15, the

vertical line

AC

90.

example is shown in Fig. 44, which shows a fivepieced elbow, in which the top and bottom pieces equal 2, the 8
last

middle pieces

Divide 90 by

6: total 8.

90

8.

-^

Then

111.

the

miter line will equal 11^, the second 33|, the third 56|,and

first

the

fourth

By

78i.

method an
elbow having any nuuiusing this
ber

pieces

of

may

When

laid out.

draw-

ing these miter lines

is

be

it

well to use the pro-

tractor

shown

in Fig. 45,

wliich illustrates

lay out a

point

to

three-pieced

From

elbow.

how

the center

of the protrac-

draw lines through

22 J , and 67^. Now set
tor

Fig. 45.

and the diameter of the pipe ah. Draw vertical lines

from a and h to the miter line at c and d. Lay off similar distances
from A to a' to h' and draw horizontal lines intersecting the 67^
Then draw the lines d d' and c c' to
miter line at c' and d'
complete the elbow. In practice, however, it is not necessary to
draw out the entire view of the elbow; all that is required is the

otf

a,

first

miter

line, as will

be explained in the following problems.

106

X
o

<

>
BS

W ?
o
3
s
.

s.

fa

u ~
w <

Q
in

^:
-i

cA.

<

J
0-

r-

OS

o
!/3

O
U
(d
en

Q
Z
<

SHEET-METAL WORK

47

EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE.

1.

from

Make
to

the diameter of the pipe If inches and the distances

li inches in Figs. 41 to 44 inclusive.

To obtain the

pattern for any elbow, using but the

first

miter

Fig. 46.

In Fig. 46 let A and B represent respectively a two- and three-pieced elbow for which patterns
are desired.
First draw a section of the elbow as shown at A in Fig.
47 which
line,

proceed as follows:

rI

t__.

^^_y
Fig. 47,

a circle 3 inches in diameterj divide the lower half into equal

spaces and number the points of division 1 to 7.
Now follow the
is

rule previously given:

The top and bottom

107

piece equals 2; then

SHEET-METAL WOKK

48

by 2. In
making

for a two-pieced elbow divide 90

A draw B C D E
points of intersection in A drop
the section

ED

its

proper i)osition below

45.

From

the various

vertical lines intersecting

E D as

SECTION
ELEVATION

Fiff. 48.

In line with

sliown.

nmnber
figures

BC

of spaces contained in

on

KL

KL

upon which place twice the

the section A as shown by similar

draw

from these points drop perpendiculars to intersect

108

SHEET-METAL WOKK
with lines drawn from similar intersections on

Trace a line through

To

the j)attern.

Now

this la^DS

90

total 4,

will

be

for seaming.

to obtain the pattern for a three-pieced elbow, follow the

Top and bottom

rule

must be allowed

E D, iparallel to K L.

KLONM

shown; then

i)oints

49

-^

pieces equal 2, one middle piece equals 2;

Therefore in line with the section

22|.

the two-pieced elbow draw

22| to the line

FGJ

H, making

HJ

at

below

an angle of

Proceed as above using the same stretchout

lines; then
P E. S T will be the desired pattern. It should be
understood that when the protractor is used for obtaining the angle
I.

as

shown in Fig.

45, the heights a c

and

d measured from the

horizontal line form the basis for obtaining the heights of the

middle pieces, inasmuch as they represent one-half the distance;

for that reason the middle iDieces count 2 when using the rule.
Therefore, the distances
of the center piece

and

H and G J (Fig. 47), represent one-half

UTSRP

one-half the pattern for the

center piece of a three-x)ieced elbow.

Fig. 48 shows

how

prevent waste of metal

the patterns are laid into one another, to

when

In this examiDle we have a

three- pieced elbow whose section is 2 X 2 inches.
It is to be laid
out in a quadrant whose radius is 5 inches.
Use the same
cutting.

number the corners of

draw D E upon which place
as shown by similar numbers

principles for square section as for romid;

the section 1 to 4.

In

line with

the stretchout of the square section

E; from which draw horizontal lines which intersect lines

drawn parallel to D E from the intersections 1 ' 2 and 3 4 in A
on

'

in elevation,

'

thus obtaining similar points in the pattern.

A in

'

Then

For the pattern f r B

sinqjly take the distance from 2' to J and x)lace it on the line 4 4'
extended in the imttern on either side as shown by 4' 4" on botl)
sides.
Now reverse the cut 4' 2' 4' and obtain 4" 2" 4''. By
measurement it will be found that 4' 4" is twice the length of 2' 2
as explained in connection with Figs. 45 and 47. Make the distance
from 1 " to a the same as j to a in C and draw the vertical line
h' V intersecting thelines44" extended on both sides. Then A\ B\
and
will bo the patterns in one j)iece minus the edges for
A^ will be the iDattern for

elevation.

'

109

SHEET-METAL WORK

50

seaming which must be allowed between these cuts; this would of

course make the lengths b' 4", 4" 4' and 4' 4 as much longer as
the laps would necessitate.

is

This method of cutting elbows in one j)iece, "from one square

api)licable to either round, oval or square sections.

In Figs. 49 and 50 are shown three-pieced elbows such as are

Fig. 50.

Fig. 49.

used in furnace-pipe work and' are usually made from bright tin.
Note the difference in the position of the sections of the two
elbows.
is

h is in

in a horizontal position.

^
I

In Fig. 49 a

^
\

7.

a vertical position, while in Fig. 50

it

In obtaining the patterns the same

rule is employed as in pre-

vious problems, care being

taken when developing the

patterns for Fig. 49 that

the section be placed as in

\J.

Fig.

51 at A;

and when

developing the patterns for

Fig. 50, that the section be

placed as shown at

in

Fig. 52.
Fig. 53 shows a taper-

ing two-pieced elbow, round in section.

The method here shown

and while not strictly accurate, gives good results.

It has been shown in previous problems on Intersections and
Developments that an oblique section through the opposite
is

short

110

SHEET-METAL WORK
sides of a cone is a true ellipse.

evident that

if

Bearing

51

tliis

in

mind

it

is

H I O N, Fig. 54, were

J K and the several parts

the frastnm of the cone

a solid and cut oblicinely*by the plane

placed side by side, both would i^resent true ellipses of exactly the
same size, and if the two parts were placed together again turning
the upper i^iece half-way aroimd as shown

by J

W M K, the edges

Fig. 52.

of the two pieces from

advantage of this
the line

J K,

fact, it is

to

would exactly coincide.

Taking

necessary only to ascertain the angle of

to produce the required angle,

between the two pieces

which have an equal flare. The angle of the

miter line, or the line which cuts the cone in two parts, must be
found accurately so that when joined together an elbow will
be formed having the desired
angle on the line of its axis.
of the elbow, both of

Therefore draw any vertical

line as

A B.

With C as a

center

describe the plan of the desired

E D P B.
to A B draw the

diameter as shown by

At

right angles

bottom line of the elbow

equal to
inches.

F, or in this case, 3
Fig. 53.

Measuring from the line

HI

on the line A B the height of the frustimi is 5 inches.

Through X' draw the upper diameter O N, 1| inches. Extend the
contour lines of the frustum until they intersect the center line
at L. JDivide the half plan E D F into a number of equal parts
as shown; from these points orect lines intersecting the base line
I from which draw lines to the apex L. As the elbow is to be

in

two pieces, and the axis at right angles, draw the angle

111

TR

SHEET-METAL WORK

52

bisect

it

at

U and draw the line E. V. No matter what the; angle of

the elbow, use this method.

Now

establish the iwint

some
V, draw the
at

convenient point on the cone, and from J, parallel to R

intersecting the radial lines drawn through the cone;
miter line J

from these points and

at right angles to the center line

cone J

lines intersecting the side of the

from

A B draw

1 to 7.

If

it is

A
I
I

St
^''"-yy:Z^^:y}'!!4,
^
/
"I "
/ ^

'

'

'

'

"

/o;..u

ELEVATION

Fig. 54.

desired to

know how

take a tracing of

the side of the tapering elbow would look,

N O K J,

reverse

it

it

as

shown by

W M K.
For the pattern i^roceed as follows:

and place

H as a radius

describe the arc 1

112

1.

With L

and
off on

as a center

Starting from 1 set

SHEET-METAL

WORK

53

shown by similar
figures on 1 1, from which draw radial lines to the apex L. Again
using L as center with radii equal to L N, L 1, L 2 to L-7, draw arcs
as shown intersecting radial lines having similar numbers. Through
these intersections draw the line J' L'. Then O' N' J' K' L'
or A will be the pattern for the upper arm (A) in elevation, and
P' R' T' X Y or B the pattern for the lower arm (B) in elevation.
this arc twice the stretchout of 1 4 7 in plan, as

l*\\^

III

;;.

N.^^^^^^-

^ "^

i**\
\ \ ^ V
ii\\\\n\ \ ^s
I

Fig. 55.

The

pattern should be developed full size in practice and then

pricked from the xDaper on to the sheet metal, drawing the two
patterns as far ajjart as to admit allowing an edge to

an edge

at h to

When

A at

also

for seaming.

a pattern

is to

contain more than two pieces the method

of constructing the miter lines in the elevation of the cone is

113

SHEET-METAL WORK

54

shown in Fig. 55. Assume the bottom to be

3 inches in diameter and the top 1| inches. Let the vertical height
be 4 inches. In this problem, as in the preceding, the various
pieces necessary to form the elbow are cut from one cone whose
dimensions must be determined from the dimensions of the required
elbow. The first step is to determine the miter lines, which can
be done the same as if regular i^ieced elbows were being developed.
As the elbow is to consist of four pieces in 90, follow the rule
The top and bottom
given in connection with elbow drafting.
slightly different as

piece equal 2; the two middle pieces equal 4; total

A B C D according
half plan below D C; divide

Lay

off

90

6.

to the dimensions given,

it

lines

into equal parts as shown.

meeting the center line

11

and draw the

the points of division erect perpendiculars intersecting

which draw

-^

From

D C, from

4 at F.

a-b-c

SLIGHT BENDS
Fig. 57.

Fig. 56.

We assume that the amount of rise and i^rojection of the elbow

are not specified, excepting that the lines of axis will be at right

Knowing

becomes a matter
of judgment upon the part of the pattern draftsman, what length,
shall be given to each of the pieces composing the elbow. Therefor
A
establish the points G, I and K, making D G, G I, I K and
h Ift' 4 ^^d 1 inch respectively. From G, I and draw the hori1^.
To each of these lines draw the
zontal lines G 1", I 1 and

angles.

the angle of the miter line,

it

lines

H, I J and

K L respectively at an angle of 15 intersecting

the radial lines in .the cone as shown.

draw horizontal

linens

From

these intersections

cutting the side of the cone.

as a center, obtain the various patterns O, P,

manner already explained.

114

Then using F
and S in the

SHEET-METAL WORK
In Fig. 56

shown a

is

side view of the elbow, resulting from

preceding operations; while

obtained in Fig. 55,

it

can be drawn from dimensions

would be impossible

it

55

to

draw

it

without

first

having these dimensions.

In Fig. 57 is shown a perspective view of a tapering square

elbow of square section in two iiieces. This elbow may have any
given taper. This problem will be developed by triaugulation and
parallel lines;

it

an interesting study in projections as well as

First draw the elevation of the elbow in Fig. 58

is

in developments.

making 1-6 equal to 3| inches, the vertical height 1-2, 4| inches,

and 6-5, 2| inches; the projection between 1 and 2 should be
I inch and between 5 and 6, f inch. Make the horizontal distance
ELEVATION

PLAN

6'

DEVELOPEMENTS

to

Fig. 58.

from 5

to 4, 2 inches,

and the

rise at

4 from the horizontal line

^ inch, and the vertical distance from 4 to 3, 1^ inches.

a line from 3 to 2 to complete the elevation.

In

its

Then draw

proper position below the line 1-6, draw the plan on

shown by

1' 1' 6' 6'.

Through

draw the
center line A B. As the elbow should have a true tai^er from 1 to 3
and from 4 to 6, we may develop) the patterns for the top and
bottom j)ieces first and then from these construct the plan. Therefore, take the distances from 1 to 2 to 3 and from 4 to 5 to 6 in
elevation and place them on the line A B in plan as shown resj)ectively from 1 to 2 to 3 and from 4 to 5 to 6; through these
points draw^ vertical lines as shown. While the full developments
that line, as

115

this line

SHEET-METAL WORK

56

and D are shown we shall deal with but one-half in the explanation which follows. As the elbow is to have the same taper on

either side, take the half distance of the bottom of the elbow 1-0

shown from l-6 to l"-6", and the half width of

4
the top of the elbow 3-4 and place it as shown from 3^ to 3" and
Then draw lines from 3" to 1" intersecting the bend 2 at
to 4".
Trace
2", and a line from 4" to 6" intersecting the bend 5 at 5".
these points on the oiDposite side of the line A B. Then 1" 3" ah
will be the pattern for the top of the elbow and G" 4" ch the

and place

it

as

pattern for the bottom.

From

these various j^oints of intersection

draw horizontal lines to the i3lan, and intersect them by lines

drawn from similarly numbered points in the elevation at right
angles to

-^r^

A B

Draw

through the points thus

obtained in plan as shown by 1 2 3 4

in plan.

p^^^g. Pi^ P-op

51^^^

lines

'

i.

r:

' ,

'

'

and 6 which will represent the half plan

view. For the comx)leted plan, trace these
5

'

'

lines oi)posite the line

AB

as shown.

It

be noticed that the line 3-4 in eleva-

will

shown by 3 4
2' and 5' project

tion is perpendicular as
in plan while the jDoints

'

showing that the iMece 2-3-4-5

Fig. r)9.
elevation must be slightly twisted
ill
Similarly slight
along the line 5-3 when forming the elbow.
bends will be required along the lines 1-5 and 5-2.
It will now be necessary to obtain the true lengths or a
diagram of triangles on the lines 1-5, 5-2 and 5-3. Connect similar
from

it,

numbers in plan as shown from 1 to 5 5 to 2 and 5 to 3 the

From similar i)oints in elevalast two lines being already shoA^^l.
tion draw horizontal lines as shown by 2-A, 3-/", 5-e and 6-d.
Take the distances from 1' to 5', 5' to 2' and 5' to 3' in plan and
place them on one of the lines having a similar nimilxn- in elevaFrom the
tion, as shown respectively by 1-^ 5^ 5^ 2^ and 5,^ 3^^.
points marked 5^ draw vertical lines intersecting the horizontal
line drawn from 5 at 5^, 5^ and. 5'' respectively. Now draw the true
lengths I'' 5^, 2^ 5^, and 3^^ 5^. For the j)attern draw any line as
'

'

'

'

'

' ,

"

D as

radius and 6 in Fig. 59 as a center, describe the arc 5 which

is

1-6 in Fig. 59 equal to 1-6 in Fig. 58.

intersected

by an arc struck from

Now

with 6" 5" in

1 as a center

116

and the true length

SHEET-METAL WORK
]'^

Then using the

5^ in Fig. 58 as radius.

57

true length 5^ 2^ as

radius and 5 in Fig. 59 as center, describe the arc

2,

which

is

by an arc struck from 1 as center and 1" 2" in E in

Fig. 58 as radius. Using the true length 5^ 3^ as radius and 5 in
Fig. 59 as center, describe the arc 3, and intersect it by an arc
struck from 2 as center and 2" 3" in E in Fig. 58 as a radius. Now
with 5" 4" in D as a radius and 5 in Fig. 59 as a center, describe
tht arc 4, and intersect it by an arc struck from 3 as center and
intersected

Draw

3-4 in the elevation in Fig. 58 as a radius.

to

point in Fig. 59 to complete the i3attern.

allowed on
as

all jjatterns, for

shown on the

seaming.

j)attern, also as is

lines

from point

Laps should be

Slight bends will take place

shown hy a

and

c in Fig. 57.

be on the line 2-5 in elevation in Fig. 58, the

necessary pieces can be joined together.
In Fig. 60 is shown a persiDective view of a five-piece tapering
elbow, having a round base and an elliptical top. This form is
If the joint is to

known as a ship ventilator.

The princii^les shown in this problem
generally

are applicable to

any form or shape no

matter what the resi^ective profiles

be at the base or

toj).

The

first

may

step

is

draw a correct side view of the elbow

as shown in Fig. 61.
The outline A
B C D E F can be drawn at pleasure,
to

but for practice, dimensions are given.

First

the

vertical

line

A F

On the same
4^ inches.
line extend measure down 1\ inches to
equal

Fig. 60.

/and draw

draw

the horizontal line

to

H B.

From/set

off

a distance of

as a center and
1^ inches at G, and using
F as a radius
describe the arc F E intersecting
B at E, from which draw the

vertical line

then draw

ED

equal to 1 inch.

C B. From B

as a center

and

Draw

D C equal to 1| inches,

lay off 5| inches, and using this point (H)

H B as a radius describe the arc B A.

shown

B E D C is

by I J

K L.

The

a straight piece of pipe whose section

Now divide

the two arcs

B A and E F into

portion

shown
the same

is

number of parts that the elbow is to have pieces (in this case four)
and draw the lines of joint or miter lines as shown by U V, etc.

117

SHEET-METAL ^ ORK

58

Bisect each one of the joint lines and obtain the points

ah c d and e.

Then A B C D E F will be the side view.

The patterns will be developed by triangulation, but
this

can be done, true sections must be obtained on

in side elevation.

shown by

all of

before

the lines

The true sections on the lines B E and C D

L. The length of the sections are shown by

are

the

must be obtained from a front outline of

the elbow, which is constructed as follows: In its proper relation
to the side elevation, draw the center line
R upon which draw
joint lines, but the width

FRONT OUTLINE

Fig. 61.

the ellipse

MN

O P

(by methods already given in Mechanical

Drawing) which represents the section on A F in side. Take half

the diameter I K in section and i)lace it on either side of the center

M R as R T or R S.

Then draw the outline O S and T N in

a convenient location. While this line is drawn at will, it should
be understood that when once drawn, it becomes a fixed line. Now

line

from the various intersections

draw

lines through

ahcd and e

in the side elevation,

and intersecting the front outline as shown on

118

SHEET-METAL WORK
one side by O,

J', c', <?'

and

e'.

sent the widths of the sections

For example, the method will

section on U V, and the pattern
tracing of
13, 13,

AFVU

and place

O in Fig. 62. On

MNP

Then these distances will represhown by similar letters in side.

be shown for obtaining the true
for piece 1 in side

To avoid a confusion

elevation.

of Fig. 61.

59

it

of- lines

as

(M

take a

shown by

1,

1-13 place the half profile

I
I

Bisect 0-12 in Fig. 62 and

-2)/

obtain the jDoint 6; at a right angle to 0-12 from 6

draw the

line 6 6' equal to

V -h"

in front outline in

-0)/

0)

f-

Fig. 61.

Then through the

three points O,

6'

and

12 in Fig. 62, draw the semi-ellixDse, which will

represent the half section on

U V.

00

00

The other

(O

(0

CO

in

lO

Fig. 62.
V

sections on the joint lines in side elevation are

\
\

obtained in the same manner.

If the sections were required for piece 2 in

would be necessary
Fig. 62 and place it on U
side

it

to use only

c"

shown

in front

o
I

in Fig. 61,

perpendicular line erected from

6' 12 in

c,

and on a

place the width

and through the three points

Mr

obtained again draw the semi-elliptical profile or

section.

Now divide the t^^'o half sections

(Fig. 62)

shown oy the small figures, from

angles to 1-13 and 0-12 draw lines

into equal parts as

which

at right

intersecting these base lines from 1-13.

as 1 to 2 to 3 to 4 to

5, etc.,

to 12.

119

Then

Connect opposite points

these lines will represent

SHEET-METAL WORK

60

the bases of sections whose altitudes are equal to the heights in

For these heights proceed as follows:

Take the various lengths from 1 to 2, 2 to 3, 3 to 4, 4 to 5, etc.,
to 11 to 12 and place them on the horizontal line in Fig. 63 as
shown by similar figures; from these points erect vertical lines
the half section.

equal in height to similar figures, in the half section in Fig. 62 as

shown by similar figures in Fig. 63. For example: Take the distance, from 7 to 8 in Fig. 62 and place it as shown from 7 to 8 in
Fig. 63 and erect vertical lines 7-7', and 8-8' equal to 7-7' and
8-8' in Fig. 62.
Draw a line from 7' to 8' in Fig. 63 which is the
true length on 7-8 in Fig. 62.
For the pattern take the distance of
1-0 and place it as shown by 1-0 in Fig. 64. Now using O as a
center and O 2' in Fig. 62 as a radius, describe the arc 2 in Fig. 64

Fig. 64.

and

intersect

it

by an arc struck from

Fig. 63 as a radius.

Now

with 1-3' in Fig. 62 as a radius and 1 in

Fig. 64 as a center, describe the arc

struck from 2 as center

1 as a center with 1-2' in

and

3,

and

2'-3' in Fig.

thus, using alternately as radii, first

intersect

it

by an

arc

Proceed
the divisions in 0-6'-12 in
63 as a radius.

Fig. 62, then the projjer line in Fig. 63, the divisions in l-7'-l 3 in

and again the proper line in Fig. 63, until the line 12-13
in Fig. 64 is obtained, which equals 12-13 in Fig. 62.
In this
manner all of the sections are obtained, to which laps must be
allowed for wiring and seaming.
Fig. 62

120

SHEET-METAL WORK

01

TABLES.
The

following tables will be found convenient for the Sheet-Metal Worker:

TABLES

Weight of Cast
Sheet Copper

Iron,

Wrought

PAGE.
Iron, Copper, Lead, Brass

62

63

Sheet Zinc

Standard Gauge

and Zinc

64

Sheet Iron and Steel

Weights of Flat Eolled Iron
for

Square and Round Iron Bars

Angles and Tees

65
66-71

72-73
74

121

SHEET-METAL WORK

62

N
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oa

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to

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o
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o
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u.
u

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o

o
w
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o
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re

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at

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to

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SHEET-METAL WORK

03

SHEET COPPER.
adopted by the Association of Copper Manufacturers of
the United States. Rolled copper has specific gravity of 8.93. One cubic
foot weighs 558.125 pounds. One square foot, one inch thick, weighs 46.51
pounds.
Official table

vm

OZc
nJ

n
i

o! c-

35
33
31
29
27
26
24
23
22
21
19.-

18
16
15
14.:
13
12
11.

10
9...

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

"^

'"'

~
7"

.Ha
00537
00806
0107
0134
0161
0188
0215
0242
0269
0322
0480
0538
0645
0754
0860
095
109
120
134
148
105
180
203
220

238
2.59

284
300
340

SHEET-METAL WORK

64

o
Z
N
H
U
U
c

22

3.37

21

3.00

SHEET-METAL WORK

65

UNITED STATES STANDARD GAUGE FOR SHEET AND PLATE

IRON AND STEEL
COPY

An

[Public Xo.

137]

act establishing a standard jraugre for sheet

Be it enacted by

and plate iron and

steel.

the Senate and Hoit^e of Ret'resentativcs of the Untied States of America

in Congress assembled. That for the purpose of securing uniformity the following is established as the only standard gauge for sheet and plate iron and steel in the United States of

America, namelv:

SHEET-METAL WORK

66

WEIGHTS OF FLAT ROLLED IRON PER LINEAR FOOT.

Iron weighing 480 pounds per cubic foot.

Thickness
in Inches.

SHEET-METAL WORK

WEIGHTS OP FLAT ROLLED IRON PER LINEAR FOOT.

(Continued)

Thickness

in Inches.

67

SHEET-METAL WORK

68

WEIGHTS OF FLAT ROLLED IRON PER LINEAR FOOT.

(Continued)

Tliickness

in Inches.

tV

i'i

'

SHEET-METAL WORK

WEIGHTS OF FLAT ROLLED IRON PER LINEAR FOOT.

(Continued)

Thickscss

uiInohe&

69

SHEET-METAL WORK

70

WEIGHTS OF FLAT ROLLED IRON PER LINEAR FOOT.

(Continued)

Thickness
in Inches.

SHEET-METAL WOEK

WEIGHTS OF FLAT ROLLED IRON PER LINEAR FOOT.

(Concluded)

Thickness
in Inches.

11'

:iu" lU" iif 12" 12|" 12^"

2.29

2.34

2.40

2.45

2.50

2.55

4.58

4.69

4.79

4.90

5.00

5.10

6.88

7.03

7.34

7.50

7.66

9.17

9.38

7.19
9.58

9.79

10.00

10.21

_5_

IG

11.46

11.98
14.38

12.50

12.76

14.69

15.00

15.31

16.04

11.72
14.06
16.41

12.24

13.75

16.77

17.14

17.50

18.33

18.75

19.17

19.58

20.00

17.86
20.42

20.63
22.92
25.21

21.09
23.44

21.56 22.03
23.96 24.48
26.35 26.93

22.50

I
3

27.50

i
1

ii
16

.T5

u
H
lA
If

V^

Its1 ^

IH

HI

25.00

22.97
25.52

27.50
30.00

28.07
30.63

29.79
32.08

30.47131.15 31.82 32.50

33.18

32.81

34.38
36.67

35.16

35.73
38.28

37.50

33.54
35.94
38.33

38.96
41.25
43.54

40.73 41.61 42.50

43.13 44.06 45.00
45.52 46.51 47.50
47.92 48.96 50.00

43.39

45.83

39.84
42.19
44.53
46.88

48.13
50.42
52.71
55.00

49.22
51.56
53.91
56.25

50.31

51.41
53.85
56.30
58.75

52.50

53.59
56.15

57.29
59.58
61.88

58.59
60.94
63.28

59.90
62.29
64.69

64.17

65.63

67.08

66.46
68.75
71.04

67.97
70.31

70.99
73.44

72.66

69.48
71.88
74.27

73.33

75.00

76.67

25.78
28.13 128.75
!

52.71
55.10
57.50

29.38

34.27
36.72
39.17

35.00

37.50
40.00

55.00
57.50
60.00

40.83

45.94
48.49
51.04

58.70
61.25

61.20

62.50

63.80

63.65

65.00

66.35

66.09
68.54

67.50

68.91

70.00

71.46
74.01

75.89

72.50
75.00
77.50

78.3?

80.00

81.67

76.56
79.11

71

SHEET-METAL WORK

72

SQUARE AND ROUND IRON BARS.

Tliickfless

SHEET-METAL WORK

SQtiARE AND ROUND IRON BARS.

(Concluded)

Thickness
or Diameter
in Inches.

73

SHEET-METAL

74

ANGLE

WOKK

IRON.

Weight Per Linear Foot.

6

X6

K%.

K 5

X Ya.

xj^
3%x3Mxts..
4

x4

X3

.24

Lbs.

x2

X14

lU^lH^^
.12K

"

33'

2}4x2^^x^

2Hx2^4xH

4M

31^ Lbs.
"

^H

l}ixl}4x^

Ui^i^i^^

IK

xl

x}i

Mx Kx^A

(I

TEE IRON.
Weight Per Linear Foot.

x8
x6
x3

.x4

5
7

30

78

X5/82

xK

3Kx3KxK--

xM
xK
2Kx2KxK
3

x3

2}ix2y^x^%

2i|x2Kx

Lbs.

...

J^

IGK

x2 X 1^
l?-rxlMxM

14

12K
H

30

7M

134

"
"

IVzxUAxH

2^^^

"

lU^lH^U

Vi

xl
?.i

3>|

Lbs

x}^
X38^

X 9ixVe.

"

"

1!!

-IT;

SHEET-METAL WORK

75

EXAMINATION PLATES.
PLATE
The
same

;.

Paper should be laid out the

as explained in the course on Tinsmith's "Work.
Before

plates of this Instruction

size

starting these plates the student should

paper and make models of

When

of the patterns.

stiff

first

practice on other

cardboard to prove the accuracy

the problem

is

thoroughly mastered and

understood, copy and send in yowt best drawing for examination

and

correction.

The

problem given is the intersection and development

of a cylinder and a right cone, whose lines of axis rim parallel to
each other. First draw the base of the cone B C 44 inches Ions:,
placing

first

1^ inches from the border line, and the line

above the bottom

inches,

line.

and draw the

center vertical line

Make

lines

CB

5^ inches

the vertical height of the cone 3|

AB

J G, on which

and
2-|

A C.

Through

draw the

inches below the base line

CB

Now with I as center and ^ of C B as radius,

describe the circle E F G H, which represents the plan of the cone.
From A on the line A C measure down one inch as shown at e
establish the point

I.

'

from which erect a vertical line

the horizontal line

e'

K |-inch

high.

From

K draw

drop a

KL

equal to If inches, and from

perpendicular intersecting the side of the cone at M.

above

LK

in its proper relative position ^-inch above

Directly

L K, with N

draw the circle shown, which represents a section through

L K. Through the center N draw the horizontal line a e. Now
divide the half upper section N into an equal nmnber of spaces as
shown hy a h c d e^ from which points drop vertical lines intersecting the side of the cone A C at a V c d' and e\ and from these
points, draw horizontal lines, intersecting the opi^osite side A B
from a" to e".
as center

The next

step

is

to construct planes in plan as follows

From

the various intersections a" to e" in elevation, drop vertical lines

intersecting the horizontal line

HF

drawn through the

Then using I as center and
in plan

a" V" c" d"' and e'"

distances to points a" to <?'" as radii, strike the various circles
shown. From the center of the section N in elevation extend the

center

I,

at

line intersecting

H F in plan at/"/

137

then using /"as center and

SHEET-METAL WOKK

70

or

Ne

in elevation as radius, describe the circle 1-3-5-3 in i^lan,

and 5 on both sides. Now,

of intersection on the various planes in

cutting the various planes at

from the various

i3oints

1, 2, 3, 4,

plan, erect lines intersecting similarly lettered planes in elevation

shown at 1', 2', 3', 4', and 5', through which trace a line as
shown, which represents the line of intersection between the
cylinder and right cone.
Extend
For the pattern for the cylinder proceed as follows
the line K L of the cylinder in elevation as shown by O P, jjlacing
as

'

the distance 1 from the margin line

1,

OP

lay off on

2-|

and

at riaht antrles to

/in plan, the spaces

From these small
P.

intersection in elevation parallel to

points thus obtained.

Then

P, draw' lines which intersect with

drawn from similarly numbered

lines

starting from

the stretchout of the section

being designated hj similar figures on

fio-ures

Now

inches.

will

intersections on the line of

OPR

Trace a line through

P.

be the

full

pattern for the

cylinder.

The pattern for the

right cone

is 'developed

as has already

been

described in the Tinsmith's Course, and for that reason will be

shown only the method how

to obtain the pattern for the

in the cone to miter with the cylinder.

Draw
4,

and

Now with A B

EFG

H at

intersectJ_ons 1, 2, 3,

3'C4", and 5",

in elevation as radius and A^ as center,

cutting the outer curve

resj)ectively.

this proceed as follows:

from I in plan through the

radial lines
5,

For

opening

1'',

2",

S T. Place the arc as far above the margin

line as the j)lan G, and have S T central between the plan and
margin line. From A^ drop a vertical line intersecting the arc S T

describe a short arc as

Now

on either side of the center

line A^ 1" the distances shown in plan from 1" 5" to 4" to 2" to 3",
as shown by sindlar numbers on S T. From these points draw
at 1".

starting from 1", set

radial lines to A'.

to

e\

f/',

ofiP

Kow^ using A' as center and with radii equal

r', A 1j\ and A a' in elevation, describe area

intersecting respectively the radial lines A' 1" at e", 2" 2" at d"
3" 3" at c"
intersections

c\

4" 4" at

trace a line

V l\

d\

and A' 5" at a\ Through these

as shown, which wdll be the desired

opening.

138

a
^.

st.-

b
<l>

bti

CO

5_e8

3S
o
<c

flu
Cl

C II
o
tc

C N

<

o O aw 2
iJ
2m
J M
p''
<
o 4^OD
o o
H
H^
U <
(d
H
z
o O 'O
tn

-^

tl

;i

<

(d

(/)

o
s

*-(

P>-s

a
o

i
.

Si
O D
CS3

^
re

.-

3j

S5

a
8.2
OX
.

5a

a <

a
c
I-

p.
p-<
in

CA

t4

SHEET-METAL WOKK
PLATE

77

II.

This problem will give an examination on triangulation, being

the development of an irregular solid whose bottom and top are

romid when viewed on horizontal planes, the top plane being cut off
at an angle of 45 to the base line. First draw the base line 1 '-6'
2| inches long, j)lacing the point 1 ' 2 inches from the margin

line,

and the line l'-6' in the center of the sheet. Three inches above
the bottom margin line draw the horizontal line l'-6' in plan;
then with a as center and radius equal to one-half of l'-6' in
elevation, draw the circle shown in its proper j)osition below the
line l'-6' in elevation. Now \ inch to the right of a on the line
l'-6' in i3lan, establish 5, which nse as a center, and with yf-inch
radius describe the inner circle 1-3-6-e, which rei)resents the
uijper horizontal plane of the irregular article.
1

and 6 in

plan, erect the vertical lines 1-1

and

From
^-^^

the points

making the

height of the line 1-1 above the base line I'-G' in elevation

3| inches, and from the point 1 in elevation draw the line 1-6 at
an angle of 45 intersecting the vertical line 6-6 at 6. Now draw
1 to 1'

which completes the elevation.

Now divide the half plan into an equal number of parts
(in this case 5) as shown by the small figures 1 to 6
In the
same manner divide the inner circle into the same number of parts
as shown from 1 to 6. Now draw solid lines from V to 1, 2' to 2,
3 to 8, 4 to 4, 5 ' to 5, and 6 to 6 ; and dotted lines from 1 to 2
From the intersections 1' to 6'
2 to 3
3 to 4 4 to 5
and 5 to 6
on the outer j)lan, erect lines intersecting the base line in elevation
from 1 to 6
In a similar manner, from the intersections on the
inner curve in plan erect lines intersecting the top plane of he
article from 1 to 6.
Now connect lines in elevation from 2 to 2',

lines

from

and from 6

to 6',

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

3 to 3',

'

' .

'

' .

' .

etc.,

although these lines are not necessary in the develop-

show their relationship

to similar lines in jDlan. The solid and dotted lines in plan
rexDresent the bases of triangles, which will be constructed, whose
altitudes are equal to similarly numbered vertical heights in
elevation. The construction of these triangles is shown at B and 0,
B representing the triangles on solid lines in plan, and C the
triangles on dotted lines in plan. Construct these triangles as
ment

of the pattern, but are given only to

141

SHEET-METAL WOEK

78

Extend the

follows:

on

EF

line

I'-C

to be j)laced 1 inch

in elevation as

from the margin

F, the point G'

Now

take the
to 5, 5 ' to 4.

line.

various distances of the dotted lines in lAiin as 6 '

4 to 3, 3 to 2, and 2 ' to 1, and i3lace them on the line E
'

'

F as shown

by similar numbers. Now from the small figures 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5

on the line E F, erect lines, which intersect by lines drawn from
similarly numbered intersections on 1-6 in elevation, parallel
Then
to EF, thus obtaining the points 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
draw lines from 1 to 2', 2 to 3', 3 to 4', 4 to 5', and 5 to 6',
which will represent the diagram of triangles on dotted lines in
X^lan, the slant lines rei^resenting the true lengths on the finished
article.
In precisely the same manner obtain the diagram of
triangles B on solid lines in plan. For example, take the distance
of 2-2' in plan, and place it as shown by 2-2' on the line E F;
from 2 at right angles to E F draw the line 2-2 equal to the
vertical height to 2 in elevation, and draw a line from 2 to 2',
which is the true length on 2-2' in plan. It now becomes
necessary to obtain a true section on the line 1-6 in elevation.
Therefore at right angles to 1-6 and from the various intersections
1 to 6, draw lines as shown. Now measuring in each instance
from the line l'-6' in plan, take the various distances to points

and place them in A on similarly numbered lines,

measuring in each instance from the line 1-6 in elevation, thus
obtaining the points 2" to 5". A line traced as shown will be the
half section on 1-6 in elevation.
For the pattern proceed as follows: Draw any line as 1-1' in
2, 3, 4,

and

5,

Now

equal to 1-1' in elevation.

in plan,

1 in

and

'

in

as center, describe the arc 2

G as center, and l-2'

Now with

in

C as

' .

Then using

radius, intersect the arc 2' in

which

and with 2-2' in

using alternately as

intersect

B as radius.

radii, first

G.

as

by an arc struck from

2'

radius equal to 1-2" in the true section, and 1 in

center, describe the arc 2,

as center

with radius equal to l'-2'

Proceed in this manner,

the divisions in the outer curve

in plan, then the hypothenuses or slant lines in C; the divisions

A, then the length of the slant lines in B,

following the numbers in regular order until the last line 6-6 in G
Trace
is obtained, this line being obtained from 6-6' in elevation.
lines as shown from 1 to 6 and from 1 to 6', which give the half
in the true section

'

'

142

SHEET-METAL WORK

Trace the other half oioioosite the line 1-1 ' as shown by
Then will 6-1 -6^-6^-1 '-6' be the full pattern with joint at

pattern.

6^6^
^

6-6

'

79

in elevation

148

VENTILATION WORK*
In the illustration

is

shown a system

of ventilation, in

which the various

pipes are led from brick or metal flues to the attic as shown,
to the sheet

and connected

metal drum.

drum is made in size equal to the combined area of all pipes entering
same. The drum is set upon a wooden platform as shown and has a clean-out
door made large enough to admit a man's body. Steam coils are placed inside
to create a suction, when the heated air rises through the ventilator.
The drum
This

is

connected to the ventUator as shown, the bracing of the ventilator being

fastened to the inside of the curb.

The

detail at the right

drum, while that at the

left

shows the connection joint between the pipe and

shows the construction

of the metal door

with method of fastening to the body of the drum.

*

The

illustration referred to will

be found on the back o'

this page.

and frame,

COriSTR-UCTION DRAW
SH.o^vIncx

Ha

aHEET /AETAL mU?l AND VEMTILATOR.

VEMTILATIOri WORK

IN

)R\vel

Joint

between Vent

SectionaJ. view sho\A/i"n^ venlilaJ^i.on

pipes conrjGcl^ed lo drum in aJtic
s^Tso sTe&-m coils irj drum Xo
creas-le sucTion.

FOR EXPLANATION OF THIS PROBLEM SEE BACK OF PACE

5HEET METAL WORK.

PART

II.

PROBLEHS FOR LIGHT GAUGE

flETAL.

It is often the case that the sheet

metal worker receives plans

for

vent, heat, or blower pipes to be

constructed, in which the true

lengths and angles are not shown
but must be obtained from the
plans or measurements at .the

ELEVATION

buildingr.

Figs. 65 and 66
ciples

employed

true angles

piping,

show the prin-

for obtaining the

and lengths in oblique

being immaterial whether

the piping is round, square, or oval
it

The only

in section.

obtaining these angles

safe
is

way

in

to use the

center line as a basis and after this

line has been obtained, build the

pipe around

65

let

ABC

tion of the

it,

so to speak.

In Fig.

represent the eleva-

elbow shown in plan by

Through the center of the

pipes draw the center line abed

PLAN

E.

svhich intersect the center lines of

the pipe in plan at e and/*.

In

ele-

vation the rise of the middle piece

on the center line is equal to /t c

and projects to the right a distance
equal to h h, shown in plan

Fig. 65.

this

plan a distance equal to

e a.

same pipe projects forward

While the miter

147

hjef\
in

lines in elevation i j

SHEET METAL WORK

76

and h

have been drawn straight, they would

lines; those lines

in reality

have not been projected as there

is

show curved
no necessity

for doing so.

With

the various heights and projections in plan and eleva-

tion the true length

and true angles are obtained as shown

in Fig.

Fig. 66.

which draw the horizontal line t^y equal to /in plan in

Take the height from h to a and j)lace it from y* to c in
Fig. 65.
Draw a line from e to
Fig, 66 on a vertical line erected from f.
c which is the true length on the center line of the pipe shown by
60, in

in elevation

6'

in

Fig. 65.

From

the points c and e in Fig.

CA)

draw perpendicular lines, making Y e X and X c Z = the true angles

shown by a h X and X. c d respectively in Fig. 65. On either
side of the center line in Fig. 66 lay off the half diameter of the
pipe as shown, and in its proper position draw the profile W.

143

SHEET METAL WORK

77

Divide this into equal spaces and obtain the pattern A B D E C

in the usual manner.
As both angles are similar the miter cut
C E can be used for all of the patterns. In drawing this prob-

lem for practice make the diameter of the pipe 2 inches, the height
from h to c 3| inches in Fig. 65, the projection h to h 3| inches,
and the projection in plan e to a 5^ inches.

Our next problem

view of which

that of a rain-water cut-off, a perspective

is

shown in Fig. 67. While the miter cuts in this problem are similar to elbow work the intersection between the two
beveled arms, and the cut-off or slide on the inside require atten-

Make

tion.

is

the diameter of the

three openings each 2 inches;

to

B (Fig. 68)

h.

11 inches. From
B at an angle of 45 draw B C 3|
inches and C D 2 inches. From
G draw the vertical miter line
to

Make the distance from B

T ^ inch. Place the line d e

of the cut-off
line

TU

inch above the

|-

as indicated at

the line e

do the right of

indicated

bj

J,

and

cc

h G,

as

a distance of -^^

inch. Parallel to

GH

draw

^-n-

r?

giving slight play room between

G H, intersecting e d and e
d

and e respectively. From e at right

as shown, intersecting h G at /", which is
2itd

draw a line
the pivot on which the cut-off c d e will turn either right or left.
The angles of the pipes on opposite sides are constructed in similar
manner;
will be the elevation, N,
the section on A
and O P E, S the section on I J. B T U L
shows how far the upper tube projects into the body under which
angles to

e,

ABCDEFGHIJKLM
M

the scoop e

c turns right

either elbow as desired.

is

left to

The pattern

a straight piece of metal

For the pattern

and

throw the rain water into

for the

upper piece

whose circumference

is

ATUM

equal to N.

for (A), divide the half section

OPR

into

equal spaces as shown, from which erect lines intersecting the miter
line II

K as

shown, and from which, parallel to

lines intersecting the Joint lines

149

Ji

as

K L and H G, draw

shown.

As none

of the

SHEET METAL WORK

78

lines Just

drawn

tain this point

intersect the corner

draw

li Ji'

is

at

a line intersecting the profile

K draw stretchout

of

will be necessary to ob-

OPR

LK

taken.

intersecting II

it

from which the stretchTherefore from //, parallel to

on the half section

out of the pattern

//,

//',

from which,

OP

OPR

E.

at h'\

parallel to

At

K J,

drop

right angles to

S as shown by similar numbers on

which at right angles to T^ U' draw lines which are

intersected by lines drawn at right angles to L K from similar inT' U', through

A line traced through points thus

obtained as shown by X Y Z V AV will be the pattern for (A).
Fromy in the elevation at right angles to L K project a line intersecting the miter cut X Y Z at f and/"".
At/" and/"" holes are
tersections on

to

GhL

and

II

K.

be punched in which the pivot

f oi the

scoop c'd

e in elevation

will turn.

While the pattern for (B) can be obtained as that for (A) wag
obtained, a short method is to take the distance K to J and place

150

SHEET METAL WORK

it

as

79

sLown from
to J' and V to J- on the lines of the pattern
and Z Y respectively extended.
V J- J^ will be the pat-

tern for B.

To avoid a confusion of lines in tlie development of the scoop

or cut-off ( d e, this has been shown in Fig. 69 in which d e c is
reproduction of d e c in Fig. 68. A true section of the scoop must
a.

now
it

be drawn on

69 so that

^ in Fiof.

to turn easily inside of the

its

joint line

dimensions will allow

Ji

in

elevation in Fig.

Therefore draw any horizontal line as 4 5 in Fig. 69, at right

68.

angles to which from/" draw a vertical line intersecting 4 5 at /l

Now

take

distance

inch less

^v.1

than one-half the diameter of

in Fig. 68,

and place

it

in Fig.

E,

69

on either side of the line 4 5 on the

vertical

line just

from f

to

till it

as

and f to 2'.
intersects 4 5 at 4-.
2

line

from 4

line

we

to 2';

shown
Extend

Draw

by bisecting

this

obtain the line a h intersect-

ing 4 5 at

audi

drawn

2' as

Then with

/.

i as center

radius, describe the arc

2' 2.

draw horizontal lines equal to f e as shown by 2 1

and 2' 1'. Then will 1 4 1' be the true section on x e. Divide
the half section into equal spaces as shown from 1 to 4, from which
Extend ,r e as x j^ upon which
erect lines intersecting e e and e d.
place the stretchout of 1 4 1' as shown by similar numbers on ;? /,
throucrh which draw vertical lines. These lines intersect with horiThrough
zontal lines drawn from similar intersections on d e c.
points thus obtained draw the line 1 n V m, which is- the desired

From

2 and

2'

As

pattern.

the pivot hole /falls directly on line

will be the position of the holes in the pattern.

allowed to

2,

then

f"'f"

Laps must be

all patterns.

In putting up rectangular hot air pipe

it

is

often the case

that the pipe will be placed in the partition of one story, then has

tition

forward and twist one quarter way around to enter the parof the upper story which runs at right angles to the lower

one.

to fall

70,

perspective view showing this condition

is

shown

in Fig.

where the upper opening turns one quarter on the lower one

151

SHEET METAL WOKK

80

and leaning

to the right as

This problem

known

is

much

as is

shown

in Fig.

71

in

plan.

as a transition piece in a rectangular pipe.

Full size measurements are given in Fig. 71 which should be

drawn one-half

The height

size.

8 inches, the size of

of the transition piece is 1 foot.

the openings, each 4

X 10

inches turned as

and two inches above the lower section

From the plan construct the front and side elevations as

shown, two inches to the

as shown.

shown by the dotted

left

lines.

ABCD

the front and side elevations of

and

EFG

H will

then be

piece respectively

the transition

FRONT ELEVATION
S

PLAN
Fig. 70.

Fiff.

equal to 20 inches or 10 inches for practice.

of the plan (),

{h), [<),

and

(^d).

r-8"-

71.

Number

Through the

front

each side

and side
and U V

and horizontal lines S T

These lines are only used as bases for
respectively at pleasure.
measurements in determining the patterns. For the pattern for
the side marked (a) in plan take the length of B C and place it
on the vertical line B C in Fig. 72. Through the points B and
G, making B F and B E,
C draw the horizontal lines E F and
equal respectively to the distances measured from
and C G and C
Draw lines from
the line U V in Fig. 71 to points F, E, G, H.
elevations

draw the

vertical

to II

and

to

in Fig. 72,

which

15*2

is

the pattern for

(a).

SHEET METAL WOKK

For the pattern
and place

EF

and

it

81

71 take the distance of

for (b) in Fig.

D,
draw

shown by A D in Fig. 72; through A and D

G, making A F and A E, and D G and D H equal
as

Fig. 72.

respectively to the distances measured from the line

elevation in Fig. 71 to points F, E, G,
to

H and

similar

The

to

in Fig. 72,

which

manner obtain the patterns

lenp-ths of

II

and

F G are

72, while

Draw

lines

in side

from

will be the pattern for (b).

for (c)

and

(d) in

E
In

plan in Fig. 71,

placed as shown by similar letters

Fig. 74.

Fig. 73.

in Fig.

H.

UY

the

projections to A, B, C,

are obtained

from A, B, C, D in front elevation in Fig. 71, measuring in

each instance from S T.
If desired the top and lower flange shown in the perspective
Laps are
in Fig. 70 can be added to the patterns in Fig. 72.
allowed to the patterns to allow for double seaming at corners,

however, the pattern should be required in one piece,

153

it

if,

would only

SHEET METAL WORK

82

be necessary to join the various pieces in

shown by a d he

in Fig. 73,

proper positions as

tlieir

which would bring the seam on the

line

in plan in Fig. 71.

In Fig. 74 is shown a per-

curved

spective view of a
rectanopular chute

struction of

the

which

con-

arises in

piping and blower work. The

problem

as here presented

shows the sides a and a

in

vertical planes having the

same height, while the bottom h has more width than

the top c.
The top opening
is to rise above the bottom
opening a given distance
equal to C.
First draw the
plan and elevation as shown
in Fig. 75,

make A B equal

to

B8

2i inches; with
a radius equal to ^ inch, with
2 inches,

a as center draw the quarter

circle 8 2.

From

2 draw the

equal to 1|
equal to
inches and draw C
vertical line 2

D
Make D

1 equal
li inches.
to C 2 and using a as center

and 1 as radius draw the

From

arc 1 h.

line tangent to 1

AB

D will be the

the chute.

draw the
section

vation and from i

154

line as

7.

plan of

AB

S T U V.
C draw the
as shown.

E FI

chute as shown by

draw a horizontal

section

Place the desired

''

as

In line with

In line with

'^'

Z*

draw a

K, which

rise of the

Fi

in ele-

intersect

by

HOUJE AT MOMTECITO, GAL

MYftOM nUriT AND ELMEB, caEY. AtCrUTECTi
iDa AI1CELE3, CALIFOaniA

FIE,iT fLOOC PLAn

HOUiE AT mote.c;tc, CAL
MYCDN rtUMT ATiD ELMEE

OilEY, AECHlTECTi)

tOS ATiGELES, CALlFOCniA

mot c<cavatcd

BAi>EMeiiT PLAli
tXXIX AT liONTEClTO. CAL
MYIiOfl num AND CLMEB, OCEY, AUCttlTtCTi
LOS AMGCLEi, CALIFOE.N!A.

PLANS OF HOUSE AT MONTECITO, CALIFORNIA

Myron Hunt & Elmer Grey, Architects, Los Angeles, Cal.
For Perspective View, See Page 138; for View of Terrace, See Page

186.

SHEET METAL WORK

drawn from A B
and draw the lines F K,
a line

tion of the outside

bottom, and

Having

Make K J equal to F E
K I, and E J, J H. F E J K is the elevacurve, II I K J the inside curve, F I K the

H J the

in

plan as shown.

top.

the plan and elevation in position

the pattern for the two vertical sides.

of the chute

83

shown by

B C

we

will first

draw

For the pattern for the side

in plan proceed as follows:

the inner curve 2 to 8 into equal parts as

Divide

shown by 2-4-G and

8,

from which points drop lines intersecting the inside of the chute in
plan ilJ K las shown. At right angles to J K draw LM, iipon which
place the stretchout of

BC

shown by similar letters and

numbers on L M, through which draw vertical lines which intersect lines drawn parallel to L
from II J. Through points thus
obtained draw the line E 2^ 4^ G^ S^N.
The same method can
in plan as

^--^

8'

7"

Fig. 76.

P O, but as the height H I and J K are

equal, having a common profile B C, take the height of H lor J K
and place it on vertical lines as II P and N O and trace the curve
K N as shown by P O. JM O P K is the pattern for C B in plan
be employed for the curve

To

obtain the pattern for the outside curve divide the curve 1-7

into equal parts as shown,

secting similar points in

E F draw
shown.

from which drop

EJ

K F,

vertical lines inter-

elevation at right angles to

in

W X, upon which place the stretchout

From the divisions on W X drop

of

DA

in plan as

vertical lines,

which

J.

drawn from similar numbered intersections on

Trace a line through these points as shown by c^y and draw

e as

explained in connection with the inside pattern,

intersect

by

lines

d ef\&

by D A.
As both the top and bottom of the chute have the same bevel,
the pattern for one will answer for the other.
Connect opposite
points in plan as shown from C to 1 to 2 to 3 up to 8, then to A.
the pattern for the outside of the chute

shown

in plan

In similar manner connect similar points on the bottom in elevation as

shown from

1 to 2

up

to

K.

155

The

lines in plan represent

SHEET xMETAL WORK

84

the bases of the sections whose altitudes are equal to the various

K. Take the various lengths

from 2 to 3 to 4 to 5 to 6 to 7 to 8 to A in plan and place them as shown
by similar numbers on the horizontal line a h (Fig. 76); through
a h draw vertical lines, equal in height to similar numbers in elevation, in Fig. 75, measured from the line i K. For example take
heights in elevation, measured from

shown by 4 5 in Fig. 76.

Erect perpendiculars 4 4' and 5 5' equal to 4" 4 and 5" 5 in elevaDraw a line from 4' to 5' in Fig. 76, which is the
tion in Fig. 75.
Proceed in similar manner
true length of 4 5 in plan in Fig. 75.
for the balance of the sections. Take a tracing of 1 2 C D in plan
and place it as shown by 1, 2, C, D in Fig. 77. Now using 1 as
the distance 4 5 in plan and place

'2"

it

as

PATTERN FOR
TOP OR BOTTOM
A-B-C-D

IN FIG. 75

Fig. 78.

Fig. 77.

center and 1^
3,

(), in Fig. 75, as radius, describe the arc at

77, which is intersected by an arc, struck from 2 as

Fig.

in

center,

2V 4V

and
in

2' 3', in

Y)

arc at 4 which
3' 4', Flo-.

8^' in

Now

Fig. 76, as radius.

with radius equal

to

75 and 2 in Fig. 77 as center, describe the

intersected by an arc, struck from 3 as center and

in Fig.
is

76, as radius.

Proceed in this manner, using alternately

as radius, first the divisions in the pattern (X), Fig. 75, then the

slant lines

in

Fig. 76, the divisions in the pattern (Y), Fig. 75,

then again the lines in Fig. 76 until the line 7 8, Fig. 77, has been
obtained.
Fio-.

75, as

Then using 7

as center, M'ith a line equal to I'^fin (X),

radius, describe the arc

A,

Fio;.

77,

which

is

inter-

by an arc struck from 8 as center and 8' A, Fig. 76,

Then with radius, equal to 8^^ N in (Y), Fig. 75, and
as radius.
8, Fig. 77, as center, describe the arc B, which is intersected
by an arc, struck from A as center and A B in plan in Fig. 75
sected

as radius.

Trace lines through points thus obtained in Fig. 77,

156

SHEET METAL WORK

and
on

AB

all

will be the desired pattern.

85

Laps must be allowed

patterns for double seaming the corners.

shown a perspective view of a hopper register

box usually made from bright tin or galvanized iron in hot air
piping.
In drawing this problem, the student should, first draw
the half plan, making the semiB
A
circle 3| inches diameter, and
In Fig. 78

placing

it

is

ELEVATION

directly in the center

of the rectangular top,

which

8| inches wide and 5| inches

loner.
Draw the elevation from

is

shown by A B C D
E F G H, making the vertical
height Y W, 2^ inches, and the
flanges at the top and bottom
the plan as

each ^ inch.
is

I Iv

M in plan

the horizontal section on

in elevation

tion on

and

AB

O P R the sec-

F.

The pattern will be developed by triangulation, and the

first

step

O R into

is

to develop a set of triangles.

Divide the quarter

circle

equal spaces, as shown by the numbers 1 to 7 in plan, from

which draw

lines to the

of triangles

whose

apex M.

These lines represent the bases

vertical height is equal to

in elevation.

TU, upon

which

M M M

3, etc.)

Therefore, in Fig. 80, draw any horizontal line as

place the various lengths

W
1,

2,

shown by similar numbers on

T U. From T U erect the line T S equal to
the vertical height V
(Fig. 79).
Then
draw the hypotenuses SI, S 2, S 3, etc., in
T
Fig. 80, which represent the true lengths of
342516
similar numbered lines in plan in Fig. 79.
Fig. 80.
For the half pattern with seams on I O and
P K in plan, take a tracing of D Y
in elevation and place it
as shown by D Y 7 in Fig. 81.
Now using D as center, and with
Fig. 79) as

radii equal to the various slant lines in Fig.

strike small arcs as

shown from 1

80 from S 1

to 7 in Fig. 81.

157

to

S 7

Set the dividers

SHEET METAL WOKK

86

equal to the spaces contained in

E,

in Fig. 79,

and starting from

point 7, in Fig. 81, step from one arc to another until 1 is obtained.
(Fig. 79) as radius describe
Then using 1 as center and E

With

the arc D' in Fig. 81.

as center

and

M I in plan

in Fig.

Fig. 81.

draw another arc intersecting the one previously

Draw a line froml to J)' to D in Fig. 81, 7 1 D' D V
at D'.
is the quarter pattern, and the left-hand side of the figure may be
made by tracing the quarter pattern reversed as shown by V C D"

79 as
drawn

7.

radius,

Take the distance

and place

it

of the flange

DA

at "right angles to the line

Hispectively by

A"

A',

A^and A^

in elevation in Fig.

D' D,

A-^,

shown
The pattern

C,

C D"

as

79

shown

which completes the half

pattern with laps allowed as

for the collar

elevation in Fig. 79
strip

of

of.

O P

is

EFG

in

simply a straight

metal, equal to the circumference

It in plan.

It is often

the case that

two unequal

pipes are to be connected by ilieans of a

transition piece as

shown by

in Fig. 82,

the ends of the pipes being cut at right

Fig. 82.

angles to each other.

both pipes are

in

one line when viewed

in

As
plan,

the centers of

making both

halves of the transition piece equal, the problem then consists of

developing a transition piece, frdm a round base to a round top

Therefore in Fig. 88 draw 1 5 ecpial to 2_^ inches,
and at an angle of 45 draw 5 6 1^ inches. At right angles to 1 5
placed vertically.

draw G 10 4 inches long and draw a line from 10 to 1. On 1 5 draw

the semicircle 1 3' 5, and on G 10 draw the semicircle 6 8' 10.

158

SHEET METAL WORK

87

Divide both of these into equal spaces as shown, from which draw
lines perpendicular to their respective base lines.

shown by the dotted

points as

lines,

Connect opposite

and construct a diagram of

8'

9'

_----^5'f*

^.

^^f~~ ^
2 3

Fig. 83.

45

10

Fig. 84.

shown in Fi^. 84 whose bases and heights are equal to

similar numbered bases and heights in Fig. 83. For example, take
the distance 4 8 and place it as shown by 4 8 in Fig. 84, from which
points erect the vertical lines 4 4' and 8.8' equal to 4 4' and 8 8' in
Fig. 83.
Draw a line from 4' to 8', Fig. 84, which is the true
sections as

Fig. 86.

For the pattern take the disUsing 1

as shown by 1 10 in Fig. 85.

length on similar line in Fig. 83.

tance of 1 10 and place
as center,

and 1

2',

it

Fig. 83, as radius, describe the arc 2 in Fig. 85;

by an are struck from 10 as center and 10 2', Fig. 84,

as radius. Then using 10 9' in Fig. 83 as radius, and 10, Fig. 85, as
intersect

it

159

SHEET METAL WORK

88

center, describe the arc 9,

as center,

and

2' 9',

and

intersect

it

Fig. 84, as radius.

using alternately as

by an arc struck from 2

Proceed

radii, first the divisions

in

in

this

manner

the half profile

1 8' 5, Fig. 83, then the length of the proper hypoteiiuse in Fig.

84, then the divisions in 6 8' 10 in Fig. 83; then again the hypot-

enuse in Fig. 84 until the line 5 6 in Fig. 85 has been obtained,

which

is

equal to 5 6 in Fig. 83.

Laps should be allowed

for

riveting and seaming as shown.

C-K)

PLAN
Fig. 87.

In Fig. 86

is

shown a perspective

of an offset connecting

a round pipe with an oblong pipe, having rounded corners.

The first step

shown in Fig. 87.
inch,

5'

D TO'

to properly

Draw

draw the elevation and plan

the horizontal line

one inch, and from

5' at

AB

as

equal to one

an angle of 45 draw

5' 0'

equal

C 1^ inches. Make the diameter C D 2| inches

1| inches. Make A 1' ^ inch and draw aline from 1' to

to 2^- inches

and

is

and

0'

160

SHEET METAL WORK

10'

which completes

draw .the

Directly above the line

elevation.

tlie

section of the oblong pipe,

89

making

AB

the sides 1 1 and 5 5

which describe the semicircles on each end

as shown.
In similar manner draw the section on D C, which is
shown by 6 8 10 8. A duplicate of the oblong pipe is also shown
in plan by E F, showing that the centers of the pipe come in one

equal to

1-J

inches, to

making both halves symmetrical.

The patterns for the pipes will first be

line,

Divide the

obtained.

semicircular ends of the oblong section into equal parts, in this

case four, also each of the semicircles of the round pipe in similar

number of

parts as

vertical lines

from these intersections

oblong pipe at
(')'

7' 8' 9'

shown respectively from

and

to 10.

Draw

cuttingr the miter line of the

1' 2' 3' 4' 5'

and the miter

In Hue with A B draw

10'.

1 to 5 and

line of the

B M,

upon which place the stretchout of

the oblong pipe as shown by similar numbers; from B
drop vertical lines intersecting the lines drawn parallel to B
from similarly numbered points on 1' 5'.

g'

round pipe

^^

at

,2' 31

^r"^''-7'f^^^^^~^('fL<
^^---''r^'''
io9

76

1234

Fig. 88.

Trace a line through points thus obtained,

and

NO

will be the pattern for the

oSow take the

oblong pipe.

C H; erect vertical lines

as shown intersecting the lines drawn parallel to C H from similar
intersections on 6' 10'. I J H C is the pattern for the round pipe.
stretchout of the round pipe, and place

The

it

on

transition piece 1' 5' 6' 10' will be developed

by trianguobtain true sections on the lines 1' 5' and

lation,

and

6' 10';

however, in this case

it is

usual to

it

can be omitted because we have the

true lengths of the various divisions on the lines

the miter cuts in

and

1' 5'

and

6' 10' in

respectively.

diagram of sections giving the

true lengtlis, for which proceed as follows: Connect opposite points
in elevation as shown from 1' to 9' to 2' to 8' to 3' etc., as shown.

The next

step

is

to obtain a

For example draw center lines through the oblong and round sections as shown by a h and c d respectively, and take the length of
1' 10' in elevation and place it as shown from 1 to 10 in Fig. 88.

From

1 draw the vertical line 1

1'

equal to the height of 1 in the

oblong section in Fig. 87 above the center line a

in plan has

no height,

it

falls

on the center line c

161

h.

As
in

point 10

plan, then

SHEET METAL WORK

90

draw a

from

line

1' to

10

Now

in Fig. 8S.

take the distance from

and place it as shown from 1 to 9 in

Erect the lines 1 1' and 99' equal to points 1 and 9 in
Fig. 88.
the oblong and round sections in Fig. 87, measured respectively
from the lines a h and c d. Draw a line from I'.to 9' in Fig. 87.
Proceed in this manner until all of the sections are obtained. For
the pattern proceed as shown in Fig. 89, in which draw any verti1'

to 9' in elevation, Fig,' 87,

Now, with

cal line as <?10 equal to 1' 10' in elevation in Fig. 87.

one-half of 1 1 in pattern

center, describe the arc 1

which

from 10 as center and 10

equal to 10" 9" in pattern
describe the arc 9,
center and
in

1' 9', in

pattern

arc 2

which

9' 2' in

1',

as e 1 as radius,
is

and

intersected

in Fig.

by an arc struck

With

88 as radius.

and 10

89 as

e in Fig.

radius

89 as center
which is intersected by an arc struck from 1 as
Now, using as radius 1" 2"
Fig. 88 as radius.
in Fig. 87,

in Fig.

87 and 1 in Fig. 89 as center, describe the

intersected by an arc struck from 9 as center and

in Fig.

is

Fig. 88 as radius.

Proceed in this manner, using alternately as

radii, first the

divisions in the pattern cut I J, Fig. 87, then the length of the
slant lines in Fig. 88, the divisions in the cut

ON

in Fig. 87, then

again the slant lines in Fig. 88 until the line 5 6 in pattern. Fig.

and 1 e in P, Fig.
87, as radius, describe the arc e in Fig. 89, and intersect it by an
arc struck from 6 as center and 6' 5' in elevation in Fig. 87 as
radius.
Draw lines through the various intersections in Fig. 89;
89, has been obtained.

10

as

shown by

is

(?'

found.

rivetinir

is

the half pattern.

e

and

to

5' e" 0'

By

is

as center

tracing

it

all

e e" 6'

making both

10

6,

of a three-way branch

A being a true circle, and the outlets

also being true circles, the centers of

vertical plane, thus

e 10,

patterns for seaming or

shown a perspective view

round, the inlet

opposite the line

whole pattern,

10, the

Laps should be allowed on

both in Figs. 87 and 89.

Li Fig. 90

round

Then using 5

which are

in the

B, C,

same

sides of the branch symmetrical.

draw the elevation and the various sections as shown in

Fig. 91.
Draw the center line ah. From h draw the center line
Make the
of the branch C at an angle of 58 as shown by h d.
Make the half
center lines a h and h d each 34- inches long.
diameter of the branch B at the outlet | inch, and the full dianiFirst

162

SHEET METAL WORK

eter of the

branch

91

lA inches placed on either side

of and at right angles to the center lines. Draw a line from e to/",
and with / and h as centers and radii equal to | inch draw arcs
at the outlet

intersecting each other at

e.

Draw

lines

from

i to c to

//.

In

and the opposite half of B, A B C is

the elevation of the three branches whose sections on outlet lines
are shown respectively by G F and E and whose section on the
inlet line is shown by D.
similar

manner obtain

The next
line of joint b

step
c.

is

to obtain a true section

Knowing

the height h e and the width at the

Fig. 89.

bottom, which

drawn

is

on the miter line or

Fiff. 90.

equal to the diameter of D, the shape can be

shown in Fig. 92, J c is drawn equal to 5 c,

Fig. 91, while h d and h a are equal to the half diameter D in Fig.
Now through a c d in Fig. 92 draw the profile at pleasure as
91.
shown, which represents the true section on
5 in Fig. 91.
As the side branches A and C are alike, only one pattern will
at pleasure as

<?

be required, also a separate pattern for the center branch both of

which will be developed by triangulation. To obtain the measurements for the sections for the center branch B, proceed as shown
in Fig. 93 where 1 4 5 8 is a reproduction of one-half the branch

in Fig. 91.

As

the four quarters of this center branch are alike

only one quarter pattern will be developed; then,

if

desired, the

quarter patterns can be joined together, forming one pattern.

163

Now

SHEET METAL WORK

92

take a tracing of e h a, Fig. 02, and place

shown

in Fig. 1>3.

in Fig.

two

Similarly take a tracing of the quarter profile

91 and place

it

4 and 5

8'

profiles 1'

on the line 5 8 as

it

Divide the

on the line 4 1 in Fig. 93.

each into the same

number

of spaces as

from which
points at right angles to their respective base lines 1 4 and
7 8.
5 8 draw lines intersecting the base lines at 1 2 3 4 and 5
Now draw solid lines from 3 to and 2 to 7 and dotted lines from
These solid and dotted lines represent
3 to 5, 2 to 0, and 1 to 7.

shown respectively by points

Fig. 91.
tlib

bases of the sections

1' 2' 3'

4 and 5

6'

8',

Fig. 93.

Fig. 92.

whose altitudes are equal

heights of the profiles in Fig. 93.

The

to the various

slant lines in Fig.

94 rep-

resent the true distances on similar lines in Fig. 93, as those in

Fig. 95 represent the true distances on dotted lines in Fig. 93.

For the pattern take the length of 1' 8', Fig. 94, and place it
as shown by 1 8 in Fig. 96, and using 8 as center and 8' 7' in
Fig. 93 as radius draw the arc 7, which intersect by an arc struck
95 as radius. Then using 1' 2'
in Fig. 93 as radius draw the arc 2, which intersect by an arc
Proceed
struck from 7 as center and 7' 2' in Fig. 94 as radius.
from 1 as center and

in this

manner

1' 7'

until the

in Fig.

line

4 5

164

in

Fig.

has been obtained

SHEET METAL WORK

which equals 4 5

in Fig.

Trace a line through points thus

93.

14

5 8 1 give the quarter pattern.

desired in

one piece trace as shown by

obtained in Fig, 96, then will

the pattern

If

is

similar figures, to which laps

As

93

the two branches

must be allowed
and

tern will answer for the two.

in Fig.

Therefore

97 be a reproduction of the branch

ing oi a h c in Fig. 92 and place

for riveting.

91 are

let 1

in Fig. 91.

alike,

one pat-

7 8 11 14 in Fig.

Now take a trac-

shown by 11' 11 8 in Fig.

97; also take a tracing of the half section E and the quarter section D in Fig. 91 and place them as shown respectively by 1 4' 7 and
it

as

Fig. 96.

11 11' 14 in Fig. 97.

Now

Fig. 95.

divide the two lower profiles 8 11 and

11'

14 each into 3 eqnal parts, and the upper

equal parts as shown by the small figures 8 to
to 7.

draw
bers.

From

solid

11', 11' to

14 and 1

base lines as shown by similar

and dotted

lines as

shown

num-

shown, and construct the

98 and the sections on

as shown in Fig. 99 in precisely the same manner a,s

sections on solid lines as

dotted lines

profile 7 4' 1 into 6

these points, at right angles to the various base lines,

lines, intersecting the

Draw

5 6 7

2 3

described in connection with Figs.

in Fig.

94 and

95.

shown the pattern shape (to which laps must

be allowed for riveting) obtained as was the development of Fig.
96.
First draw the vertical line 1 14, Fig. 100, equal to 1 14 in
Fig. 97. Then use alternately as radii, first the divisions in 1 4' 7 in
Fig. 97, the proper slant line in Figs. 98 and 99 and the divisions
in 11' 14 until the line 4 11, Fig. 100, is obtained. Starting from
In Fig. 100

is

165

SHEET METAL WOKK

94

the point 11 use as radii in their regular order the distances

off

between 11' and

8,

marked

Fig. 97, then the proper slant lines in Figs.

98 and 99, the distances shown in the semicircle, 1

until the line 7 8, Fig. 100,

is

drawn equal

Id

12'

[4'

13

!2

Fig. 98.

Fig. 97.

7' 8'

11'

10134 2

Fig. 99.

1 7 8 11 14, Fig. 100, will be the half pattern.

desired in one piece trace 1

9w^t:r-I~''-T-.4'

-1-4--'^^1234 149 6
6 5
I

Then

to 7 8, in Fig. 97.

12'

4' 7, Fig. 97,

If the pattern is

14 opposite the

line

1 14

as shown.

In Fig. 101
oval to round,

is

shown a perspective view

commonly used

as

of a two-branch fork

breeching for two boilers.

As

Fig. 101.

Fig. 100.

both halves of the fork are symmetrical the pattern for one will

answer for the other.

While the side elevation shown

plete, it is

and then,

in Fig.

102

is

drawn com-

only necessary in practice, to draw one half as follows,

if

desired, the other half elevation can be traced

166

oppo site

SHEET METAL WORK

E J.

to the ceDter line

First

half diameter of the outlet,

VD
inlet D C

desired projection
lencrth of the

and the

to

Draw

E.

inches, equal to the

vertical center heicrht

J E one

Establish the height of the joint

inches.

and

draw J B, 1^

95

inch, and the

on the base line IJ inches.

2| inches, and draw a

J V, 2+

line

Draw the
from C to B

a similar .Hgure opposite the line J E, and

A B C DE FG

shows the side elevation of the fork. In their

proper position below A B draw the sections
and N whose
semicircular ends are struck from a h e and d with radii equal to
i inch. Now draw an end elevation in which the true section on

END
^1

Kyi

ELEVATION

,,

ELEVATION

.
,

n
Fig. 102.

J E

is

AB
eter

obtained.

and

GC

L J and

similar
place

it

Draw

the center line

A P and G

in elevation as

place

it

half diameter of the section

on either side of

shows the end elevation.

O T P,

<?/"

as

shown by

Draw E T

which

OT

in this case is struck

T.

It

X
f at

P.

as

Then

S.

intersectino- e

U, being obtained by bisecting the line

stood that the curve

S.

and extend the lines

Take the half diam-

on either side of <?/*as shown by

manner take the

draw the curve

fe

In a

OP
T.

and
S

Xow

from the center

should be under-

P, which represents the true section on

J E, can be made any desired shape, but when once drawn,

sents a iixed line.

167

repre-

SHEET METAL WORK

96

The pattern

be developed by triangulation, for which

will

diagrams of sections must be obtained from whi(;b

These sections are obtained as follows:

urenients.

14

5 12 13

is

a reproduction of

the quarter profile II

m,

o as

to obtain

shown by

L
1'

I,

JBC

D E,

the half profile

Reproduce

T, and the half profile

1" 13 1 and 12

1 I,

In Fig. 103

Fig. 102.

meas-

9' 8'

5 in Fig. 103.

Divide the round ends in a each into 3 parts and the profiles h and
c also

each into 3 spaces, as shown by the figures.

from these figures at right angles to the base

lines

Drop

from

lines

1 to 15 as

shown and draw solid and dotted lines in the usual manner. While
in some of the previous problems only dotted lines were drawn, we
,11

,1

I23II5I4

II

10

676

Fig. 104.
2^

14"^

M'V

ct

:.'-i-

10'

8'

231514

Fig. 103.

11109 678

Fig. 1Q5.

have drawn both solid and dotted lines in this case, in order to
avoid a confusion of sections.

A diagram

of sections on solid lines

shown in Fig. 104, the figures in both correspondThe

ing; while Fig. 105 shows the true sections on dotted lines.
method of obtaining these sections has been described in connection
in Fig.

103

is

with other problems.

For the pattern draw any

vertical line as

5,

Fig. 106, equal

4 5 in Fig. 103. Then with 5 C', Fig. 103, as radius and 5 in

Fig. 106 as center draw the arc 6, intersecting it by an arc struck
from A as center and 4 6', Fig. 105, as radius. Then using 4 3',
Fig. 103, as radius, and 4 in Fig. 106 as center, describe the arc 3,
intersecting it by an arc struck from 6 as center and 6' 3' in Fig,
to

Proceed in this manner, using alternately as

104

as radius.

first

the divisions in a in Fig. 103,

105; the divisions in

c in Fig.

radii,

then the slant lines in Fig.

103, then the slant lines in Fig.

168

SHEET METAL WORK

104, until the line

1 8, Ficr.

lOG,

is

97

Now

obtained.

using 8 as

draw the arc 9 in Fig. 100.

intersecting it by an arc struck from 1 as center and 1" 9', Fig.
Then starting at 1 in Fig. 106 use alternately as
104, as radius.

center and

8' 9',

Fig. 103, as radius

radii, Urst the divisions

in

Fig. 108, then the slant lines in

in

Fig. 105, the divisions in a in Fig. 103, then the length of the

104 until the line 12 13 is obtained in Fig. 106,

which equals 12 13 in Fig. 103. Trace a line through points thus
obtained in Fig. 106, then will 4 1 13 12 9 8 5 be the half pattern.
If the pattern is desired in one piece, trace this half opposite the
slant lines in Fig.

line

shown by 1' 13' 12' 9' 8', allowing

In Fig. 107 is shown a perspective view

4 5

as

laps for riveting.

of a tapering flange

around a cylinder passing through an inclined

the

roof,

flange

'a"

6 5
Fig. 107.

Fig. 106.

being rectangular on the roof

The problem

line.

by triangulation, a plan and elevation

first

will be developed

being required as shown

in Fig. 108.

draw the angle of the

through which draw a center line
First

on the center line

set off

(I

to L,

From

Then draw

and L.

plan making the four sides equal to

radius equal to

e
Z*

AB

H and G erect perpendiculars

completing the elevation.

the center line c

the roof line

F,

intersecting the roof line at

From

an angle of 45,

equal to 4 inches and through h draw

H and d G each two inches.

K and

C D.

at

making B F and B E each one inch.

center line draw the horizontal line G II, making

the horizontal line

Through d on the

AB

roof

or ^

in elevation

169

to

Construct the square in

H.

Bisect

intersecting the vertical center at d'

from

lines

and

and draw

Then with

d' in plan as center,

SHEET METAL WORK

98

draw the

circle 1

4:

iu elevation, while

As

elevation.

4'

representing the horizontal section on

II 1

is

the horizontal section on

the circle in plan

is in

E F
L in

the center of the square

two halves symmetrical it is only necessary to divide the

semicircle into equal spaces as shown from 1 to 7 and draw lines
inakino- the

0--'

Fig. 108.

from

1, 2,

3 and 4 to G, and

4, 5,

and 7

Then

to II.

will the

lines in 1

From any

point as

7 represent the bases of triangles which

4 and 4
will be constructed, whose altitudes are shown respectively by the
vertical heights in K E and L F iu elevation. Therefore draw horizontal lines through E F, K, and L as shown by F O, K N, and L M.

and

T U

and K.

respectively,

Now

and

on

O, draw the perpendiculars

meeting the horizontal

170

drawn from L
Gl, G2, G'S, and

lines

take the various lengths, in plan as

en

<
><*
i-i

U
>
PQ

o
ffi

-^

< t;
-J
J ^i
< S
a.
.

CT.

Pi

pa

b
o

M
o
2
Q

Exterior View

Living i;oom

RESIDENCE OF MR. ARTHUR HEDRTLEY, FOREST AVENUE, OAK PARK,

Frank Lloyd Wright.

Walls of Briek. S;ilmon Color; Roof of Shingles. Cost.

of

a,

ILL.

Oak Park, 111.

$14,000. A Strong and Unique Treatment

Architect,

llesidence Design.

SHEET METAL WORK

99

Gi

and place them on the line F O as shown by Tl, T2, T3 and T4,
from which points draw lines to U which will represent the true
lengths on similar lines in plan.
tances in plan from

line

O, from

E to

In similar manner take the dis-

and place them on the

from which points draw lines

to 4, to 5, to 0, to 7,

4, to 5, to 6, to 7,

S which represent the true lengths on similar lines in plan.

For the pattern take the distance F L in elevation and place
it on the vertical line 7' L in Fig;. 109.
At rio-ht ancrles to 7' L
draw L S equal to ^ H or r I in plan, Fig. 108. Draw the dotted
to

from

7'

in Fig. 109,

which should be equal

S 7 in
in Fig. 108.
Now with radii equal to S and S and S, Fig.
109, as center, draw the arcs indicated by similar numbers.
The

line

ta

i,

to

|-

dividers should equal the spaces in the semicircle in plan in Fig.

108, and starting at

7'

in Fig. 109, step

sponding numbers as shown by

from

4:'

to S.

Then

using;

6',

5',

as center

108, as radius, describe the arc

from arc

Draw

4'.

and

to arc of corre-

K in

a dotted line
elevation, Fiof,

in Fig. 109, intersecting it

by an

from 4' as center and U 4, Fig. 108, as radius. Now

using U ^, and U in X as radii, and U, Fig. 109, as center,
describe arcs having similar numbers.
Again set the dividers
equal to the spaces in plan in Fig. 108, and starting from 4' in
Fig. 109 step to corresponding numbered arcs as shown by 3', 2', 1'.
arc struck

171

SHEET METAL WORK

100

Draw

a dotted line from

Fig. 108, as radius, and

arc e intersecting

it

4' to
1'

U S L

<3

7'

opposite the line

4" 1"

One

U'

7'

K E

With

1'.

in elevation,

Fig. 109 as center, describe the

Draw

as center

and

a line connecting S, U,

e,

e in

and

1'.

shows the half pattern, which can be traced

L to complete the full pattern as shown by

S' L.

of the difficult

metal worker

in

to

by an arc struck from

plan in Fig. 108 as radius.

7' 4' 1'

is

problems often encountered by the sheet

that of a cylinder joining a cone furnace top at

any angle. The following problem shows the principle to be

applied, no matter what size the furnace top has, or what size pipe
is used, or at what angle the pipe is placed in plan or elevation, the
principles being applicable under any conditions.
Fig. 110 shows a view of a cylinder intersectinor a conical fur-

nace top, the top being placed to

one side of the center of the top.

ABCD

represents a portion of

the conical top, intersected by the

cylinder

EFG

cylinder II

II, the side of the

I to intersect at a

given point on the conical top as

at II.

This problem presents an

interesting study in projections,

intersections,

and development,

to

which close attention should be

given.

draw the center line A X. Then draw the

half elevation A B C D, making A B 1| inches, C D 3i inches
and the vertical height A D 2^ inches. Draw the line from B to
C.
Directly below C D draw the one-quarter plan using Z as
center, as shown by Z
D' and in line with A B of the elevation
draw the quarter plan of the top as Z B* A^ Let a in the elevaIn Fig. Ill

first

tion

represent the desired distance that the side of the cylinder

is

meet the cone above the base line as II in Fig. 110. From ,
parallel to C D in Fig. Ill, draw a h.
Then from a drop a verto

tical line

center and

a' as radius,

Then using Z as
describe the quarter circle a' h'.
Z a V

intersecting the line

C* in plan at

172

a'.

SHEET METAL WORK

101

in plan represents

tLe true section on the horizontal

plane a h in
e evat.on.
Kow locate the point where the side of the
cylinder as
II in i,g. 110 shall n.eet the
arc a' V in plan, Fig. Ill, as

shown

ONE HALFxi
ELEVATION

Fig.

111.

173

SHEET METAL WORK

102

Through 3" draw the horizontal

at 3".

M' and extend

line at K', the outer arc at

From

line intersecting the center

it

indefinitely to 3,

3 erect the perpendicular equal to the diameter of the cylin-

der, or 1| inches, bisect

it

and obtain the center

Using

c.

e as

center with c 7 as radius, describe the profile of the cylinder as

shown, and divide

from 1

into equal parts

it

From

to 8.

these

points draw lines parallel to 3 K', intersecting the outer arc D'
at N^ 0>

P R' and the

center line

X at

and the various intersections from K'

as center

L^

describe the arcs K'

intersection

B\ F\

G^

I' J',

From

E'

to A' as radii,

F^ and A'

B'.

From

the

L' erect vertical lines into the elevation

II', J',

intersecting the side of the cone

BFHJ

H\

With Z

ii\ E', A.\

I',

BC

as

shown by similar

letters

draw horizontal lines through the

elevation as shown respectively by A B, E F, G H, I J, and K L.
These lines represent a series of horizontal planes, shown in plan
by similar letters. For example, the arc E' F' in plan represents
the true section on the line E F in elevation, while the arc G' H'
is

L.

these points

the true section on the line

The next
appear,

if

step

in elevation, etc.

construct sections of the cone as

cut by the lines shown in plan by K' M',

To

and A' R'.

P',

is to

GH

At

upward (not shown)

line traced

thus obtained in elevation as shown from

section on the line A' R' in plan.

the cylinder intersects the arcs at

to

the line K'

M'

For example, the line K' M' of

K' 3" and M' respectively. From

Thus the

section line

3'

elevation at

the line

3'.

3' 7.

through
if

cut on

In similar manner obtain the other sections.

P,

O, and

IN

in elevation, represent

cut on the lines E' P', G' O', and I' N'
from the given point 3" in plan erect a line which

respectively the sections

must meet the

K L, h a, and D C

M respectively. Trace a curve

K M be the section of the cone

in plan.

Now

lines

R, will be the true

and

these points, then will

in plan.

draw

through intersections

these intersections, erect vertical lines intersecting

3',

arcs,

intersecting similar planes in elevation cor-

responding to the arcs in plan.

K,

N', G' O'.E'

right angles to the

A' R' and from the intersections on the various

in elevation at

would

obtain the section of the cone in elevation on

the line A' R' in plan, proceed as follows:

line

I'

it

if

intersection of the plane h a

and section

KM

in

From 3' at its desired angle, in this case 45, draw

At any point as d at right angles to 3' 7 draw the

174

SHEET METAL WORK

line 1 5 tlirough d,

5 and

diameter of the

in plan.

making d
cylinder shown

draw the profile of the cylinder

the same number of parts as shown

1 each equal to half the

With d 5

as center

into

to allow the circle

in elevation to

number 1 to the top

The next operation

the

103

in elevation,

in

make

and d

as radius

in plan,

and divide

it

being careful

a quarter turn, bringing

as shown.

obtain the miter line or line of joint

between the cylinder and cone in elevation. By referrinoto the
plan it will be seen that the point 7 in the profile
dies in the plane
of the section A' UK
Then a line from the point 7 in the profile

in elevation,

the section

shown by

is to

drawn parallel to the

E which corresponds

7' in

lines of the cylinder,

to the plane

The points

elevation.

and 8

plan, are in the plane at the section E'

sponding points 6 and 8 :n the

section

EP

as

shown by

6'

and

P,

A}

Pw' in

plan as

in the j)rofile c in

then must the corre-

d in elevation, intersect the

As the points 1 5, 2 4, and 3

profile
8'.

in the profile c in plan, are in the planes of the

sections

and K'

must cut

G' O',

I'

respectively, the corresponding points 1

5, 2 4,. and
the profile d in elevation must intersect the sections
G O, I N,

KM

respectively at points 1'

5', 2' 4',

through these points, which will

between the cone and cylinder.

line

and
show the

3' as

shown.

'

W,

in

and

Trace a

line of intersection

For the pattern for the cylinder, proceed as follows: At right

angles to the line of the c^dinder in elevation, draw the
line T U
upon which place the stretchout of the profile d as shown by similar figures on T U.
In this case the seam of the pipe has been
placed at 1 in d.
Should the seam be desired at 3, 5 or 7, lay
off the stretchout on
starting M'ith any of the given numbers.
At right angles to
T from the small figures 1 to 1 draw

TU

which

lines

intersect with lines

drawn from similar numbered

intersections in the miter line in elevation at right angles

1'
to
1, resulting in the intersections 1 to 5 to 1 in the pattern.
Trace a line
through points thus obtained, then will
^\ T be the develop-

U Y

ment
to

for the cylinder to

which laps must be allowed for

the cone as shown in Fig. 110 and seaming the joint

rivetino-

in

pattern in Fig. 111.

While the pattern

ordinary flaring

M'are,

for the cone

the

obtained the same as in

method will be described for obtainino-

176

is

SHEET METAL WORK

lOi

the pattern for

tlic

opening

can be done a plan view of

cone must
tersections
lines

first
1'

to
tlie

l)e

cut into the cone.

to 8' in elevation

in

the various in-

the profile c in plan, thus

obtainincr the intersections 1" to 8" throuirh

is

From

drop vertical lines intersecting

drawn from similar numbers

which

the pipe and

intersection l)etween

be obtained as follows:

iJefore this

which a

line

is

traced

the desired plan view.

For the pattern for

the

opening

in

the

cone, the outline of

the half elevation and
one.-quarter plan with

the various points of

intersections both in

plan and elevation in

Fig. 112

is

a repro-

duction

of

similar

parts in Fig. Ill, and

has been transferred

to avoid a confusion of

which would

lines

otherwise occur in obtaining the pattern.

Parallel to

DC in Fig.

112 from the various

intersections

draw

1''

to 8'

lines intersect-

ing the side of the

cone

B C from

1 to 8.

Through the various

intersections 1" to 8"

Fig. 112.

in plan

from the apex

Z draw lines intersecting the outer curve from 1 tb 8 as shown.

Extend the line C B in elevation until it meets the center line D A
extended at E. Then using E as center, with E C and E B as radii
draw the arcs C F and B JI. respectively. At. any point as 2^ on
the arc

C F lay

off the stretchout of the various points

plan from 2 to G" as shown by similar figures on

176

on

C F

W C^

as

in

shown

SHEET METAL WORK

from 2^

From

to G^.

draw radial lines to the apex

struck from E as center whose radii

these points

E, and intersect them by arcs

are equal to the various intersections on

Thus

arc

105

4 intersects radial

2^

line

4^

B C having similar numbers.

at 4^; arcs 3, 5,

and 2 intersect

and 2^, and so on. Trace a

through points thus obtained as shown from 1^ to 8^ which is

radial lines
line

5^, and

3^*,

the desired shape.

at 3^, 5^,

If a flange

is

desired to connect with the cylin-

must be allowed along the

der, a lap

inside of the pattern.

COPPERSniTH'S PROBLEMS.
In the five problems which will follow, particular attention

While all
the course can be used by the cop-

given to problems arising in the coppersmith's

the previous problems given in

is

ti'ade.

persmith in the development of the patterns where similar shapes

are desired, the copper worker, as a rule, deals mostly with

ham-

The

prin-

mered
ciples

surfaces, for

which

which

flaring patterns are required.

will follow, for obtaining the blanks or patterns for

hammered, are applicable to any size or

The copper worker's largest work occurs in

the various pieces to be

shape of raised work.

made in various
architects who design

the form of brewing kettles, which are

shapes, to

suit the designs of the different

the w^ork.

'In

hammering

large brewing kettles of heavy copper plate, the

hammered, and fitted in the shop, then set

together in the building, rope and tackle being used to handle the
various sections for hammering, as w^ell as in construction at the
building.
While much depends upon the skill the workman has
with the hammer, still more depends upon the technical knowledge

pieces are developed,

in

laying out the patterns.

work of this kind the patterns are but approximate, but

no matter what size or shape the work has, the principles contained
In

all

in the following

problems are applicable to

all

conditions.

shown a perspective of a sphere which is to be

constructed of horizontal sections as shown in Fig. 114, in which
for practice draw the center line A B, on which, using a as center,
and with radius equal to 2^ inches, describe the elevation of the
In Fig. 113

sphere

13

E.

is

Divide the quarter

circle

into as

many

hemi -sphere is to have sections, as s-hown by C F G D.

From these points draw horizontal lines through the elevation, as

spaces as the

177

SHEET METAL WOKK*

106

shown by C E, F H, and G I. Now through the extreme points

as E II, II I, and I D draw lines intersecting the center line B A
For the pattern for the first section
at J, K, and D respectively.
Z, take D I as radius, and using D' in Z* as center, describe the
circle shown.
For the pattern for the second section Y, use K I
and K H as radii, and with K' as center draw the arcs I' I- and IP

Fig. 113.

Ill

From any

Fig. 114.

point as 11^ draw a line to the center K'.

becomes necessary

to

draw a

section,

of the patterns can be obtained.

describe the quarter circle

from which the

Therefore with

/>

trfle

It

now

lengtli

as radius,

L, which divide into equal spaces, as

shown by the figures 1 to 5. Let the dividers be equal to one of those

spaces and starting at IP on the outer arc in Y' step off four times
the amount contained in the quarter section F L, as shown from 1

178

SHEET METAL WORK

to 5 to 1 to 5 to 1 in Y'.

IP

will

I'

IP be

From

1 or

107

IP draw

the pattern for the section

a line to

K^ Then

in elevation.

For the pattern for the third section, use J as center, and with
radii equal to J
and J E draw the arcs H 11^ and E E'. Now

set the dividers equal to

from

one of the equal spaces in

times the amount of

LF

F L and

starting

shown from 1 to 5
to 1 to 5 to 1 on the inner curve II II\
From the apex J through
H' draw a line intersecting the outer curve at E\ E E' H' H
set off four

shows the pattern for the center

pattern X^

we

Y' we space

off

section.

as

It will be noticed in the

space off on the inner curve, while on the pattern

on the outer curve.

These two curves must contain

same amount of material as

they join together when the ball is
raised.
To all of the patterns laps
must be allowed for brazing or
The patterns shown
soldering.
are in one piece; in practice where
the

the sphere
in a

is

number

large they are

made

of sections.

In Fig. 115

is

m.

shown the

spective view of a circular tank

an

ocree.

indicated

hj

ah

115.

per-

whose outline

is

in the

form of

The portion for which the patterns will be described is

by A A, made in four sections, and riveted as shown

c d.

Fig. 116 shows

how

the pattern

is

developed when the center

shown from 3 to 4 in elevation. First

draw the elevation A B C D, making the diameter of A B equal
to 7 inches, the diameter of D C 4 inches, and the vertical height
Through the center of the elevation draw
of the ogee 1| inches.
draw the half
the center liney A, and with any point upon it as
plan through A B and C D in elevation as shown respectively by
E F and
G. Now divide the curved parts of the ogee into
Draw a line through
equal spaces as shown from 1 to 3 and 4 to 6.
the flaring portion until it meets the center liney A at J. / will,
Take
therefore, be the center with which to strike the pattern.
the stretchout of the curve from 3 to 1 and 4 to 6 and place it on
the flaring line from 3 to 1' and 4 to 0' as shown by the figures.
Then will 1' 6' be the stretchout for the ogee. It should be underof the ogee

is

flaring as

',

179

SHEET METAL WORK

108

shown from 3 to 4.
The portion shown from 3 to 1' is stretched to meet the required
profile 3 2 1, while the lower part 4 to 6' is raised to conform with
the lower curve 4 5 6. Therefore, knowing that the points 3 and 4
are fixed points, then from either of these, in this case point 4,
stood that no liammering

is

done

to that part

"^^-^ggHnirrrrrT

Fig.

11(5.

drop a vertical line intersecting the center lino

Then with

EF

in plan at a.

a as radius, describe the quarter circle a e,

and space it into equal parts as shown by t?, Z, c, 6?, 6, which represent
Using
the measuring line in plan on the point 4 in elevation.
1' as radii, draw the arcs 1"-1"',
as center, and j 6',
4, j 3 and /
3"-3"', 4"-4"' and G"'-G"' as shown.
From 1" draw a radial line to /
i as center

and

y'

;'

intersecting all the arcs as shown.

ISO

Now

starting at 4" step off on

SHEET METAL WORK

109

the arc -^"A"' twice the stretchout of the quarter circle a e as

shown

by similar letters a to e to a' in pattern. From J draw a line

through "' intersecting all of the arcs as shown. l"-l"'-6"'-6"
shows the half pattern for the ocree.

While

in the

previous

problem the greater part of

the ogee was flared, occasion

may

arise

where the ogee

is

composed of two quarter circles struck from centers as

shown

in

Fig. 117.

First

draw the center line A B,

then draw the half diameter
of the top
C equal to 31

inches and the half diameter

E D

Make

1| inches.

vertical height of the

inches,

the

ogee li

through the center of

which draw the horizontal line

a h. From C and D draw vertical

lines

intersecting the

horizontal line
respectively.

and

5,

at

and

Then using a

as centers

with radii

equal respectively to

C and

draw the quarter circles

shown completing the ogee.
In the quarter plan below
which is struck from the center F, G J and H I are sections respectively on D E and
C in elevation. The methh

odsof obtainingthepatternsin
this case are slightlv different

than those employed in the previous problems.

shown from C to c
shown from e to D

The upper curve

will

have to be stretched, while the lower curve

will

have to be

raised.

Therefore in the stretch-

out of the pattern of the upper part from

181

1' to

3 and 3 to

5'

the

SHEET METAL WOKK

no

edges must be stretched so as to obtain more material to allow the

metal to increase in diameter and conform to the desired shape

shown from 1 to 8 and 3 to 5. In the lower curve the opposite

method must be emplo3^ed. While in the upper curve the edges
had to be stretched .to increase the diameters, in the lower curve
the edges must be drawn in by means of raising, to decrease the
diameter, because the diameters to the points 5" and

9'

are greater

than to points c and d.

To

obtain the pattern for the upper curve

draw a

stretched,

line

from

to c\ bisect

it

which uiust be
and obtain d, from
c

which erect the perpendicular d 3 intersecting the curve at 3.

Through 3 draw a line parallel to C c intersecting the center line
A B at m. Now divide the curve C c into equal spaces as shown
from 1

to 5

drawn on
curve

set off

shows the amount of material required

to 1'

to

and 3

form the

In this case 3 represents the stationary point of the

c.

blank on which the pattern will be measured.

drop a vertical line intersecting the line

on the line just

shown from 3

either side of 3 the stretchout

1' 5'

5',

to

and starting from the point 3

Therefore from 3

Then using

II at 10.

10 as radius, describe the arc 10 16, and divide

it into equal spaces as shown from 10 to 10. Now with radii equal
3 and in 1', Fig. 117, and with m, in Fig. 118 as cento m 5',

and

as center

describe the arcs 5

ter,

5',

3'

and 1

1'.

Dra^v the radial line

intersecting the two inner arcs at 3 and 5.

As

the arc 3

3'

repre-

sents the statii^nary point 3 in elevation in Fig. 117, then set the

dividers equal to the spaces 10 16 in plan and step off similar

spaces in Fig. 118 on the arc 3

lar

numbers 16

to 10.

starting at 3 as

3',

Through 10 draw a

shown by simi-

line to the

apex

tn^

and the outer curve at I'c

1 1' 5' 5 is the quarter pattern for the upper curve or half of the
ogee, to which laps must be allowed for riveting and brazing.
intersecting

the

5'

inner curve at

For the pattern for the lower curve in elevation in Fig, 117
draw a line from c to D; bisect it at e and from e erect a perpendicular intersectincr the curve at 7.
From 7 draw a horizontal line
intersecting the center line aty.

"raisincj"

many
case

is

as follows:

the rule to be followed in

Divide the distance from

parts, as the half diameter

7y equals

Now
F

is

to 7 into as

equal to inches.

2^ inches; (any fraction up

182

<?

to the

^ inch

In this
is

not

SHEET METAL WORK

111

taken into consideration, but over ^ inch one is added). Therefore

Then divide the distance from e to 7 into
for 2^ inches use 2.

two parts
as shown
c to

as

shown

at i

and through

i parallel to c

intersecting; the center line at

Now

IST.

draw a

line

divide the curve

shown by the figures 5 to 9. Let off

the stretchout from 5 to 9 as shown from 5" to

into equal spaces as

on either side of

Fig. 118.

9'.

From

drop a vertical line intersecting

Then using F
resents the

line

as center

draw the arc 23 17

measuring line

in plan

on

i in

as

II in plan at 23.

shown, which rep-

the stretchout.

The student may naturally ask, why is i taken as the measuring

in plan, when it is not a stationary point, for when "raising" i

outward with the raising hammer until it meets

the point 7.
In bulging the metal outward, the surface at i
stretches as much as the difference between the diameter at i and

will be bulged

183

SHEET METAL WORK

112

In other words,

7.

if

measuring point were taken on 7

tlie

it

would be found that after the mould was '<^raised" the diameter
would be too great: But by using the rule of dividing e 7 into as

many

parts as there are inches in/" 7 the diameter will be accurate

while this rule

is

In this case

but approximate.

7 has only been

divided into two equal parts, leaving but one point in which a line

would be drawn througn

semi-diameter 7/"

Let us suppose that the

D.

parallel to c

the space from

Then

equal to eleven inches.

is

would be divided into just so

many parts, JirZ through the first j>(n"t
nearest the cove the line would be drawn
d

to 7

parallel to c

used
11 i,

Now

i.

with radii

and n 5" and n

in Fig.

as

118 as center,

5'" i

describe the arcs 5"

From any

we have
equal to n 9',

and used

i'

and 9

9'.

point as 5" draw a line to n

Now

intersecting all the arcs shown.

take the stretchout from 17 to 23 in

])lan.

Fig. 117, and starting from 17 in

Fig. 118

mark

on the arc

off equivalent distances

as

Draw

shown.

through 23 to the apex

??,

a line

intersecting

the inner and outer arcs at 9' and

will 9 5" 5'" 9' be the greater pat-

Then

tern for the lower part of the ogee.

Fig. 119.

Another case may

center of the ogee

B.

d and

in

is

are applicable to
//,

and

a seam at

in Fig.

;'.

i as

is

c to

where the

in Fig.

119 being a straight

strip as

the section on c in elevation.

any form of mould as shown

The bead
shown by

as explained in connection

for

shown from

length equal to the quarter circumference

in

Fig. 117 which

c^f^

vertical as

arise

119

in

In this case the same principles are applied as in Fig. 117;

the pattern for o

c

5'".

in

would be made

in

in

d' in plan

These rules
Fig. 119, by

two pieces with

the dotted line, using the

with

c'

high as

same method

in elevation in Fig. 117.

The coppersmith has often occasion to lay out the patterns

curved elbows.
While the sheet metal worker lays them out

184

SHEET METAL WOEK

113

coppersmith's work must form a curve as shown in

Fig, 120 which represents a curved elbow of 45"',
in pieces, the

shown how an elbow is laid out having 90",

similar principles being required for any degree of elbow.
First
draw the side elevation of the elbow as shown by A B C D, makIn Fig. 121

is

Fiff. 121.

Fig. 120.

E B equal to 4i inches and the diameter B C 2

Bisect C B at K.
Then with E as center and E K as

ing the radius

inches.

radius

the front view in

draw the center

thus

KJ

draw the arc

making

its

line

representing the seam at the sides.

proper position as
I representing the

the elbow in four pieces.

185

F G H,
seam

at

Draw

through which

back and

Directly below

front,

C B draw

SHEET METAL WORK

114

the section of the elbow as

M draw

Tliroutrb

center.

curve of the elbow a

ah

shown hy a

h c

the diameters h

struck from

d and a

c.

M as

The inner

plan will be stretched, while the outer

Through il draw the diagonal

Now draw
3 G intersecting the circle at 3 and f respectively.
a d; through/ parallel to a d draw a line intersecting the center
curve

c \n plan will

line

AE

of G

a and G

be raised.

On either side of /" place the stretchout

shown hjfa' 2a\df d'. Then with radii equal

extended at O.
<^

as

a and with O on the line A B, Fig. 122, as center

describe the arcs d d and a a.
Make the length of d d equal to
the inner curve D C in Fig. 121.
From a and d in Fig. 122
draw lines to the apex O extending them to meet the outer curve
to

d'

and

a d d a be the half pattern for the inner

portion of the elbow for two sides.
The radius for the pattern for
the outer curve is shown in Fig. 121 by N c', N h\ placing the
at

a and

a.

Then

will

186

Cupplt"^ Hall. Xo.

2.

First Floor Devoted to Mechanical

BuildiuLC is 207 Feet Louii. 4? Feet Wide
Eu^ineeriim: Seeoud Floor, to p:ieetrical Kiisineeriiisi-

The Library. The Building is 257 Feet Long. 46 Feet Wide. The Reading Kooni is 100 Feet by
Feet. The Stacks for Books Have Room for Over 400,000 Volumes. Cost of Building, $250,000.

Busch Hall, the Chemical Laboratory.

The

Building' is

2it0

Feet Long.

60 Feet

Wide.

THREE FIREPROOF BUILDINGS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON,

Illustrating the Restful Effect of a Long,

ST.

Almost Unbroken Roof-Line.

Cost

41

f 110.000.

LOUIS, MO.

TERRACE OF HOUSE AT MONTECITO, CALIFORNIA

Myron Hunt & Elmer Grey, Architects, Los Angeles, Cal.
For Perspective View

of Building, See

Page

138: Basement, First, and Second Floor Plans Shown

on Page 154.

SHEET METAL WORK

115

stretchout of the cnrv^e On either side of the point

e.

1/

b c c in Fig.-

122 shows the pattern for the outer curve, the length
obtained from A B in elevation in Fiof. 121.
In work of this kind the patterns are made a
allow for trimming after the elbow
be allowed on

all

is

h h

longer, to

little

Laps must

brazed together.

patterns for brazing.

Fig. 123 shows a perspective view of a brewing kettle,

horizontal sections and riveted.

in

being

The same

made

principles which

were employed for obtaining the patterns for a sphere in Fjg. 114
are applicable to this problem.
Thus in Fig. 124, let A B C represent a full section of a brewing kettle as required according to

Through the middle

architect's design.

center line

draw the

divide the

B to C into as many parts

half section

the kettle

as

Now

E.

of the section

shown by

c,

is

d,

have pieces as

to

From

e^f.

these

small letters draw horizontal lines

through
c

the section, as

A, d d\

e e\

andyy

shown by
and in its

proper position below the section,

draw the plan views on each of these

horizontal lines in elevation, excep-

ting d' d, as
I

F G H,

e"

through the

shown

Ficr.

123.

respectively by

e"

&n&f"f"\
points c d draw
Then

all

struck from the center a.

a line which

if

Now

extended would meet

would be the center with

which to draw the arcs c c and d d"\ the flange c h would be
added to the pattern as shown by h'. The stretchout for this patI in plan
tern 1' would be obtained from the curved line F G
and stepped off on the outer arc c c. In similar manner through
the center line.

this intersection

<?,

ef^

andy C draw

the lines intersecting the center line

K, L, and C. Then using the points

patterns 2', and 3\ and the full circle 4\
The stretchout for the patterns 2' and
at

circle e"

e"

in plan

as center, describe the

3' is

obtained from the

and placed on the inner curve of the pattern 2\

and on the outer curve of the pattern

3'.

If desired the stretchout

f"f"' in plan, and placed on the

which would make the pattern similar as before.

could be taken from

of 3^

DE

187

inner curve

SHEET METAL WORK

116

In large kettles of this kind, the length of the pattern

is

guided

by the size of the sheets in stock, and if it was desired that each ring
was to be made in 8 parts then the respective circle in plan from
which the stretchout is taken would be divided into 8 parts, and
one of these parts transferred to the patterns, to which laps must
be allowed for seaming and riveting.
!D

FULL SECTION

Fig. 124.

PROBLEMS FOR WORKERS

AA^liile all

developments

IN

of the problems given in this course are applicable to

in

heavy metal as well as

in that of lighter

using metal of heavier

elbows, or any other work,

diameter.

It is

customary

it is

gauge, the

made from boiler

gauge than number 20, for

following problems relate to those forms

When

HEAVY METAL.

plate.

pipes,

necessary to have the exact inside

in all

shops working the heavier metal,

188

SHEET METAL WORK

add a certain amount

to

117

make up for the loss

incurred in bending, in order that the inside diameter
of the article
(pipe, stack, or boiler shell) may be kept to a uniform
and desired
to the stretchout to

This amount varies according to different practice of workmen, some of whom allow 7 times the thickness of the metal
used,
while others add but 3 times the thickness.
Theoretically
sizt.

the

amount

3.1416 times the thickness of the metal.

For example, suppose a boiler shell or stack is to be made 48
inches in diameter out of |-inch thick metal.
If this shell is to
measure 48 inches on the inside, add the thickness of the metal,
which is I inch, making 48A inches. Multiply this by 3.1416
is

and the result

will be the

width of the sheet. If, on the other

hand, the outside diameter is to measure 48 inches,
subtract tlie
thickness of the metal, which would give 471 inches
and multiply that by 3.1416 which would give the proper width
of the sheet.
It is well to

may

plate

remember

that no matter

what the thickness of the

be, if it is not added, the

will not be large

enough

diameter of the finished article

for where no account is taken of the

thickness of the metal, the diameter will measure from

the center
of the thickness of the sheet.
While this rule is
theoretically cor-

rect there is

always a certain amount of material

lost

during the

forming operations.

It is, therefore, considered the best practfce to

use seven times the thickness of the metal in question.
The circumference for a stack 48 inches in diameter inside using l inch
metal would be, on this principle, 3.1416 X 48
to

laps

would have

(7

|)

which

be allowed for riveting.

Where the stack has
both diameters equal a butt joint is usually employed with a collar
as shown at either a or l in Fig. 125, but where one end of
the stack
to

into the other, a tapering pattern

is to fit

will be described as

we

must be obtained which

proceed.

In putting up large boiler stacks it is usual to finish at the

top with a moulded cap, and while the method of obtaining the patterns

is

similar to parallel line developments, the

method of

devel-

oping such a pattern will be given showing how the holes are

punched

Ou

for a butt joint.

In Fig. 126 a view of the moulded cap on a stack is shown.

a large size stack the cap is often divided into as many as 32

pieces.

If the stack

is to

be

made

189

in horizontal sections the rules

SHEET METAL WORK

118

given in the problems on coppersmithing apply.

While

ing the patterns for a cap in vertical sections, the plan

in obtainis

usually

divided into IG to 32 sides, according to the size of the stack;

have shown

127 a quarter plan so spaced as to give 8 sides to

This has been done to make each step distinct, the

in Fig.

the full circle.

same principles being applied no matter how many sides the plan

we

Itimrrm-

has.

SHEET METAL WORK

line

DH

as

shown by

J'

Then

I'.

will

119

J^

I'

be the complete

pattern for one side.

When

riveting these pieces together an angle

on the inside and the miters butt sharp,

a neat

fit.

is

usually placed

filing the corners to inake

This being the case the holes are punched in the

shown by

tern before bending as

X X X etc.

Assuming

pat-,

that the

Fig. 127.

stack on which the cap

is

to

fit is

48 inches

in diameter, obtain

the circumference as previously explained and divide

cause the plan

is

composed of 8 pieces) placing one-half of the

tance on either side of the center line

that

yig

tire

miter cut, as partly shown by

D II

of the circumference is equal to 9

circumference were equal

shown

in

by 8

part by

d h

to

until

1)

it

cl,

in pattern.
-e,

trace

dis-

Assuming

from

e i to the line I^ I.

(be-

the en-

If the J^

the cut would then be traced as

met the

191

line I P.

This, of course.

SHEET METAL WORK

120

would be done on the half pattern 9 J I I before tracing it opposite

Should the plan be divided into 32 parts,
the center line D II.
divide the circumference of the stack by 32 and place -^\ of the circumference on 9 J in pattern, measuring from the center line D II,
and

after obtaining the proper cut, trace opposite the line

In constructing a stack where each Joint tapers and

fits

of the other, as

shown

Fig. 128, a short rule

in

is

H.
inside

employed

for

obtaining the taper joints without having recourse to the center.

In the illustration a h represents the

first joint,

the second

slip-

Fig. 128.

ping over
at e

and

it

cl.

Fig. 129.

with a lap equal ioJ\ the joint being riveted together

When drawing the first taper joint a h, care must be

taken to have the diameter at

diameter at the bottom at

f on

the outside, equal to the inside

This allows the second joint to slip

h.

over a certain distance so that

when

sheets before rolling, the holes wnll

pipe

the holes are punched in the

fit

over one another after the

is rolled.

drawn on the line of its

inside diameter, as explained in Fig. 128/", and e in Fig 129 represents respectively the half sections on a h and cl c.
By the short
In Fig 129 a h e

rule

\Q

?i

taper joint

the radial lines of the cone are produced without having

)98

SHEET METAL WOKK

recourse to the apex, which,

121

obtained in the full-size drawincrs.

would be so far away as to render its use impracticable.
method
if

similar to the following

is

used for obtaining the arcs for the pattern

where the taper is so slight as

common apex impracticable.
in all cases

Let

On

al

rZ.

to render the use of a

Fig. 130, be a reproduction oia h <

in Fio-. 120.

and h c. in Fig. 130, place duplicates of

a If c (Irs shown by J' c and a' d'. This can be done most accurately
by using the diagonals d h and ^ a as radii, and with d and c as
either side of a

<1

centers describe the arcs h

h'

and a

a' respectively,

and

intersect

Fig. 130,

them by

from a and I as centers, with radii equal

respectively toal and I a as shown.
In precisely the same manner
obtain the intersection c' and d' at the bottom.
Xow through the
intersections h' aha' and d' c d c draw the curve as shown by bendarcs struck

ing the straight-edge or any straight strip of wood placed on edge

and brought against the various intersections, extending the curves
at the ends and top and bottom indefinitely.
Since the circumference of the circle

more than

three times the diameter, and as we

only have three times the diameter as shown from c to d' and
is

then multiply .1416 times the bottom and top diameter d c

and a h respectively, and place one-half of the amount on either side
h'

to

a',

of the

bottom and top curves as shown by

e,

e,

and

h, Ji.

Now take

one-half of seven times the thickness of the metal in use and place

183

SHEET METAL WORK

122

it
i.

on either side on the bottom and top curves as shown hjf]/" and
i\ and draw a line from i to/' and /' to/'. To this lap must be

shown by i i' /' fFig. 131 shows a three-pieced elbow made from heavy metal,
the two end pieces fitting into the center pieces, to which laps are
The principles which shall be explained to
allowed for riveting.
cut these patterns and make the necessary allowance for any thickness of metal is applicable to any elbow.
In Fig. 132 draw as previously described the elbow ABC,
l)elow G H draw the section of the inside diameter as D which is
struck from a, and divide into equal spaces as shown by the figures
Through these figures draw vertical lines
1 to 5 on both sides.
intersecting the miter line b c, and from
these intersections parallel to c ^ draw

The

allowed for riveting.

desired pattern

is

line^intersecting the line

e as

shown.

Before obtaining the stretchout for

preliminary drawing
must be constructed, in which an allowthese elbows, a

ance

made

is

material that

for the thickness of the

is to

be used.

This draw-

ing makes practical use of a principle

known

well

Fie. 131.

draughtsmen from

to

its

application to the proportional division

of lines

and

shown

clearly

is

ness of the metal in use,

it is

must distribute
(R) draw any horizontal

it

end, but

out of

In allowing for the thick-

evident that

we cannot allow it

at

uniformly throughout the pattern.

one
In

upon which place the stretchthe inside diameter of the pipe D, as shown by similar

figures on
to 7

at (B).

F.

line as

F,

From 1^ on E F

lay off the distance 1^

equal

times the thickness of the metal in use as before explained.

Then using

as center

secting the vertical line

intersections

from 1

the slant line 1

to

E ?n

draw the arc ?)i 1' interdrawn from 1*^, and from the various

and

1 on

as radius,

EF

1' at 2' 3' 4', etc.,

with the various intersections

is

erect perpendiculars intersecting

as shown.

now

The

slant line 1 1

the correct stretchout for the

elbow made of such heavy material called for by the specifications.

On G
1

1'

as

II extended, as

shown from 1

I,

to 1'

place the stretchout of the slant line

on II

I.

194

At

right angles to

and

SHEET METAL WORK

123

from the various intersections, erect lines, which are intersected

by lines drawn parallel to
I from similar numbered intersec-

tions on the miter line h

c.

Trace the curve

]M.

M I II shows

the pattern for the two end pieces of the elbow.

As
pieces,

the middle section

it is

in Fig.

131

is

to overlap the

two end

unnecessary to allow for any aQlditional thickness on

rirm

account of this lap when suitable flanging machines are available;

but since

it is

some instances, to make an allowance

riveting, the method of allowing for this lap

desirable, in

in the pattern for

will be explained.

In (R), Fig. 132, lay off on the line

E F

the distance

'/Ji

equal to 7 times the thickness of the metal in use, and with radius
equal to

Draw

E n draw

an arc intersecting the line 1

the slant line from 1" to 1 and extend

to intersect 1 1" at 2" 3" 4", etc.

195

The

1'

extended at

1".

the vertical lines

slant line 1 1" is the corall

SHEET METAL \YORK

124

At right angles to d c
draw J K equal to 1 5" 1" in (R), as shown by similar figures in
J K, throucT-h which draw lines at ricrht ano-les.to J K, and interTrace
sect them by lines drawn at right angles to d e as shown.
rect stretchout for the

middle section B.

the curved lines to produce

OPUS,

which

middle section,

to

is

the pattern for the

which flanges are

lowed as shown by dotted

The perspective

al-

lines.

of an

intersection

between pipes having different diam-

work is shown in Fig.

^Vhile the method of obtaining

eters in boiler

13B.

the j)atterns

is

similar in principle to

parallel line developments, a slight

Fig.

1.33.

change

is

required

in obtaining the

allowance in the stretchout for the thickness of the metal in use.

Let

B, Fig, 134, represent the part section of a boiler struck

with a radius equal to 3|" and

let 1

7 7^ 1 be the elevation of the

whose inside diameter

intersecting pipe,

is

4^", as

shown by

1 7.

5^re
Fig. 134.

Divide the half section

14

numbered, from which drop

7 into an equal
vertical lines

line of the boiler at 1 to 7 as

l>e

of

shown.

obtained in which allowance has been

the metal in use.

line

AB

lay

off

t^he

number

of spaces, as

intersecting the outside

true stretchout

made

must now

for the thickness

Therefore, in Fig. 135, on the horizontal

stretchout of twice the inside section of

i8e

SHEET METAL ^YORK

the pipe in Fig. 134, as

1^

135, adding

a^

shown by similar

figures

125

on

AB

in Fig.

equal to 7 times the thickness of the metal in

For example, supposing ^-inch steel was used; the distance

Y^ a would then be equal to 7 X ^, or 1| inches. Kow draw the arc
a 1', using 1 as center, which is intersected by the vertical line drawn
from 1^. From 1' draw a line to 1, and from the various points
use.

on

AB

erect perpendiculars intersecting 1

shows the true stretchout

134

to

1' at 2' 3'

-i',

etc.

1'

be be laid off on the line 1 7 extended

and from the various intersections on 1 1' drop

vertical lines and intersect them bylines drawn parallel to 1 1' from
similar intersections on the curve 1 7^ as shown.
Trace a curved
in Fig.

as 1

1',

shown from C to D. 1 C D 1' shows the pattern for the

vertical pipe to which a flange must be allowed for rivetino- as
shown by the dotted line.
line as

It is

now

necessary to obtain the pattern for the shape to be

cut out of the boiler sheet, to admit the miterino- of the vertical

In some shops the pattern

pipe.

is

not developed, only the vertical

shown in Fig. 133, then set in its proper position on the boiler and line marked alonor the inside diameter of the
pipe, the pipe is then removed and the opening cut into the boiler
pipe

flanged, as

is

with a

^Ve give, however, the geometrical rule for obtaining the pattern, and either method can be used.
chisel.

As

AB

134 represents the outside diameter of the

boiler, to which 7 times the thickness of the metal used must be
added to the circumference in laying out the sheet, and as the vertical pipe intersects one-quarter of the section as shown by 5 c,
take the stretchout from 1^ to 7^ and place it from 1 to 7 on
F G in (E), to which add 7 ^, equal to l of 7 times the thickin Fig.

ness of the plate used.

Draw

the arc e 7", using 1^ as center,

by the vertical line drawn from 7^. Erect the usual

and draw 7" 1^, which is the desired stretchout. Xow

intersectincp it

vertical lines

place this stretchout on the line

lines as

shown.

AB

in Fig. 136, erecting vertical

Measuringp in each and every instance from the

line 1 7 in Fig. 131, take the various distances to points 2, 3, 4, 5,

and 6 and place them in Fig. 136 o.n lines having similar numbers,
measuring in each instance from A B on either side, thus obtainTrace the curve 1 4 7" 4, which
iug the points 2, 3. 4, 5, and 6.
is

the desired shape.

Ii7

SHEET METAL \YORK

126

Fie. 137 sliows a perspective of a gusset sheet

on a loco-

motive, the method of obtaining this pattern in heavy metal

shown
circle

is

draw the end view ABC, the semi4 1-1 being struck from a as center with a radius equal to 2
First

Fig. 138.

in

Fig. 135.

Make the distance 4 to C and ! to B both 3 J inches and

draw C B. Draw the center line A F, on which line measure up
inches.

2^ inches and obtain

J,

which nse

as center with radius equal to a

draw the section of the boiler D E F G. In its proper position

N.
I J K L
H I L N II shows the
draw the side view
side view of the gusset sheet shown in end view by G A E D G.
Divide the semicircle 4 1 4 in end view into equal spaces as
shown, from which draw horizontal lines intersecting II N in side
4,

Fig. 136.

view from

draw

1'

to 4'.

Fig. 137.

From

these intersections parallel to II

from 1"

line

at c d^

lines indefinitely intersecting 1

angles to

N L produced

draw the

to 4".

on

At

1.

right

which a true

must be obtained at right angles to the line of the gusset

Measuring from the line A D in end view, take the varisheet.
ous distances to points 2, 3, and 4 and place them on corresponding lines measuring from the line c d on either side, thus obtaining

section

19b

SHEET METAL WORK

the intersections

1'^

to 4, a line traced

through these points

In (Y) on any line as

be the true section.

oat of the true section as shown from

127

4'',

will

O P lay off

the stretch-

As

the gusset

1",

4^^.

sheet only covers a portion equal to a half circle, add the distance
4 e equal to

-|

of 7 times the thickness of

the metal in use and

Fig. 138.

usincr 4^ at the left, as center

4^ by

with 4

e as radius, describe the arc

drawn from 4^. From

O P erect vertical lines intersecting; the line drawn from 4-^ to 4^
4^ 4^ is the true stretchout, and should be
at 3^, 2^, 1^, etc.
Through
I,
placed on the line E, S drawn at right angles to
the numbers on P, S and at right angles draw the lines shown
and intersect them by lines drawn from similarly numbered interThrough points
I.
sections on II N and I L at right angles to
c

4^, intersecting

it

at

the vertical line

199

SHEET METAL \YORK

128

It now bethus obtained trace a curved line 4^, 4^, and 4^, 4^'.
in
comes necessary to add the triangular piece shown by L

MN

which can be done as follows: Using L

in side view as radius and 4^' at either end of the pattern as cenintersect thein by arcs struck from
ters, describe the arcs m and //
4^ and 4^ as centers, and
N in side view as radius. Then draw
side view, to the pattern

from 4^

lines

to

m to 4^ in the pattern on

tern shape for the gusset sheet will

4^ 4^,

to

Fio-.

The full patthen be shown by in 4^ 4^ m

either side.

which laps must be allowed for riveting.

139 shows a conical piece connecting two

the flare of

the pattern.

boilers with

such that the radial lines can be used in developing

In all such cases this method should be used in pref-

erence to that given in connection with Fig. 130.

Thus in Fig.
shown by a h.

139 the centers of the two boilers are on one line as

While the pattern is developed the same as in flaring work, the
method of allowing for the metal used is shown in Fig. 140.

ABCD
(

-/^

-f

vH

r?

^^^^^^g-jr

^ ~^^"^

~^
^^^^^^-^
~

"'Ji^

^
^~

is

the elevation

^^ ^^^ conical piece, the half

by 1 4 7 M'hich
into equal spaces.

(E)

Fig. 139.

is

used.

and 1

The

<?

is

1 7 1 in

in

equal to 7 times the thickness of the nietal

line 1 1' is then obtained in the usual

Now

2' 3' 4', etc.

the various intersections

and

divided

is

the full stretchout of

the inside section

elevation,

shown

inside section being

manner

as are

extend the lines

AB

meet the center line a h at

draw the arcs 1' 7' and 1" 7". From

in elevation until they

Then using a c and a

draw a radial line to ,

cl

intersecting the inner arc at 1".

Now

a.
1'

set

and starting from 1'

in the pattern step. off 6 spaces and draw a line from 7' ioa inter1' 7' 1" 7" shows the half pattern to
secting the inner arc at 7".

the dividers equal to the spaces on 1

1'

in (E)

which flanges must be allowed for riveting.

Fig. 141 shows a view of a scroll sign, generally made of
heavy steel, heavy copper, or heavy brass. So far as the sign is
concerned it is simply a matter of designing, bat what shall be
given attention here is the manner of obtaining the pattern and
elevation of the scroll.

As

these scrolls are usually rolled

200

up

in

SHEET METAL WORK

form

of

spiral, the

method

of

drawing the

129

spiral

will first

be shown.
Establish a center point as

a' in

Fig. 142, and with the desired

radius describe the circle shown, which divide into a polygon of

/"2

__^___^_^_^ cc
\5

INSIDE^l-Z

DIAMETER
\

SHEET METAL WORK

130

manner using as radii 4 B, 5 C, G D,

the spiral shown has been drawn. Then

B, and proceed in similar

and 1 E, until the part of

using the same centers as before continue until the desired spiral
obtained, the following curves running parallel to those

The

size of the

polygon a\ determines the size of the

In Fig. 143
of the flag sign

let

A B C D represent

shown

in Fig. 141.

In

first

is

drawn.

spiral.

the elevation of one corner

its

proper position in Fig.

143 draw a section of the scroll through its center line in elevation
as shown by a 17 to 1, which divide into equal spaces as shown
from 1 to 17. Supposing the scroll is to be made of ^ inch thick

Fig. 142.

makes two revolutions tBen multiply ^

by 14, which would equal 1| inches. Then on E F in Fig 144
place the stretchout of the spiral in Fig. 143, as shown by similar
numbers, to which add 17 E equal to 14 times the thickness of
metal in use, and draw the arc E 17' in the usual manner and
metal, and as the spiral

obtain the true stretchout with the various intersections as shown.

Through the

elevation of the corner scroll in

Fig. 143

draw the

upon which place the stretchout of 17' E, Fig.

144, as shown by similar numbers on EF in Fig. 143.
At right
angles toE F, through I'and 17', draw \T 17 equal to AB and 1^ 1
equal to the desired width of the scroll at that point.
Then at
pleasure draw the curve 1^ 17 ou either side, using the straightcenter line

F,

202

ESQ., BUFFALO, N. Y.
Carrere & Hastings, Architects, New York.
Plan Showing Layout of Grounds. For Exterior View, See Opposite Page.

RESIDENCE FOR

F. H.

GOODYEAR,

SHEET METAL WORK

131

SECTION
THROUGH

CENTER

Fig. 143.

203

SHEET METAL \YOKK

132

edge and bending

it

as required.

Then

will 1 1 17 17 be the

pattern for the scroll using heavy metal.

If

it is

desired to

know how

up, then at right angles to

17'

draw

lines intersecting the

both sides.

drop

lines

EF

this scroll will

look

when

rolled

and through the intersections

curves of the pattern

1' to

1H

on

shown on one side only,

intersecting similar numbered lines, drawn from the

From

these intersections,

intersections in the profile of the scroll in section parallel to

B.

To avoid a confusion of lines the points 1^,- 8^, 5^, 7^, 10^, 12^,
and 17^ have only been intersected. A line traced through points
thus obtained as shown from 1^ to 17^ in elevation gives the projections at the ends of the scroll when rolled up.

204

111

o
li.

EXAMINATION PLATES.
PLATE

III.

In this plate a set of pipe fittings

is

sliown which should be

drawn by the student carefully according to the measurements

which will be given. If necessary, copy it before sending for
examination and correction. This plate should be laid out the
same size as previous plates and the border lines drawn as before.
There are five fittings shown which will require, six patterns,
lieproduced plates of the patterns are not sent to the student; he
should work out the problems for himself according to directions
given.

draw

First

in Plate III the rectangular section

ABC

D,

1| X 2| inches, with the line A B ^-inch below the

margin line, and A B ^-inch to the right of the margin line. Now
with a in the section as center and with radius equal to -inch draw

making

it

the circle

G H IJ

so that I will be tangent at

Then

in the section.

ABCD

will be the true section

while G.II I J shows the section on the line

quarter inch from the line

FL

equal to 2^ inches and from

EFLK

E.

whose base
section.

is

K L.

erect the line

on

Draw E F

C, and at right angles to

or equal to the height of the circle I

D C and G I be central

in section.

F,

F,

one-

draw

1^ inches

Draw

the line

represents the side elevation of a transition piece

rectangular and whose top

The dotted

lines in section

is

round, as shown in the

and elevations show how the

figure is divided into sections of scalene cones, necessary

developing the patterns.

Now

extend the line

KL

as

when
Z'

and

from h as
with radius equal to \\ inches draw the quadrant L
center.
Then using b again as center with ^
as radius draw the

outer arc

Draw

N,

drawn from
I J,
shown by G

intersectingr the horizontal line

the 3 -piece elbow, whose section

is

explained in connection with Fig. 42, Part

dotted line through the elbow and from

extended lay

oflE

I.

Draw

h.

as

the center

u on

the horizonal line

a distance equni to one inch as K^. From V "

measure down on a vertical line a distance equal to 4| inches, to

the point %o.
Using ro as center with a radius equal to 1^ inches
describe the circle li S T.
From w on the vertical line measure

207

SHEET METAL WORK

13i

np

a distance of 1| inches to

line

P, making x

drop vertical

lines

x and through

and x

()

,/;

each IJ inches.

O, forming the transition piece

round pipes

w'ith

diameters equal to

MK

Draw

main pipe

with the transition piece "W.

A
Draw

and

W, which connects
and P O respectively.

collar connecting the

shows the side elevation of the

From

the circle at S and R.

intersecting

M P and N
X
R

draw the horizontal

front elevation of the fittings should be

drawn

as follows:

the center dotted vertical line ccl 2| inches to the left of the

and from the various intersections in the side elevaDraw a l)roken view of the
tion draw the dotted lines shown.
main pipe Y, ^ inch from the margin line, and making both sides
margin

line,

Draw the

equal distance from the center line.

the collar and
line

main pipe

P O and

shown by i S^ /', drawing a curved

P^ O^" and M^' N^^ represent the same
in side elevation.
They are measured

as

through these points.

diameters as

MN

on either side of the center line

is

intersection between

in front .elevation,

e'

a front elevation through efli in side view, while L' K'

on

section

Draw

A^ B' C^ D'

L.

is

ABCD

equal to

h' f"

a true

is

in section.

dotted lines showing the transition from the rectangular sec-

round as given

tion to

done Plate III

We

is

in the front elevation.

When

this has been

completed.

have now

five fittings

for

which the patterns must be

developed, and for which no reproduced

plates

are sent.

The

student should follow the rules given in previous problems.

PLATE
The patterns

IV.

for the transition piece

U and

the 3-pieced elbow

constitute Plate IV.

To

obtain the patterns for the transition piece U, use the de-

scription given in connection with Figs.

diagram

14 and 15, but lay

off the

of triangles similar to the directions given in connection

with Figs. 78 to 81. The patterns for the 3-pieced elbow

V should

be developed as described in connection with Figs. 46 and 47.

These two problems IJ and
should be carefully laid out on sim-

ilar sized

plate as previously used.

in

to

come within ^ inch of the margin line

such positions to make a neat appearance.

allow any of the patterns to

and place the patterns

Care should be taken not

208

SHEET METAL WORE

PLATE
The
opening

To

patterns of
in

V.

W and X, together with

Y, constitute

135

the pattern for the

this plate.

obtain the pattern for the transition piece

W,

use the rule

described in connection with Figs. 11 to 13, and for the pattern

use rules described in connection w^ith Figs. 133 and

13-1.

In this

shown
in those figures, but assume that we are using ordinary gauge
metal.
For the pattern for the opening in the main pipe Y use
rules given in connection with Figs. 131 and 136, and also omit
case

we make no allowance

for the thickness of the metal as

allowing for heavy material.

EXAMINATION PLATES.
Plates III to Y, inclusive, constitute the Examination for this

Instruction Paper.

As above mentioned.

Plates

lY

and

are

drawn by the student himself, and therefore no reproduced plates

The date, student's name and address, and the plate
are sent.

number should be

lettered

on each plate in inclined Gothic capitals.

209

SKYLIGHT
The upper
curb measures
6'

0"

illustration

6'

wide
It

line.

this the

whose

the run of the rafter or length of the glass being

Five bars are required, making the glass 15 inches

and flanged around the

curb of the skylight

bolt being

tion, that

rests,

inside of the angle iron construction; over

bolted through the angle iron as shown, the

when

is

used in the section through CD, with the excep-

the flashing cannot be

made

in

one piece, a cross lock

manner indicated, over the fireproof blocks.

The

to

capped and soldered to avoid leakage.

The same construction

of a flat pitched skylight

A working section through AB and CD is shown below.

will be noticed in the section through AB that the flashing is locked

the roofing

in the

shows the layout

0" X 7' 6",

on a horizontal

WORK *

illxistration referred

to will be found ou the back of

tliis

page.

is

placed

coriSTDUCTion DH/^Mina aROwina layout

OF FLA.T aKVOGMT AliD lAETFiOD OF
FA5TE:n.in.G FL-Asamo on aagle.
luon con5TRucTion,

l'l2>^shm^

Condensa-Vion

tube

vSecrion
Un'2',

Section throu.o.h lov/e-r

end. of ourb A.-E>

Tj.pper

through

end
C-D

fOR EXPLANATION OF THIS PROBLEM SEE BACK OF PAGE

of

curb

SHEET METAL WORK

PART

SKYLIGHT

III

WORK

Wliere formerly skylights were constructed from wrought iron

o.r*

wood, to-day

sheet iron

in all the large cities they are being

and copper.

construction^ lightness

made of galvanized

Sheet metal skylights, having by their peculiar

and

strength, are superior to iron

lights; superior to iron lights,

inasmuch as there

is

and wooden

hardly any expan-

sion or contraction of the metal to cause leaks or breakage of glass;

and

wooden lights, because they are fire, water and condensation-proof, and being less clumsy, admit more light.
The email body of metal used in the construction of the bar and
curb and the provisions which can be made to carry off the inside consuperior to

densatioii,

make sheet metal skylights superior to all others constructed

from different material.

CONSTRUCTION
The construction of a sheet metal skylight is a very
if

the

patterns for

simple matter,

the various

intersections are properly devel-

For example,

oped.

shown

in

the

bar

Fig. 145 consists of a

piece of sheet metal having the

required stretchout and

and bent by
or

length,

special machinery,

on the regular cornice brake,

into the

shape shown, which rep-

resents strength

the least

amount

and

rigidity with

of weight.

A A

represent the condensation gutFig. 145.

ters to receive the

condensation

from the inside when the

warm

Fig. 146.

air strikes against the cold surface of

B B show the rabbets or glass-rest for the glass.

146, C C is a re-enforcing strip, which is used to hold

the glass, while

In Fig.

213

the

SHEET

134

two walls

O O together and

WORK

INIETAL

impart to

it

When skylight

great rigidity.

bars are required to bridge long spans, an internal core

sheet metal and placed as

shown

weight-sustaining power.

In this figure

at

in Fig. 147,

B B

is

made

which adds

shows the glass

of

to its

laid

on

a bed of putty with the metal cap

C C

C, resting snugly against the

glass,

fastened in position by the

rivet or bolt

large span

to

is

similar to that

used.

D.

Wliere a very

be bridged a bar

shown

in Fig.

heavy core plate

of j-inch thick metal

is

or bolted to the bar at

construction,

all

148

A made

used, riveted

and B.

the various

terminate at the curb shown at

C
Fig. 147.

The

in Fig. 149,

wooden frame

^j^g

condensation gutters

CC

the internal gutter in the curb at

provided for this purpose at

a,

which

in the

bar

b,

is

is

In
bars

AB

fastened to

D E.

carry the water into

thence to the outside through holes

In Fig.

F.

50

is

shown a

sectional

view of the construction of a double-pitched

skvlight.

A shows

the ridge bar with a core in

the center and cap attached over the glass.

shows the cross bar or

large skylights
glass in

where

clip

it is

which

is

used in

impossible to get the

one length, and where the glass must

be protected and leakage prevented by means

of the cross bar, the gutter of which conducts

the water into the gutter of

the main

bar,

thence outside the curb as before explained.

is

iron

made

the frame generally

of

wood

or angle

and covered by the metal roofer with

ing as

shown

at F.

flash-

shows the skylight hnv

with core showing the glass and cap in position.

is

the metal curb

against which the bars terminate, the condensation

being

let

out

through the holes shown.

In constructing pitched skylights having double pitch, or being
hipped, the pitch

is

usually one-third.

214

In other words

it is

one-third

SHEET
of the span.

]\IET.\L

WORK

135

a skylight were 12 feet wide and one-third pitch were

required, the rise in the center would be one-third of 12, or 4 feet.
When a flat skylight is made the
I)itch is

If

usually built in the

or iron frame and a

laid over

it.

The

flat

wood

skylight

glass used in

the construction of metallic skylights

is

usually J-inch rough or

ribbed glass; but in some cases

heavier glass
If for

to

know

is

used.

any reason

it is

desired

the weight of the various

thickness of glass, the following

table will prove valuable.

Weight

of

Rough Glass Per

Square Foot.

Thickness in inches.

1-31315

8- 2'
ly* iWeight in pounds.
_S*

2.

2^. 3^.

5.

S-

I-

7. 8*. 10.

12i.

Fig. 150.

215

Fig. 149.

SHEET IMETAE WORK

130

SHOP TOOLS
In the smaller shops the bars are cut with the hand shears and

formed up on the ordinary cornice brake.

In the larger shops, the

curbs are cut on the large squaring

strips required for the bars or

shears,

and the miters on the ends of these

known

as a miter cutter.

strips are cut

set of dies for the

The

of cutting the various miters on the various bars.

formed

in

is

known

two operations

as a

various skylights

by

and

IN

which the bar can be

OBTAINING THE PATTERNS

parallel lines.

tory or circular skylight

bars,

in

bars are then

be employed in developing the patterns for the

to
is

Drop Press

purpose

to the length of 10 feet.

METHOD EMPLOYED
The method

is

This machine consists of eight foot presses

on a single table, each press having a different

formed on what

on what

is

required, the blanks for the various curbs,

ventilators, are laid out

Work, Part IV, under

however, a dome, conserva-

If,

by the rule given

in Sheet

Metal

''Circular W^ork".

VARIOUS SHAPES OF BARS

In addition to the shapes of bars
clusive, there is

shown

in Fig. 151

gutters, the joint being at A.

rabbets of the bar, while

shown

in Figs. 145 to 148 in-

a plain bar without any condensation

BB

represents the glass resting on the

shows another form of cap which covers

m\\\\\\\\\\\^
^ c

^^U^oc
Fig. 153.

Fig. 152.

the joint between the bar and glass.

bar

Fig. 152 gives another

form of

which the condensation gutters and bar are formed from one

in

piece of metal with a locked hidden

on which no putty
it is

is

seam

Fig. 153

at A.

required w'hen glazing.

It will

shows a bar

be noticed that

bent from one piece of metal with the seam at A, the glass

resting

which

on the combination rabbets and gutters

is

fastened by

means

of the cleat K.

2-inch wide from soft 14-oz. copper,

These

and riveted

216

C.

is

B B

the cap

cleats are cut

about

to the top of the

bar

SHEET METAL WORK

at F;^then a slot

then the cap

down

is

137

D as shown from

cut into the cap

a to 6 in Fig. 154;

pressed firmly onto the glass and the cleat

which holds the cap in position.
is

Wlien a skylight
quired, as

shown

is

consti'ucted in

turned

which raising sashes are

re-

A and

in Fig. 155, half bars are required at the sides

B, while the bars on each side of the sash to be

raised are so constructed that a water-tight joint
is

when

obtained

which

156,

Fig. 155.

is

closed.

This

is

shown

an enlarged section through

Thus

in Fig. 156,

AA

in Fig.

AB

in

represents the

two half bars with condensation gutters as shown,

seam taking place

sent the two half bars for tlie
the locked

ed

to

at

B B.

CC

Fig. 154.

repre-

raising sash with the caps

same, as showTi, so that when the sash

C C

is

DD

attach-

closed, the caps

Fig. 155.

DD

cover the ]omt between the glass

F F are

bars.

the half caps soldered at

HH

protect the joints between the glass

EE

and the stationary half

a a to the bars C C which
and the bars C C.

VARIOUS SHAPES OF CURBS

In Figs. 157, 158 and 159
are showTi a few shapes of curbs

which are
vnth

flat

used

connection

in

skylights.

157 shows the curb

in

for the three

sides of a flat skyUght,

formed in

one piece with a joint at B,

shows the cap, fastened as

glass

is

thick

and allows the water

217

to

is

made

run over.

wliile

"A" shows

pre\'iously described.

height at the lower end of the curb, which

Fio-.

the

as high as the

In Fig. 158,

is

SHEET

138

INIETAL

WORK

anothe/ form of skylight formed in one piece and riveted at B;

In the previous figures the frame

a shows the height at the lower end.

on which the metal curb

rests is of

shown

at A.

is

Fig. 159.

Fig. 158.

Fig. 157.

of angle iron

wood, while in Fig. 159 the frame

In this case the curb

is slightly

changed

shown at B bent in one piece, and riveted at C. In Figs. IGO, 161,

and 1G2 are shown various shapes of curbs for pitched skylights in
A in Fig. 160 shows a curb formed
addition to that shown in Fig. 149.
in one piece from a to 6 with a condensation hole or tube shown at B.

as

Fig. 161.

Fig. 160.

In Fig. 161
rest

is

shown a

on the cm-b at B.

slightly modified

Wlien a skylight

whose walls are brick, a gutter

is

is

to

shape A, with an

be placed over an opening

usually placed around

ai8

offset to

tlie

wall, as

5-

<
K

O
o:
OQ

w'

O
&
:<
CQ
(d

O
W
<

THE "NASSAUER HAUS

Btiilt at the EiKl of the
ue(. orated

" IN

NURNBERG, GERMANY

Thirteenth Century.
Railing of Gallery underneath
Roof is
w ith Coats of Arms. In the Niche over the Fountain atRed-Tile^
the
Lower Right, is a Statue of King Adolf von Nassau.

SHEET ^lETAL WORK

139

which A represents a section of the wall on which

a gutter, B, Ls himg, formed from one piece of metal, as shown from a
to b to c.
On top of this the metal curb C is soldered, which is also
showii in.Fig.

62, in

formed from one piece with a lock seam at i.

wooden core i<? slipped inside as shown at D.

To

stiffen this

From

curb a

the inside con-

densation gutter / a 14-oz. copper tube runs through the curb, shown
at d.
The condensation fi'om the gutter e in the bar, drips into the
gutter

/,

out of the tube d, into the main gutter B, from w^iich

it is

con-

veyed to the outside by a leader.

an enlarged section of a raising sash, taken

A in Fig. 163 shows the ridge bar, B the
in Fig. 155.

In Fig. 163

through

lower cm-b and

163

D the side

tion with Fig.

Fig.

is sho^^^l

E F

156.

shows

sections of the bars explained in connecin

upper

the

fi'ame of the raising sash,

1|

fit-

ting onto the half ridge bar

A.

On

each raising sash, at

the upper end two hinges

are riveted at

and

which

I,

allow the sash to raise or close

by means of a cord, rod, or

gearings.

shows

lower frame of the sash

fitting

Holes are

over the cm-b B.

punch'ni at

the

allow

to

the

condensation to escape into

b,

thence to the outside through

C.

Over the hinge

leakage.

Fig. 164

Fig. 163.

a hood or cap

is

shows a section through

placed which prevents

AB

in Fig. 167

resents a hipped skylight having one-third pitch.

one-thu'd pitch

is

meant a

to one-third of the

span

whose altitude or height A B, is equal

If the skylight, was to have a pitch of

CD.

or one-fifth respectively of the span

illustration

AB
CD.

would equal one-fourth

shows the consti'uction of a hipped skylight with

ridge ventilator which will be briefly described.

the inside ventilator;

a skylight of

skylight

one-fourth or one-fifth, then the altitude

The

By

and rep-

CD

is

the curb;

EE

F F tlie outside ventilator forming a cap over the

219

SHEET IMETAL WORK

140

glass at a.

G shows the liood held in position by two cross braces

J represents a section of the

glass

KK

rests.

common

H.

bar on the rabbets of which the

shows the condensation gutters on the bar

J,

Fig. 164

which are notched out as shown

at

M,

thus allowing the drip to enter

N and discharge through the tube P.

the hood G as shown by the arrow.

the gutter

under

Fig. 1G5.

220

The

foul air escapes

SHEET METAL WORK

141

VARIOUS STYLES OF SKYLIGHTS

In Fig. 165
()lared

shown what

is

is

known

as a single-pitch light,

and

is

on a curb made by the carpenter which has the desired pitch.

Fig. 166.

These
tration,

skylights are chiefly used

and made

to set

on steep roofs as shown

in the illus-

on a wooden curbs pitching the same as the

Fig. 167.

roof, the

curb

one or more

first

lights

being

flashetl.

Ventilation

is

by means of gearings, as shown

Fig. 168.

221

obtained by raising
in Fig. 155.

SHEET METAL WORK

142

Fig. IGG

shows a double-pitch

by placing lou\Tes

at

is

obtained

Fig. 167

shows a

Ventilation

each end as shown at A.

is

called the hip

the small bar D, m'itering against the corner bar,

is

called the jack

skylight with a ritlge ventilator.

])ar;

skylight.

bar, while

E is called

itor skylight

the

common

The

corner bar

Fig. 168 illustrates a hip

bar.

with glazed opening sashes for ventilation.

mon-

These sashes

can be opened or closed separately, by means of gearings similar to

those

shown

in Fig.

177

In Fig. 169

is

shown the method of

raising

Fig. 1G9.

sashes in conservatories, greenhouses,

applicable to both metal

and wooden

of a photographer's skylight;

if

etc.,

the

sashes.

same apparatus being

Fig. 170

shows a view

desired, the vertical sashes

can be made

to open.

In Fig. 171
or building.

is

shown a

The upper

flat

side

extension skylight at the rear of a store

and ends are flashed

into the brick

work

and made water-tight with waterproof cement, while the lower side
rests

on the rear wall

to

which

it is

fastened.

222

In some cases the rear

SHEET METAL WORK

U3

to planks are not rec,u,rl

when a cast iron gutter is usecl.
i-ig. 1/3 shows
a hippe<l skvlight without
a rid^^e ventilator
on a metal curb in which
Iou^Tes have been placed
n>a, be made stationar,
or movable.

,et

^e

mJirLS^

Fig. 170.

constructed as

shown

B shows them

closed,

in Fio- 174 in wli,Vli A d.

and^c op;:

''^,'^::;:^:zT

.ants attached to the upright

bars a and
and dow-n by cords or chains

ha. a veo. long span, as

1/0,

:;!;:::{

which in turn a^e ptdle

worked from below. W.en
a

in Fig. 17,3,

it is

b,

sho

constructed as

m wh ch A represents a T-beam which

Th,s construct, allows

the water
upper hght to the outside

W'^Z
'

can be trussed if necessav

to escape from the
botton o

the

of the top of the lower

skvhVht
of the upper liglu fitting
over the curb B of the lowe;
li^h

223

'

ZcM

SHEET

144

^YORK

A
shown the method of applying the gearings
view of the metal or wooden sash partly opened, B the

In Fig. 177

shows the side

]\IET.\L

is

Fig. 171.

and C the binder that fastens the main shaft to

the upright or rafter. D shows the quadrant wheel attached to main
shaft and E is the wonn wheel, geared to the qnadrant D, communend of the main

shaft,

icating

is

motion to the whole

shaft.

a hinged arm fastened to the

main
sash.

shaft

B and

hinged to the

By turning the hand-wheel

the sash can be

opened

any

at

angle.

DEVELOPMENT OF PATTERNS
FOR A HIPPED SKYLIGHT
The
and

folio w^ing

illustrations

text will explain the princi-

ples involved
pattern,'^ for

in developing

the

the ventilator, curb,

common
and cross bar

hip bar,

bar, jack bar,

or

in

clip,

Fig. 172.

hipped skylight.
j^'.fs

These

princi-

a^e also applicable to any other form of light, whether

double-pitch, sinr"le-pitch, etc.

224

flat,

SHEET MET-\L WORK

145

In Fig. 178 IS shown a half

section, a quarter plan, and
a
diagonal elevation of a hip bar,
including the patterns for the curb
hip jack, and common bars.
The method of making these drawings
will be explained in detail, so that
the student

who pavs

Fig. 173

Win have no
pitci) ot

close attention

difficulty in laying

the skylight

may

out any patterns no matter what

the
be, or what angle its plan may
have

draw any center hne as A B, at right

angles to which lav off
C 4 , equa! to 1 2 inches. Assuming that the light is
to have one-third
First

Fig. 174.

pitch, then

D equal to S inches which is one-third

and draw tlie slant hne D 4/ At right angles
to D 4' place

make the

of 24 inches,

distance

a section of the common bar as shown by E,

thj-ough which draw lines
parallel to D 4', intersecting the curb
sho^T, from a to at the bottom
f
and the inside section of the ventilator from
F to G at the top. At

225

SHEET METAL WORK

146

draw the section

hood shown from m to p.
pleasure

on

i j to

of the outside vent

shown from h

to

and the

X represents the section of the brace resting

uphold the hood resting on

it

in the corner o.

The

condensa-

Fig. 175.

tion gutters of the

common

bar

are cut out at the bottom at 5'

which allows the drip to go into the gutter d

out of the opening indicated by the arrow.

each half of the

common

bar section

e f

oi the curb

Number

as shown, from

side, tlirough

and pass

the corners of

6 on each

1 to

which draw

lines

4' imtil

they inter-

sect the curb at the

bottom as

parallel to

shown by similar numbers 1' to

G', and the inside ventilator at the
top by similar figures 1" to 6".
This completes the one half-section of the skylight.

Fi'om this

section the pattern for the

mon
Fig. 176.

com-

bar can be obtained without

the plan, as follows:

draw the line I J upon wh'ch place the

stretchout of the section E as shown by similar figures on I J. Through
these small figures, and at right angles to I J, draw lines, and intersect
tliem by lines drawn at right angles to D 4' from similarly numbered
intersections 1' to 6' on the curb and 1" to 6" on the inside ventilator.
Trace a line tlirough points thus obtained then A* B* C* D^ will be the
At

right angles to

4'

226

SHEET METAL WORK

pattern for the

common

would be employed

From

pitch hght.

h:

bar in a hipped skvUght.

The same method

a pattern were developed for a

if

this

same

or a doub'.e-

flat

half section the pattern for the curb

is

developed by taking the stretchout of the various corners in the curb,

abS'

4' c

by similar

letters

AB

angles to
angles to

and

4'

and placing them on the center line A B as shown

and figures. Through these di\asions and at right

/,

draw

lines

which

from similar points in the curb section

through points thus obtained then E^ F^

;

the curb shown in the half section.

to

a wall be the half pattern for

Y represents the condensation hole

be punched into the pattern between each

lighto

As the portion

drawn at right
a f. Trace a line

intersect with lines

d turns up on

c 4',

light of glass in the sky-

use r as a center, and with

Fig. 177.

the radius

r s

strike the semicircle

shown.

Above

.semicircle

tliis

punch the hole Y.

Before the patterns can be obtained for the hip and jack bars, a
quarter plan view must be constructed which
intersections

and between the hip and jack bar.

any point on the center

xAs the skylight

line

AB

as

K, draw

E with the various

K 1.

K L at right angles to A B.

figures

Take a

Through

an angle

tracing of the

common

it

on the hip

4 come directly on the hip as

the various figures

287

at

on same, and place

1 in plan so that the points 1

shown by E^

Therefore, from

forms a right angle in plan, draw from K,

of 45, the hip or diagonal line

line

give the points of

between the hip bar and curb, between the hip bar and

vent, or ridge bar,

bar section

-^-ill

draw

lines parallel to

K 1

PATTERN FOR
CC^MON BAR

^CUT
^

FOR UPPER END

OF JACK BAR

SHEET

WORK

^lETAI.

149

drawn

one-half of which are intersected by vertical Unes

B
on

1'

from similar points of intersection

tlie

parallel to

on the curb, and

to 6'

1" to 6"

shown respectively in plan by

Below the hip line K 1 trace the

ventilator in the half section, as

intersections 1 to 6

and

to

6^'.

opposite intersection as shown.

should be understood that the

It

section E^ in plan does not indicate the ti'ue profile of the hip bar

only placed there to give the hori-

(which must be obtained

later), but is

zontal distances in plan.

In laying out the work in practice to

the upper half intersection of the hip bar in plan

is all

be noticed that the points of intersections

It will

that

in plan

is

full size,

requu-ed.

and one half

have shnilar numbers, and if the student will carefully follow

each point the method of these projections \y\\\ become apparent.
section

Having obtained the true points of

step

is to

obtain a diagonal elevation of the hip bar, from which a true

section of
line as

tlie

hip bar and pattern are obtained.

M parallel to K
C

tion as the base line

points 1 to 6 and
crossing the line

and

6' at

4'

V to

1.

This base hne

6^'

this

From

the various

in plan, erect lines at right angles to

4' in

1" 2" 3" 4" 5"

draw any
has the same eleva-

To do

has in the half section.

M indefinitelv.

instance from the line

to points

intersections in plan the next

Now measuring in each

and every

the half section take the various distances

and 6"

at the top,

and

to points 1' 2' 3' 4' 5'

the bottom, and place them in the diagonal elevation meas-

uring in each and every instance fi'om

tlie

Une

^I on the similarly

drawn from the plan, thus locating respectively the

points N 1^ 2" 3^ 4^ 5^ and 6"^ at the top, and F 2^ 3^ 4^ 5^ and 6" at
the bottom. Through the points thus obtained draw the miter lines
1^ to 6"^ and F to 6^ and connect the various points by hues as shown,

numbered

lines

which completes the diagonal elevation of the hip bar intersecting the

To obtain the true section of the hip bar,

common bar E or E^ and place it in the position

curb and vent, or ridge.

take a tracing of

tlie

shown by E^ being

rV

as shown.

andes

to

l""

careful to place the points

From

draw

diao^onal elevation as

4 at right angles to

the various points in the section E^ at right

lines intersecting similarly

shown from

to 6

on

numbered hues

eitlier side.

Connect these

points as sho\s-n; then E^ will be the true profile of the hip bar.

the difference in

tlie

two

profiles; tlie

in the

Note

normal E^ and the modified E^

Having obtained the true profile E^ tlie pattern for the hip bar is
1""
F.
obtained bv drawing the sti-etchout line O P at right angles

229

SHEET METAL WORK

150

Take the stretchout of the

Through

similar figures.

O P draw lines which

E^ and place

profile

these small figures

intersect

it

on

and

O T as shown by

at right angles

to

drawn at right angles to F 1^

top and bottom, thus obtaining the

by

lines

from similarly numbered points at

A line traced through the points thus
points of intersections shown.
obtained, as

shown by H^

J^

K^ L^

will

be the pattern for the hip bar.

For the pattern for the jack bar, take a tracing of the section of the
common bar E and place it in the position in plan as shown by E^
being careful to have the points 1 and 4 at right angles to the line 1^ 1.
2 as
It is immaterial how far the section E- is placed from the corner

same no matter how far

the section is placed one way or the other. Through the various
1"^ intercorners in the section E- draw lines at right angles to the line 1
sectino- one half of the hip bar on similarly numbered lines as shown by
the intosections P2^3^ 4^ 5^ 6'^ and 1^2^3M^5'^ andG"^; also interthe intersection with the hip bar remains the

secting the curb in plan at points

the jack bar and curb in plan

P to 6^.

The

intersection

not necessary in the development of

is

the pattern as the lower cut in the pattern for the

same

common

shown

is

in plan to

bar

is

the

However, the

as the lower cut in the pattern for the jack bar.

intersection

between

make a complete drawing.

At right

angles to the line of the jack bar in plan, and from the various intersections with the hip bar, erect lines intersecting similarly

shown from

,tions

Thus from

section as shown.

lines in the

to 6^ in

plan, erect

numbered

various

the

vertical

lines

intersecintersect-

In
ing the bar in the half section at points shown from 1^ to 6^.
similar manner from the various points of intersections 3', 5', and G'^

bar in the half section at points

in ])lan, erect lines intersecting the

shown by

3'^ 5'^

Connect these points

G'^

which represents the line of joint

in the half section, as

in the section

shown,

between the hip and jack

bars.

For the pattern

out can

l)e

angles to

draw

for the

common bar.

Therefore, at right
4' and fi-om the various intersections I'' 2^ Z^ ^'.h^ and 6^

used as that used for the

lines intersecting similar

common

numbered

bar as shown by similar

various intersections 3'

right angles to
fis

upper cut of the jack bar, the same stretch-

shown by

fy^

and

G"^

figures.

in the

lines in the pattern for the

In similar manner from the

one half

section,

D 4' intersecting similarly mnnl)erod

3"^ 5"^

and

G'.

Trace

lines

230

from point

draw

lines at

lines in the pattern

to point, then the

SHEET METAL WORK

cut

shown from N^

151

to P^ will represent the miter for that part

shown

in

plan from 2^ to 6^, and the cut shown from P^ to O* in the pattern will

shown in plan from 2^ to 6"'. The

lower cut of the jack bar remains the same as that shown in the pattern.
The half pattern for the end of the hood is shown in Fig. 179, and
is obtained as follows:
Draw any vertical line as A B, upon which
place the stretchout of the section of the hood m nop in Fig. 178, as
shown by similar letters vi n o p on A B in Fig. 179. At right angles
to A B and through the small letters draw lines, making them equal in
length, (measuring fi'om the line A B) to points having similar letters
represent the cut for that part

in Fig. 178, also

shown

measuring from the center

in Fig. 179,

which

For the half pattern

is

line

A B.

Connect points

the half pattern for the end of the hood.

for the

end of the outside

ventilator, take the

A
h
2
3"
4"

HALF PATTERN

FOR
Tl

HALF PATTERN
FOR END OF
OUTSIDE VENT

END OF HOOD

H
G HALF PATTERN
FOR END OF

Tn

INSIDE

Fig. 179.

stretchout

Fig. 181.

Fig. 180.

oihijkl in

shown by
making them in

Fig. 178

and place

it

on the

Fig. 180 as

similar letters, through

lines

length,

letters in Fig. 178, also

VENT

vertical line

AB

in

which draw horizontal

measuring from

measuring from the center

B, equal to similar
line

A B.

Connect

shown in Fig. 180 which is the desired half pattern. In

Fig. 181 is shown the half pattern for the end of the inside ventilator,
the stretchout of which is obtained from F V 2" S" A" H G in Fig. 178,
the points as

the pattern being obtained as explained in connection with Figs. 179

and

180.

When a skylight is to be constructed on w^hich the bars are of such

lengths that the glass cannot be obtained in one length,
or clip

main

is

required as

shown by B,

in Fig. 150,

bar, the pattern for this intersecting cut

231

and a cross bar

which miter S against the

is

obtained as shown in

SHEET METAL WORK

152

Fig. 182.

of

tlie

Let

A represent the section

cross bar,

and

main

Note how

section.

its

of the

bar,

this cross

the elevation

bar

that the water follows the direction of the arrow, causing

cause the upper glass a

is

beddod

capped by the top flange of

the corners of the section

tlie

bar

is

bent so

no leaks be-

in putty, while the lower light b

(See Fig. 150).

as shown, from

to 8,

Number

all

is

of

from which points

draw horizontal lines cutting the main bar A at points 1

At right angles to the lines in B draw the vertical line D

shown
upon which

to 8 as

#
PTT

PATTERN FOR
CROSS BAR

e'\

7
8

Fig. 182.

shown by similar figures,

through which draw horizontal lines, intersecting them with lines
drawn parallel to D E from similar numbered intersections against the
place the stretchout of the cross bar C,

main bar A, thus obtaining the points of intersections V to 8' in the

pattern.
Trace a line through points of intersections thus obtained
which will be the pattern for the end cut of the cross bar.
In Fig. 183 is shown a carefully drawn working section of the
turret sash

shown

in Fig. 1G8 at A.

232

These sashes are operated by

SHEET

INIETAL

WORK

153

means of cords, chains or gearings from the inside, the pivot on which
they turn being shown by R S in Fig. 1S3. The method of obtaining
the patterns for these sashes will be omitted, as they are only square and
butt miters which the student will have no trouble in developing, pro-

viding he understands the construc-

This

tion.

be made clear by

will

the following explanation

A B represents the upper part of

the turret proper with a drip bent on

same, as shown at B, against which

the sashes close, and a double seam,

shown

as

which makes a

at A,

out the twist in bending,

joint, takes

and avoids any

per part

AB

Fig. 168, over

CD

This

soldering.

uj)-

C
gutter B

indicated by

is

which the

placed as shown by
183.

tight

XUY

in
is

in Fig.

represents the lower part

of the turret proper or base, which

over the wooden curb

fits

indicated by

183

Fig.

in Fig. 168.

represents

made from one

joined to

The

the

is

in

mullion

piece of metal and

double seamed at
is

W, and

This mullion

a.

the top and bottom.

pattern for the top end of the

mullion would simply show a square

cut,

while the pattern for the bot-

tom would represent a butt miter

against the slant line

Before forming up this mullion the holes

j.

should be punched in the sides to admit the pivot

are

shown

in position in Fig. 168

by

E E,

II S.

These mullions

etc.

F G in Fig.
the pivot T.

183 represents the section of the side of the sash below

Notice that this lower half of the side of the sash has a

lock attachment which hooks into the flange of the mullion

^^^lile

the side of the sash

is

at F.

bent in one piece, the upper half, above the

pivot T, has the lock omitted as

shown by J K.

Tlius when the sash

opens, the upper half of the sides turn toward the inside as

233

shown by

SHEET METAL WORK

154

the arrow at the top, while the lower half swings outward as shown by
^^^len the lower half closes,

the arrow at the bottom,

at F,

which makes a water-tight

joint;

it

locks as

shown

but to obtain a water-tight joint

shown by L j\I, into which the

upper half of the side of the sash closes as shown at M. This cap is
fastened to the "Upper part of the mullion E with a projecting hood /
which is placed at the same angle as the sash will have when it is
opened as shown by e e' and d d! or by the dotted lines.
The side of the sash just explained is shown in Fig. 168 at H.
for the

upper

The pattern
with

half,

a cap

is

used, partly

for the side of the sash

H I at the bottom,

has a square cut at the top, mitering

same

in Fig. 183, the

doubled as at

on the

against which the glass rests in line with the rabbet

h,

A beaded edge is shown at H which stiffens

side of the sash.

This lower section

both ends.

shown in

NO

Fig. 168

Note where the metal

represents the section of the bottom of the sash.

is

as a square miter.

is

shown

in Fig. 168

by

it.

and has square cuts on

in Fig.

183 shows the section of the top of the sash

by F.

The flange N

in Fig.

183

is

flush with the out-

side of the glass, thereby allowing

the glass to slide into the grooves

in the sides of the sash.

glass

is

in position the angle

to the gutter

Fig. 168.

generally
Fig. 184.

have aimed

Y as shown
shown

own

in

in Fig. 183

is

employed, each shop

to give is the general construction in use, after

which are apt

by B

has different methods; what

which, the student can plan his

is

While the method of

construction
11 10

A leader is attached

tacked at n.

IE

After the

we

knowing

construction to suit the conditions

to arise.

In the following

illustrations. Figs.

184 to 187,

it

will

be explained

how to obtain the true lengths of the ventilator, ridge, hij), jack, and
common bars in a hipped skylight, no matter what size the skylight
may be. Using this rule only one set of patterns are required, as for
example, those developed in connection with Figs. 178, 179, 180, and
181,

which

has one-third pitch.

in this case

was required whose

patterns would have

pitch
to

was

If,

however, a skylight*

different thari one-third, a

be developed,

234

to

new

set of

which the rule above mention-

:8

5 ^

z - ^-^o - ^ '
H
-a^
'^
-
z d- ^ -^
.

J*

35

it

^ s

or

y.

?>i

:^

<
: i
J ^ - =D it
= 2,
O 2 ^x
-'^

.-

.;:

< Q X
u

tr-

:-

Vi.

O
s

is

5r
s

i.

3
,.

]R.ESIDENCETR'CfilARLES 'ADOUGLAS ESaS TUATED ON -COLUMBIA-

I
RjOAD
\VA5H1NGTCW D -C
\VDOD DONN S. DEM ING ARCHITECTS
)-''

S.

V-TOMING -AVENUE-

see-

WASHINGTON- 1) -C-

ft

v?^ K^r; !>y.- y,5.y;<^

R^T

FLCOIL PLAJi
I

FIRST-FLOOR PLAN OF HOUSE FOR CHAS. A. DOUGLAS, ESQ., WASHINGTON, D. C.

Principal Rooms Grouped about an Open Court or Patio. Main Living Room, or
"Morning Room," Looks Out upon Court through French "Windows, which in Summer are
Thro^v^l Open, Providing Abundant Light and Air. On Second Floor, over Passageways
on Each Side of Court, are Porches upon -which Bedrooms Open. Thus Providing Comfort
through the Hot Midsummer Nights. The Massing of Flowers and Vines on these Porches
at the Parapet IJne of the Tile-Covered Eaves. Adds a Most Pleasing Effect. Exterior
Shown on Opposite Page.

SHEET METAL WORK

155

ed would also be applicable for skylights of that particular pitch.

Using

this rule

it

should be understood that the size of the curb, or

frame, forms the basis for

measurements, and that one of the

all

shown

in Fig. 178,

meets the

line of the

or bendsof the bar should meet the line of the curb as

where the bottom of the bar

curb

and the ridge

G 4' at 4',

12

11

10

in the half section

at the top at 4'.

lines

Therefore when laying

Fig. 185.

out the lengths of the bars, they would have to be measured on the line

4 of the bar

from

4' to

4" on the patterns, as

will

be explained as we

proceed.

of

The first step is to prepare the triangles, from which the lengths
the common and jack bars are obtained, also the lengths of the hip

bars.

After the drawings and patterns have been laid out full size

according to the principles explained in Fig. 178, take a tracing of the

triangle in the half section

Fig.

184.

Divide

12,

D C 4' and place

which
1,

it

as

shown by

A 12 O,

in

156

SHEET METAL WORK

SHEET METAE WORK

est side of
to

frame)

2 = 2

-^

of the

common

bar

rf

will

We have now the length with which

feet.

proceed to the triangle for

157

common and

Thus the length

amount of A O in Fig.

hip bars.

be equal to twice the

184, while the length of the hip bar b c in Fig. 186, will be equal to twice

the

amount

jack bars

of

Referring to Figs. 186 and 187 the

in Fig. 185.

are spaced 16 inches, therefore, the length of the jack bar

for 12 inches will equal

AO

both of which are added together for the

The

lengths of the

and 4 inches equal

in Fig. 184,

common and

to 4

O;

full length.

hip bars will be shorter in Fig.

187 because a ventilator has been used, while in Fig. 186 a ridge bar

was employed. To obtain the lengths of the common and hip bars in
Fig. 187 use Rule 3: 48 inches (length of short side) 4 inches (width
of inside ventilator) = 44 inches; and 44 inches h- 2 = 22 inches or
1 foot

10 inches.

Then

the length of the

with a rule will be equal to

A O in Fig.

and the length of the hip bar

185 and 10^
al parts of

O added

e'

184 and 10
187

will

bar

c'

d'

measured

added

be equal to

together,

B O in

Use the same method where

together.

an inch occur.

in Fig.

common

Fig.

fraction-

In laying out the patterns

according to these measurements use the cuts shown

in

Figs. 178, 179, 180,

and

181, being

careful to

measure from the arrowpoints shown on each pattern.

It wall be noticed in Fig. 178 we always measure on line 4 in the patterns |or the hip,

common,

and jack

line

bars.

This

is

done because the

4 in

and E^ come directly on the slant line

of the triangles which were traced to Figs. 184 and
185 and from which the true lengths were obtained.
the profiles

Where a curb might be

used, as

shown

in Fig. 188,

which would bring the bottom line of the bar Ih

inches toward the inside of the frame h, all around, then instead of
using the size of 4 x 8 feet as the basis of measurements deduct 3
inches on each side,

X 7

ft.

making the

basis of

measurements 3

9 inches, and proceed as explained above.

237

ft.

9 inches

SHEET METAL WORK

1.58

ROOFING
A good metal covering on a

roof

as important as a

is

dation.

There are various materials used

plate or

what

commonly

is

The

rigid

Where a

are coated with an alloy of tin and lead.

desired soft and cold rolled copper should be used.

is

generally used for cap flashing

well after the base flashing

is

and allows

is

or

steel

copper

is

No

employed.

itself to

The

in position.

The

job

is

copper

soft

be dressed down

cold-rolled or

matter whether

hard cop-

galvanized iron, or

tin,

employed the method of construction

is

first-class

In some cases galvanized sheet iron

used for the roof coverings.

per

body, or the

of thin sheets of steel (black plates) that

tin, consists

base of roofing

purpose such as terne

for this

called roofing tin.

good foun-

is

the same, and will

be explained as we proceed.
Another form of roofing

which

is

known

as corrugated iron

roofing,

consists of black or galvanized sheets, corrugated so as to secure

Roofs having

strength and stiffness.

be covered by what
ed (when

tin or

is

known

copper

is

less

than one-third pitch should

as flat-seam roofing,

and should be cover-

used) with sheets 10 x 14 inches in size rather

than with sheets 14 x 20 inches, because the larger number of seams

stiffens

the surface

and prevents the

Steep roofs should be covered by what

weather.

seam roofing made from 14" x 20"

metal

Is

rattling of the tin in

j)laced

known

from 20" x 28".

as standing-

Before a,ny

on a roof the roofer should see that the sheathing boards

are well seasoned, dry

Before laying the

and

tin plate

free

side before laying.

It is

from knots and nailed

close together.

a good building paper, free from acid, should

be laid on the sheathing,or the

buildings.

tin or

is

stormy

tin plate

Corrugated iron

usually laid directly

should be painted on the underis

used for roofs and sides of

upon the purlins

in roofs,

held in place by

means

and are riveted

to the corrugated iron about 12 inches apart.

of clips of

method of constructing

flat

hoop

iron,

which encircle the purlins

and double-seam

iron coverings, will be explained as

we

and

The

roofing, also corrugated

proceed.

TABLES
The

following tables will prove useful in figuring the quantity of

material required to cover a given

number of square feet.

238

SHEET METAL WORK

159

FL.\T-SEAM ROOFING
Table showing quantity of 14 x 20-inch tin required to cover a given
number of square feet with fiat seam tin roofing. A sheet of 14 x 20 inches with
with ^-inch edges measures, when edged or folded, 13 x 19 inches or 24V
square inches. In the following all fractional parts of a sheet are counted a
full

sheet.
1

of
ft.

No.
sq.

SHEET METAL WORK

100

Table showing

STANDIXG-SEAM ROOFING
the quantity of 20 X 2S-inch tin in boxes, and sheets

required to lay any given standing-seam roof.

SQ.

FEET

SHEET

INIETAI.

AYORK

NET WEIGHT PER BOX TIN PLATES

Basis 14

Trade term

20, 112

101

SHEET METAL WORK

162

OTHER FORMS OF METAL ROOFING

There

is

another form of roofing

gles, pressed in

known

and shin-

as metal slates

various geometrical designs with water-tight lock attacli-

ments so that no solder

laying

tlie roof.

required in

is

shows the

Fig. 189

general shape of these metal shingles

which are made from

and copper, the dots a a a a

iron,

for nailing

to

In Fig. 190,

representing the holes

wood

the

galvanized

tin,

sheathing.

represents the side lock, showing the

first

operation in laying the metal slate

or shingle

on a

roof,

a representing the

B, in the same

nail.

figure,

shows the

metal slate or shingle in position covering the nail

b,

the valley c of

allowing the water,

slate

th-e
if

bottom
any, to

flow over the next lower slate as in

A in

Fig. 189.

shown the bottom

slate

A covered by the top slate B,

In Fig. 191

is

the ridges a a a keeping the water from

backing up. Fig. 192 shows the style of

on which these shingles are employed,

Note the conthat is, on steep roofs.
struction of the ridge roll, A and B in

roof

Fig. 192,
at a

which

etc., after

is first

roll

BOARD

nailed in position

which the shingles

slipped under the lock

SHEATHING

c.

hip covering which

shows

Fig. 193
is

laid

are

from the

sheathing board
^^S- ^^^

top downward, the lower end of the hip having a projection piece for
nailing at a, over which the top end of the next piece is inserted, thus

Fig. 191.

Fig. 194 represents a perspective

covering and concealing the nails.

view of a valley with metal

slates,

locked to the fold in the valley B.

showing how the

slates

are

There are many other forms

242

of

SHEET
metal

sliingles,

iSIETAI. ^^'ORK

IGo

known

but the shapes shown herewith are

us the

Cortright patents.

TOOLS REQUIRED
Fig. 195

shows the various hand

er; starting at the left

we have

tools required

by the metal roof-

the soldering copper, mallet, scraper,

Fig. 192.

hammer, and dividers. In addition to these hand

a notching machine is required for cutting off the corners of the

stretch-awl, shears,
tools

Fig. 193.

sheets,

and roofing

quired for edging

folders

are

the sheets in

reflat-

seam roofing, and hand double seamer

and roofing tongs for standing-seam
roofing.

The

roofing double seamer

and squeezing tongs can be used

for

standino;-seam roofing (in place of the

Fig. 194.

hand double seamer), which allow the

operator to stand in an upriglit position

if

the roof

is

not too steep.

ROOF MENSURATION
AMiile

some mechanics understand thoroughly

243

the methods of

SHEET

164

]kIETAL AVOKK

laying the various kinds of roofing, there are some, however,

not understand

how

from

to figure

amount of material required

architects' or scale

drawings the

to cover a given surface in a flat, irregular

The modern house

shaped, or hipped roof.

who do

with

its

gables,

and va-

Fig. 195.

rious intersecting roofs, forming hips

and

valleys, render

give a short chapter on roof measurement.

flat,

necessary to

In Figs. 196 to 19S in-

respectively the plans with full size

measurements

irregular,and intersected hipped roof, showing

how the length

shown

clusive are
for

it

of the hips

and valleys are obtained

from

direct

the architects' scale drawings.

The
drawn

to

shown herewith

illustrations

are

a scale as architects' drawings

not

will be,

but the measurements on the diagrams are as-

sumed, which

will

clearly

show the

principles

which must be applied when figuring from scale

Assuming that the plans from which

we are figuring are drawn to a quarter-inch scale,
then when measurements are taken, every quarter
drawings.

Fig. 196.

= 6 inches, jV
drawings were drawn to a half-inch
I inch = 6 inches, } inch = 3 inches,

inch represents one foot. ^ inch

= 3

inch
scale,

inches, etc.

then

j\ inch

incii

= 12

the

inches,

^ inches, etc.

A B C D in Fig.
as sho\vn by a 6 c d.

was no

If

19G represents a

flat

In a roof of this kind

12.5

we

will figure

it

as

if

there

Thus 64 feet X 42 feet = ^,688 square feet.

6 feet = 75 square feet; then 2,688 feet 75 feet =

air shaft at all.

The shaft is

roof with a shaft at one side

244

SHEET METAL WORK

166

2,G13 square feet of roofing, to which must be added an allowanice for

the flashing turning

In Fig. 197

is

up against and

shown a

flat

into the walls at the sides.

roof with a shaft at each side, one shaft

being irregular, forming an irregular shaped

roof.

The

ilar to

that used for Fig. 196 with the exception

rule for obtaining the area

that the area of the irregular shaft

Fig. 197

shaft
feet
d,

is

is

square

feet.

shaft,

bisect

AB CD=

Thus

4,860 square

which

sim-

x x x x

in

determined differently to that of the

hcde.

is

9.25

To

feet.

45

Find the area of

6 c

39.5

108 feet

= 365.375

or 365f

Xo
C
i9-0

CO

find the area of the irregular

xx and xx and obtain a

measure the length of a a which

is

48

feet,

o
(0

Thus 48 X 9 = 412, and 412

+ 365.375 = 777.375. The entire roof minus
the shafts = 4,860 square feet - 777.375 =

/o.

d e

multiply by 9.

In Fig. 198

is

shown the

tersected hipped roof.

plan, front,

and

,<

a,

and

4,082.625 square feet of surface in Fig. 197.

'-o'O
9-3

4-5^0"-

Fig. 197.

side elevations of

an

in-

A B C D represents the plan of the main build-

SIDE

ELEVATION

Fig. 198.

by the wing E F G H. We will first figin-e the main

there were no wing attached and then deduct the space taken

ing intersected

roof as

if

245

SHEET METAL WORK

m>

up by the intersection of the wing. While it may appear difficult to

some to figure the quantities in a hipped roof, it is very simple, if the
As the pitch of the roof is equal on four sides the
rule is understood.
length of the rafter

shown from

to

in front elevation represents

the true length of the pitch on each side.

at the eave

90

90

is

The

length of the building

and the length of the ridge 48

feet

48 = 42, and 42 -^ 2 = 21.

Now either add

Take

feet.

21 to the length of the

edge or deduct 21 from the length of the eave, which gives 69 feet as

shown from S
it

to

T.

to

runs to an apex at

The length of the eave at the end is 42 feet and

J."
Then take 42 feet -^ 2 = 21, as shown from T

If desired the hip lines

U.

A I, J B

ing respectively the points S, T,

of similar sizes; 69 feet
is

30

and 21

and J

Then 630

2,070

2,700,

can be bisected, obtain-

and U, which when measured

As the length

feet.

then multiply as follows: 69

feet,

21

be

ON

of the rafter

30 = 2070.

and multiplying by 2

will

30 = 630.

(for opposite sides)

gives 5,400 square feet or 54 squares of roofing for the

main

liuilding.

From this amount deduct the intersection E L F in the plan jis follows
The width of the wing is 24 feet 6 inches and it intersects the main
shown

roof as

at

E L F.

Bisect

when measured

V, which

will

E L and L F and obtain points W and

be 12

feet 3 inches or

HG,

one half of

The wing intersects the main roof from Y to F^ in the

side elevation, a distance of 18 feet.
Then take 18 X 12.25 = 220.5.
Deduct 220.5 from 5400 = 5,179.5. The wing measures 33 feet 6
inches at the ridge L M, and 21 feet 6 inches at the eave F G,.thus
making the distance from V to X = 27 feet 6 inches. The length of
24

6 inches.

feet

tlie

rafter of the

Then
995

18

sq.

ft.

wing

27.5

is

shown

in front elevation

by

P R, and

is

18

feet.

495, and multiplying by 2 (for opposite side), gives

in the wing.

W^e then have a roofing area of 5,179.5 square

main roof and 995 square feet in the wing, making a total of
6,174.5 square feet in the plan shown in Fig. 198.
If it is desiretl to know the quantity of ridge, hips, and valleys in
the roof, the following method is used. The ridge can be taken from
feet in the

the plans by adding 48'

the hip I
until

it

33'6"

81'

For the true length of

6".

D in the plan, drop a vertical line from I* in the front elevation

intersects the eave line 1.

distance I

D in the
by

the eave line extended, place the

plan as shown from 1 to

D to T which will be the true

ply this length

On

4,

which

D and draw a

length of the hip I

will give the

246

line

D in the plan.

from

Multi-

amount of ridge capping

re-

SHEET METAL AVORK

quired.

This length of hip can also be obtained from the plan by tak-

ing the vertical height of the roof

right angles to I

from

I- to

PI'

Take

and placing

it

at

line

D wliich is the desired length.

LF

in the side elevation until

the distance

and draw a

shown by

in the elevation

shown, fi'om I to P, and draw a

in the plan, as

For the length of the valley

from F^

167

line

F L in the plan

from L

to

L F in the plan.

the required

number

in the plan,

it

vertical line

intersects the eave line at F.

and place

F^ which

drop a

is

shown from

as

it

to L,

the true length of the va,lley

^Multiply this length

by

2,

which

will give

This length of valley

of feet of valley required.

can also be obtained fi'om the plan by taking the vertical height of the
roof of the "w^ng,
right angles to
to

F which

is

shown by F F^

FL

in the plan,

in the side elevation,

from

L to

and placing

and draw a

F-,

the desired length similar to F^

line

it

at

from F'

in the side elevation.

FLAT-SEAM ROOFING
The

first

I'oofing is to

Fig. 199

seam
as shown in

step necessary in preparing the plates for flat

notch or cut

off the four corners of the plate

which shows the plate as

it is

taken from the box, the shaded

corners a a a a representing the corners which are

notched on the notching machine or with the shears.

Care must be taken when cutting

to cut off too little otherwise the sheets will not

well,

and not

show

at the corners

to cut off too

when

not

off these corners

edge

much, otherwase a hole vdW

the sheets are laid.

To

find

amount to be cut off proceed as follows: Fig. 199.

Assuming that a ^-inch edge is desired, set the dividers at J inch
and scribe the lines b a and a c on the sheet shown in Fig. 199, and,
where the lines intersect at a, draw the line ^ e at an angle of 45 desrrees,
which represents the true amount and ti-ue angle to be
^
the correct

cut off on each corner.

After

all

the sheets have been

notched, they are edged as sho-vsn in Fig. 200, the long

a,

while the short side

the notched corner

Fig. 200.

and left, as shown at

bent as shown at 6, making

sides of the sheet being bent right

after the sheets are

sheets be painted

is

appear as at

e.

In some cases

edged the contract requires that the

on the underside before

laying.

This

done with a small brushy being careful that the edges of

247

is

usuallv

tlie

sheets

SHEET METAL AVORK

168

are not soiled with paint, which

Be-

interfere with soldering.

would

an
oil or rosin-sized paoer to prevent the moisture or fumes from below
from rusting the tin on the underside. As before mentioned, the same
fore laying tlie sheets the roof

method used

boards are sometimes covered

for laying tin roofing w^ould

copper roofing, with the exception

have

Avith

be applicable for laying

the copper sheets

tliat

would

be tinned about 1? inches around the edges of the sheets

to

after they are notched,

In Fig. 201

when a gutter

is

is

and before

shown how a

are edged.

tliey

tin roof is started

used at the eaves with a

fire

and the sheets

wall at the side.

laid

A repre-

Fig. 201.

sents a galvanized iron gutter with a portion of

with a lock at C.

In hanging the gutter

wall at J ; after which the base flashing

out on

miters witli the flange of the gutter

the flange

E of the base

flashing as

lapping on the roof,

it is

flashed against the fire

D D is

put in position, flashing

roof at E, with a lock at F.

tlie

it

it is

Wliere the base flashing

joined as

shown

shown by the dotted

at b, allowing

line a.

As the

water discharges at G, the sheets are laid in the direction ot the arrow

H, placing the
the butt e

e,

nails at least G inches apart,

etc.

are well covered

flashing

DD

wall as at

always starting to nail at

Care should be taken when nailing that the nail heads

by the edges, as shown

J the cap flashing

L is

in

W, by

placed, allowing

O.

248

Over the base

a.
it

to

go into the

SHEET
When
In Fig. 202

INIETAL

WORK

169

putting in base flashings there are two methods employed.

is

shown a

between the roof and parapet wall.

side flashing

A shows the flashing turning out on the roof at B, with a lock C,

attach-

ed and flashed into the wall four courses of brick above the roof

shown

line,

D, where wall hooks and

paintskins or roofer's cement are used to
as

make a

at

tight joint. ^Flashings

of

this

kind should always be painted on the

underside, and paper should

be placed

between the brick work and metal, because the moisture in the wall

is

result
to

and when

in
Fig. 202.

new work,

not advisable in

because when the building

to settle

apt to

This method of putting

rust the tin.

flashing

is

new, the walls and beams are

is

this occurs the flange

D tears out of the wall, and the

disagreeable leaks that stain the walls.

is

liable

When

new

roof

is

be placed on an old building where the walls and copings are in

place and the brick

work and beams have

settled, there is

not so

much

danger of leakage.

The
for the

proper method of putting in flashings and one which allows

expansion and contraction of the metal and the settlement of the

building

is

shown

in Fig.

203, in which

Fig. 203.

painted with
built his wall

flashing

A is

base flashing
flashing

is

to four courses of brick

placed in position

is

flashings,

Fig. 204.

coats of paint before using.

tYv^o

up

shows the cap

When

the

above the roof

and the wall and coping

then slipped under the cap A.

mason has

line the

cap

finished; the

In practice the cap

cut 7 inches, then bent at right angles through the center,

making each

side a

and

h Z\ inches.

slipped under the cap flashing

as

249

The

shown

base flashing

at C.

is

then

SHEET METAL WORK

170

Wliere the cost

is

not considered and a good job

and can be dressed down well

rust,

Into the lock

fla.shings.

down

with slightly
CL
c

is

last longer,

After the sheets

by means of a heavy mallet,

convex faces, after which the roof
well

ready for soldering.

is

nb

it is

onto the base

to lay tight

the sheets are attached.

are laid the seams are flattened

desired,

They

better to use slieet lead cap flashings in place of tin.

do not

is

When

a base flashing

required on a roof which abuts against a wall

composed of clap boards or shingles

as

shown

in Fig. 204, then, after the last course of tin

Fig. 205.

has been

locked into the course

The

boards D.
before

how

A and

the flashing

with the lock a

flashing should always

be painted and allowed

In the previous figures

it

shown

and the long

as

left

shown

sides

ex

at

Sheets of this kind are used

h b.

when

the water rims together from two

directions
-

By

In

left.

edged both one way, as

at a a,

and

right

to dry

shown what is known

sheet, where the short

is

as a valley
sides are

is

was shown

the sheets are edged, both sides being edged right and

Fig. 205

206.

extends the required distance under the

placed in 'position.

it is

laid,

as

shown by

in

Fig. 206.

Fig.

having the locks a and a turned one way the roof

is

laid in

both directions.
Fig. 207

the flashing

shows a

jjart })lan of

B CDE

is

to

a roof and chimney A, around which

be placed, and explains

and

how

the corners

are double seamed,

whether

on a chimney,

bulkhead, or any. other object

on a roof

^en

fli

w'ater flows in the direction

of the arrow F.

operation

is

The

shown

first

at a

and

Fig. 207.

the

Thus
it.

it

will

final

operation

at

h.

be seen that the water flows past the seam and not against

In laying

ance must be

flat

seam roofing

made

for the

especially

when copper

is

used, allow-

expansion and contraction of the sheets.

250

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Porch.

Veranda.

PLAN CF RESIDENCE OF DR. FOLTZ. CHESTNUT HILL, PHILADELPHIA, PA.

George

T.

Pearson, Architct, Philadelphia, Pa.

Woodwork is Treated in Dutch Style, of Dark Chestnut in Hall and Dining

Room, and Painted Wood in Living Room and Second Story. Ceiling.s of Fir.st Story
Haye Beams Exposed, and Finished in Places with Quaint Caryings and Scroll Decoration Characteristic of the Dutch Style. Kxterior View Shown on Opposite Page.
Interior

SHEET
Care should be taken not
in

W,

Fig. 201.

roofing,

^^'llile

on a good

in Fig.

:\IETAL

WORK

to nail directly throusrh the sheet as is

method

this

job, as well as

is

roofing, cleats as

shown

at

20S should be used.

The

and nailed

shown

generally employed in tin

on copper

To show how they are used, A and B

sheets.

171

lock on the cleat

is

represent two locked -edged

locked into the edge of the sheets

into the roof boards at a 6 c

and

to

d, ar as often as required.
d.

B
o

Fig. 20S.

In this manner the entire roof can be fastened witli cleats without

having a nail driven into the sheets, thereby allowing for expansion

and contraction of

tlie

firmer the roof will be

fewer cleats, time

is lost

when

metal.

The

and the

better the

closer these cleats are placed, the

seams

will hold.

mav be saved in la^'ing the roof,

By

using

but double this time

soldering the seams, for the heat of the soldering copper

Fig. 209.

will raise the seams, causing a succession of buckles,

which retard

and require 10 per cent more solder, ^^^len the seams are
nailed or cleated close it lavs flat and smooth and the soldering is done

soldering

with ease and less solder.

^^^len a connection
terra cotta, the
tration

is

to

be made between metal and stone or

method shown

in Fig. 209

is

shows a stone or terra-cotta cornice A.

251

employed.

The heavv

This
line

illus-

abed

SHEET METAL ^YORK

172

represents the gutter lining, which

If the cornice

rolled copper.

is

as at B, dove-tail in sliape, after

which the lining

abed is

ful that there is

no water or moisture

Then, being care-

put in position as shown.

poured into the raggle and after

it is

20-oz, cold-

of stone, the stone cutter cuts a

is

raggle into the top of the cornice

made from

usually

in the raggle

cooled

it is

B, molten lead

dressed

down well with

hammer.

the caulking chisel and

By having the dove-tail cut, the lead is secured firmly in

holding down the edge of the lining and making a tight joint.
the cornice be of terra cotta this raggle

baked

is

is

position,

Should

cut into the clay before

it is

This method of making connection between

in the ovens.

Fig. 210.

metal and stone

is

to

be flashed.

be made
in

is

tight,

same no matter whether a

the

'\\Tien

a flashing between a stone wall and roof

for this purpose,

driven into the raggle

soldering copper employed

in tinning the coppers,

in Fig.

209 at X.

in roofing is the soldering.

shown

is

"WTien rosin

to the pair.

about 12 inches long, and these are

shown

as

The most important step

but when acid

is

is

The style of

and weighs

at least 8

flux, it is also

employed

in Fig. 21

used as a

is

or galvanized iron, salammoniac

will

is to

then mstead of using molten lead, cakes of lead are cast

molds made

pounds

gutter or upright wall

used as a flux for solderlrig zmc

used for tinning the copper^.

be noticed that the soldering coppers are forged square at

and have a groove

filed in

one side as shown

is

at A.

tlie

It

ends,

^^^len the copper

turned upward the groove should be

filed

toward the lower side within I inch from

the corner, so that when the groove is placed

upon the seam,

^'is

-^^'

as

shown

in Fig. 211,

as a guide to the copperas

drawn along the seam.

The

the

it

acts

latter

is

groove a being in the position shown,

the largest heated surface b rests directly on the seam, "soaking"

it

thoroughly with solder.

the locks, about C

pounds of

feel of surface using

seams

in

tin

roof

As the heat draws the solder between

and \ solder are required for 100 square

14 x 20-iijcb

is to

tin.

The

use of acid in soldering

be avoided as acid (ioming

25^

m contact with

the

SHEET

bare edges and corners, where the

gether, will cause rusting.
rosin should

when

be employed.

^YORK

:MET.\L

No

slieets are

folded

and seamed

to-

other soldering flux but good clean

The same

soldering copper roofing

173

flux (rosin) should

be used

whose edges have previously been

tinned with rosin.

We will now consider the soldering of upright seams. The soldering copper to be employed for this purpose is shaped
as shovm in Fig.
212.
It is forged to a wedge shape, about 1 inch
wide and | inch

Fig. 212.

thick at the end,

otherwise,

tlie

and

tinned on one side and the end only; if tinned

solder, instead of remaining on the tinned
side when
is

would flow downward; by having the soldering copper tinned on one side only, the remaining sides are black and do
not tend
to draw the solder downward.
The soldering copper being thus
soldering,

pre-

pared, the upright seam,

die sheet

shown in Fig. 213, where the sheet B overlaps

V, is soldered by first tacking the seam to make it lay
close,

then thoroughly soaking the seam,

and then placing ridges of solder

across

it

In using

to strengthen

the soldering

should be

held

in

the same.

copper

it

the position

showTi by C, w^hich allows the solder to fllow forward and into the

seam, while

if

the copper were held

shown by D, the solder would

flow backward and away from the
as

seam.

In "soaking" the seam with

solder the copper should be placed
directly over

Fig. 213.

lapped part, so that the metal gets thoroughly

heated and draws the solder between the joint. It makes
no difference where this cross joint occurs; the same methods are
tlie

used.

The

roof being completed, the rosin

scraped off the seams and

the roof cleaned and painted with good iron oxide and linseed
oil paint.
Some roofers omit the scraping of rosin and paint directly over it.
This is tlie cause of rusting of seains which sometimes occurs.
If the

253

is

SHEET METAL WORK

174

paint

is

applied to the rosin, the

with time, will crack, and the

latter,

Even when

rain will soak under the cracked rosin to the tin surface.

the surface of the roof

is

dry,

rosin, moisture

by raising the cracked

be found underneath, which naturally tends to rust the plate

more and more with each storm. If the rosin is removed, the entire

will often

tin surface is protected

One

of the

most

ing a conical tower.

by

paint.

difficult

As the

jobs in flat-seams roofing

roof in question

ing in elevation,

method

is
is

it

round

is

in

that of cover-

plan and taper-

know

necessary to

the

of cutting the various patterns for the

In Fig. 214

sheets.

tion of a tower to
roofing, using 10

ABC

shows the elevaflat

seam

14-inch tin at the base.

As-

be covered with

suming that the tower through

13

is

10 feet 6

inches, or 126 inches, in diameter, the circum-

ference

3.1416

obtained

is

by multiplying 126 by

which equals

395.8416, or

As 10 x 14-inch

inches.

plate

is

to

396

say

be used at

the base of the tower the nearest "wadth which

can be employed, and which will divide the

space into equal spaces,

is 13^^

inches without

edges, thus dividing the circumference

in

This width of 13y inches

equal spaces.

gether with the length of the rafter,

AB

be the basis from which

or

30
to-

BC

all

the

patterns for the various courses will be laid

off.

in elevation, will

At any convenient place

Fig. 214.

in the

shop or at

the building, stretch a piece of tar felting of

the required length, tacking

it

Upon

keep the paper from moving.

a chalk line as

AB

AB

of the rafter

or

Fig. 215 at either side,

inches, being

in Fig. 215,

AC

in Fig.

draw the

the four corners with nails to

at

the center of the felting strike

making it equal to the length

214. At right angles to A B in

lines

B D

and

B C

one half of the 13 J- above referred

C and D draw
the sheet used

lines to the
is

apex

10 inches and as

to.

(shown broken).

each equal to 6|

From

the points

As the

we assume an edge

widtli of

of f inch for

thus leaving 9J inches, measure on the vertical line A B

lengths of 9} inches in succession, until the apex
is reached, leaving

each

side,

254

SHEET MET.\L WORK

tlie last

sheet at the top. to

obtained on

AD

and

AB

come

draw Hues

as

it

may.

Through the

CD

parallel to

175

intersecting the lines

Then the various shapes marked

be the net patterns for similarly numbered
as shown.

Take

courses.

points thus

AC

2 3 etc. will

the shears and cut out the

patterns on the felting and

number them

as

required.

For example, take the paper pattern

No. 1, place it on a sheet of tin as shown in

and allow f-inch edges all around,

and notch the corners ABC and D. :Mark
on the tin pattern "Xo. 1, 29 more", as 30
Fig. 216,

sheets are required to go around the tower,

and cut 29 more for course No. 1. Treat

of

paper patterns from No. 1 to the

apex in similar manner. Of course where
all

tlie

the patterns
top, the

become smaller

in size at the

waste from other patterns can be

used.

In Fig. 217

is

shown how the

sheets

should be edged, always being careful to

have the narrow side towards the top with
the edge toward the outside, the same as in

seam

Lay the sheets in the

usual manner, breaking joints as in
general
practice.
As the seams are not soldered
flat

roofing.

care must be taken to lock the edges well.

After the enth-e roof is laid and before closing

Fig. 21 o.

the seams with the mallet

take a small brush and

PATTERN FOR
NO.

[EDGED sheet;

FOR COURSE

29 MORE

NO.

white

mth

dJ

Fig. 216.

completed the

Fig. 217.
finial

in Fig.

As the method used

sheets in Fig. 215

is

214

is

paint the locks vnth thick

will

job.

lead,

then

the mallet.

make a

close

This

water-tight

After the roof

is

put in position.

for obtaining the patterns for the various

based upon the principle used in obtaining the

envelope of a right cone, some student

255

may

say that in accurate pat-

SHEET METAL AVORK

17G

from

terns the line

as

if

To

struck

-vN-ith

to

and

following lines should be curved,

all

a radius from the center A, and not straight as shown.

those the WTiter would say that the curve would be so

small pattern, where the radius

the purpose just as well in

so long, that a straight line answers

is

practical w^ork; for

all

on a

little

it

would amount

considerable labor to turn edges on the curved cut of the sheet,

there

certainly

is

no necessity for

to

and

it.

"\Mien different metals are to be connected together, as for instance

tin roofing to

copper flashing, or copper tubes

to

galvanized iron gut-

must be
taken to have the copper sheets thoroughly tinned on both sides where it
joins to the galvanized iron, zinc, or othel' metal, to avoid any electrplyters,

sis

between the two metals.

that
ly,

or zinc flashings in connection with copper linings, care

if

we take

two clean

a glass jar and

strips,

a fact not well

It is
fill it

known

with water and place

it

to roofers

in separate-

one of zinc and the other of copper, and connect the

two with a thin copper wire, an

electrical action is the result,

and

if

the

connection remains for a long time

(as the action is very faint) the zinc

would be destroyed, because,

be

may

said, the zinc furnishes the fuel

the electrical action, the

for

as

it

wood

fire.

same

furnishes the fuel for the

Therefore,

if

the copper

was

not tinned, before locking into the

other metal, and the joint

wet with
Fig. 218.

electrical action

rain, the coating

became
of the

metal would be destroyed by the

between the two metals, and the iron would rust

through.
\Miile the roofer
roofing

is

seldom called upon to lay out patterns for any

work occasion may

arise that a roof flashing

is

required around

a pipe passing through a roof of any pitch, as shown in Fig. 218, in

which

A represents a smoke or vent pipe passing through the roof B

the metal roof flashing being indicated by

level the

opening to be cut into the flashing

C.

If the roof

C C would

BB

B,

were

simply be a

But where the roof

pitches the opening in the flashing becomes an ellipse, whose minor
axis is the same as the diameter of the pipe, and whose major axis is

true circle the

same diameter

as the pipe A.

256

SHEET
equal to

pitch a

tlie

:^1ETAL

In Fig. 219

b.

is

WORK

177

shown how

this

opening

ob-

is

tained by the use of a few nails, a string, and a pencil, which the roofer

always have handv.

will

draw the

First

then

make

shown.

the

of

line

this

roof line,

tlie

I,

Cr

pipe, as

the p <m

Call

where

center

tiie

its

roof

the

to

Next draw

line

representing the slant of the roof, and

the pipe of the desired size passing through this line at

proper angle
line.

AB

line

intersects

and

D E and C F
A B. G and H re-

points where
intersect

Through I draw

spectively.

KL

at right angles to

KI

making
equal to

tlie

and

B,

each

half diameter

Having estabHshed the minor axis Iv L

and the major axis G H,

of the pipe.

tlie ellipse is

made by

tak-

ing I H, or half the major

axis, as

a radius, and with

Fig. 219.

as a center strike arcs in-

tersecting the

major

axis, at points

]M and X.

each of these two points and attach a string

tlie

dotted lines

K ]M X,

placed in the string

keeping

string,

taut

then

h,

will

all

Xote how the

tained.
a,

it

it

in such a

way

reach K.

Drive a small nail

to tlie nails as

that

when a

shown by

pencil point

]\Iove the pencil along

the time until the ellipse

KHLG

position of the string changes

when

in

it

is

is

tlie

ob-

reaches

etc.

STANDING-SEAM ROOFING
Another form of metal roofing

which

is

used on steep roofs not

of the building.

It consists of

seams are locked as

in flat

is

less

that

known

than

-J-

as standing seam,

pitch, or

}'

the width

metal sheets whose cross or horizontal

seam

roofing,

and whose

vertical

seams are

standing locked seams, as will be described in connection with Figs.

257

SHEET

178

Assume

220 to 229 inclusive.

220,

making the

.slieet

shown by A in Fig.
After the required number of

sides only, as

13 x 20 inches.

sheets have been edged,

and

that 14 x 20-inch sheets are used

on the 20-inch

the sheets are edged

WORK

IMETAI.

and a.ssuming
roof

30

is

the length of the pitched

tliat

many

then as

feet,

sheets are

locked together as will be required, and

the seams

are

with

closed

and soldered.

the mallet

In practice these strips

are prepared of the required length in the

shop, painted on the underside, and

when

dry are rolled up and sent to the building.

Fig. 220.

ing,

can be laid out at the build-

If desired they

which avoids the buckling caused by

from the shop

and transportation

rolling

to the job.

After the necessary strips have been prepared they are bent

with the roofing tongs,

for

or,

what

is

and quicker, the roofing edger

a machine into which the strips of

better

This

standing-seam roofing.

up

is

fed, being dis-

tin are

charged in the required

bent form shown at

A or

up 1
and 1|-

in Fig. 221, bent

inch on one side

inches on the other side.

Or

the machine will,

FiR. 221.
if

bend up 1| inches and 1\ inches, giving a ^-inch finislied

doubled seam in the first case and a 1-inch seam in the second.
desired,

When

laying standing-seam roofijng, in no

be driven into the sheets.

This applies

nized iron sheets.

i''

in Fig. 222,

.J
-H

which

to tin,

copjier or galva-

A cleat should

be used, as shown

also

shows the

the sheets given in Fig. 221.

Fig. 222 that \ inch has been

WCLEAl

ments

cleats

shown

and are used

which represents the

first

in

which

Thus

it

will

for laying

be seen

in

added over the measure-

in Fig.

222 are

made from

scrap metal; they allow for the expansion and con-

traction of the roofing

and

full size

in Fig. 221, thus allowing edges.

These
Fig 222

case should any nails

A represents

in practice as

shown

in Fig. 223,

operation in laying a standing-seam roof,

the gutter with a lock attached at B.

258

The

SHEET METAL W'ORK

gutter bein^

fastenetl

B the same

lock

as in

at

the strip

cleats

the standing

C and

lock

it

under the

seam

strips

well into the

and place the cleat shown in Fig.

against the upright bend of the strip C in Fig. 223 as shown

of the gutter

222 tightly

by means of

seam roofing

flat

Take

are laid as follows:

lock

position

in

179

D, and fasten

it

as shown,

to the roof

by means of a 1-inch roofing

nail a.

Fig. 223.

Press the strip

D.

firmly onto the roof

This holds the sheet

press

it

holds

down and

in position.

against the cleat

in position.

and turn over edge

These

cleats

Now

h of the cleat

take the next sheet E,

D and turn over the edge d,

which

should be placed about 18 inches

Fig. 224.

Fig. 225.

apart and by using them

it

will

be seen that no nails have been driven

through the sheets, the entire roof being held in position by means of
the cleats only.

The second

operation

is

shown

in Fig. 224.

By means

of the

hand double seamer and mallet or with the roofing double seamers and
squeezing tongs, the single seam is made as shown at a. The third
and last operation is shown in Fig. 225 where by the use of the same
tools the doubled seam a is obtained.
In Fig. 226 is shown how the
finish is

made

with a

comb

ridge at the top.

259

The

sheets

AAA have

SHEET

180

on the one side

tlie

]MET.\L

single edge as

shown, while the opposite side

a double edge turned over as shown at

are soldered

down

In Fig. 227

is

to

AVORK

a.

B has

Then, standing seams bbb

c.

shown how

tlie

side of a wall

is

flashed

and counter

Fig. 226.

flashed.

and

shows the

the lock on

tlie

gutter,

the leader or rain w'ater conductor,

gutter A, fastened to the roof boards

by

cleats

Fig. 227.

3S

shown

as high as

at

strip

D.

The back of the gutter

shown by the dotted

locked into the gutter at

line E.

up

against the wall

F represents

a s^anding-seara

is

flashed

H and flashed up against the wall as high

260

SHEET METAL WORK

as
at

181

shown by the dotted Hne J J. As the flashing J J E is not fastened

any part to the wall the beams or wall can settle without disturbing

The

the flashing.

counter or cap flashing

shown by the heavy

the joints of the brick

lines,

allow a one-inch flange

ddd etc.

flashing hooks, as indicated

tight

w ith

KKK

roofer's cement.

by the small

As

will

now

stepped as

work being

This

to enter.

is

is

cut out to

well fastened with

and then made waterbe seen the cap flashing overlaps the
dots,

base flashing a distance indicated by J J and

covers to

L L; the corner is double seamed at

M shows

h.

gutter showing

The

joined.
at

i i,

is

a sectional view through the

how the

tube

and soldered

is

tubes and leaders are

flanged out as

shown

to the gutter; the leader

then slipped over the tube

as shown,

and fastened.
In the section on Flat-Seam Roofing

was explained how a conical tower.

be covered.

i\'ould

how

this

It

will

Fig. 214,

be shown now

tower would be covered with stand-

ing-seam roofing.

As the circumference of

the tower at the base

is

396 inches, and

assuming that 14 x 20-inch

be used

it

at the

tin plate is to

base of the tower, the nearest

width which can be employed and which

will divide the

base into equal spaces

is

17 /^

inches, without edges, thus dividing the cir-

cumference into 23 equal parts.

Then

the

width of 17/3- inches and the length of the

rafter

AB

or

AC

in elevation will

be the

basis from which to construct the pattern

for the standing

seam

strip, for

which pro-

Fig. 228,

peed as follows

Let

A B C D in Fig. 228 represent a 20-inch wide strip locked

soldered to the required length.

Through the

center of the strip

and

draw

E F. Now measure the length of the rafter A B or A C in Fig.

214 and place it on the line E F in Fig. 228 as shown from H to F. At
right angles to H F on either side draw F O and F L making each
the line

equal to 8|| inches, being one half of the I7/3- above referred

261

to.

SHEET

182

:\IETAL"

WORK

O draw lines to the apex H (shown broken). At

right angles to H I> and H O draw lines H P equal to 1\ inches and
H S equal to 1 inches respectively. In similar manner draw I^ D and
O C and connect by lines the points P D and S C. Then will P S C D
From

points

li

and

.\

be the pattern for the -standing seam

required,

\^^len the strips are

all

bend up the
the

strip, of

which 22 more

will

be

cut out, use the roofing tongs and

sides, after

which they are

laid

on

and double

tower, fastened with cleats,

seamed with the hand seamer and mallet in

the usual manner^
If the tower was done m copper or galvanized sheet iron or steel, where 8-foot sheets
could be used, as many sheets would be crosslocked together as required; then metal could

be saved, and waste avoided, by cutting the

sheets as

shown

in Fig.

229 in which

ABCD

shows the sheets of metal locked together, and

and

ing that

the finial

tlie

pattern sheets, the only waste be-

shown by the shaded

D in

Fig. 214 sets over the tower, the

standing seams are turned over

'^'

""

as

is

Where

portion.

required to receive the

notches would be cut into the base of the

finial, to

flat

finial,

allow

it

as

much

or small

to slip over

Before closing the seams, they are painted

the standing seams.

white lead with a tool brush, then closed up

tight,

Avith

which makes a good

tight job.

CORRUGATED IRON ROOFING AND SIDING

Corrugated iron
usually laid directly
Figs.

is

used for roofs and sides of buildings.

upon the purlins

in roofs constructed as

230 and 231, the former being constructed

It is

shown

in

to receive sidings of

corrugated iron, while in the latter figure the side walls of the building

must be taken that the projecting edges of the

corrugated iron at the eaves and gable ends of the roof are well secured,
otherwise the wind will loosen the sheets and fold them up. The corare brick.

Special care

rugations are

and

f-incii,

made

of various sizes such as 5-inch, 22-inch, IJ-inch

the measurements always being from

and the depth being shown by C.

The

362

A to B

in Fig. 232,

smaller corrugations give a

SHEET METAL WORK

more pleasing appearance, but the
will

1S3

larger corrugations are stiffer

span a greater distance,thereby permitting the purlins

to

and

be further

apart.

Fig. 230.

The

thickness of the metal gene'-ally used for roofing and siding

varies from No. 24 to No. 16 gauge.
By actual trial made by The

Fig. 231.

Keystone Bridge Company it was found that corrugated iron No.

spanning 6 feet, began to give

permanent
30
it

lb.

20,

deflection at a load of

per square foot, and that

collapsed with a load of 60

per square foot.

The

^7

/"oT

lb.

distance

-^^^^

-^^

between centers of purlins should, therefore, not exceed 6

preferably be less than this.

263

feet,

and

SHEET :METAL ^VORK

184

TABLES
The
mation

following tables will prove of value

to

when

desiring

which they appertain.

MEASUREMENTS OF CORRUGATED SHEETS

Dimensions of Sheets and Corrugations.

any

infor-

SHEET ^lETAL ^VORI

IV

The

followinor table

corrugating.

by
gauge

Birmingham

No.

i.s

calculated for sheet.s

185

30f inches wide before

SHEET METAL AYORK

180

Should the gable have a

fire wall,

then

let

the sheets

A butt againct

the wall and flash with corrugated flashing as

shown

which the regular cap or counter flashing

placed as explained in

is

in Fig. 235, over

Should

connection with Fig. 227.

^^^^"'^-^^''^^'^^^^^

ridge of

the

against a wall, as

ROOF

uine:

the roof

shown

at

butt

in

Fig. 230, then an end-wall flash-

ing

is

used as

shown

is

in Fig.

236 which must also be capped,

by

either using

allowing

cap flashing or

the corrugated

siding

to overlap this end-wall flashing

Fig. 235.

Fig. 234.

as would

be the case

at

in

Fig.

Now commence

230.

the

second course at the eaves, giving one and one half corrugations for
side lap, being careful that the side corrugations center each other
exactly

and

nail with

washers as shown in Fig. 237.

Nail at every

other corrugation at end laps,

and

at

about every 6 inches at

side laps, nailing through top

corrugation

of
Fig. 236.

this

Fig. 237.

manner until the roof is covered.

The same rule is to be observed

as

sliown

Continue laying

in regard to laps

and flashing

in
in

if

the corrugated iron were to be fastened to iron purlins, and the

method

shown

in Figs.

of fastening to the iron frames would be accomplished as

238 to 240 inclusive.

Assuming that

steel structures are to

be covered, as

shown

in Figs.

in Fig. 238

230 and 231, then

be the iron

rafter,

let

the cross angles on which the sheets

of the clip or

clamp C, which

is

Fig. 237.

are laid, then by

made from hoop

the angle B, the sheets are riveted in position.

another form of clamp, which

is

iron

means

and bent around

In Fig. 239

is

shown

bent over the bottom of the angle iron.

286

>*

J
a.

u
CO

OS

!?;

o 2
S 3
I

<!

,-

"^

O
W ^
M
a

i-J

CO

SHEET METAL WORK

240 shows

Fig.

sheet

187

another method, where the clamp

still

at E, then turned

around the angle

A at D.

F is riveted to the
To avoid having

the storm drive in between the corrugated opening at the eaves, cor-

rugated

wood

used as sho\\Ti in Fig. 241.

filler is

Fig. 23S.

snow and

sleet.

Fig. 239.

On

iron framing this

Another form of corrugated iron roofing

put

down with

manner

cleats in a

If tliere are hips

This keeps out the

on the

is

is

made

shown

of pressed metal.

This

in Fig. 242.

is

similar to standing-seam roofing.

roof, the corrugated iron

should be care-

and the hip covered

fully

cut

^^ith

sheet

This

lead.

best

is

done by ha\'ing a wooden cove

or

filler

placed on

the

hip,

against which the roofing butts.

Sheet lead
this

is

wooden core and

corrugations,

means

The

then formed over

of

and

being

the

fastened by

wood screws

lead

into

tlirough the lead cap

soft,

it

shown

the

wooden

core.

can be worked into any desired shape.

\Mien a valley occurs in a hipped

a valley as

into

roof,

form from plain sheet iron

in Fig. 243, being sure to give

it

two coats of paint

before laj-ing, and

it

from

wide
up 12

24-inch

bending

sheets,

make

inches on

each

side.

Fig. 241.

Fit

cut the corrugated iron to

fit

it

in

the required angle.

tlie valley,

Then

and

lap the

corrugated iron over the valley from 6 to 8 inches.

^Vllen a
iron,

chimney

is

to

be flashed, as shown

bending up and flashing into the chimney

a&T

in Fig. 244, use plain

joints,

and allowing

SHEET METAL WORK

188

up under the corrugated iron at the top about 12

inches and over the corrugated iron at the bottom about the same
distance.
At the side the flashing should have the shape of the cor-

the flashing to turn

rugated iron and receive a lap of about 8 inches, the entire flashing

Fig. 242.

^Vllen a water-tight joint

being well bedded in roofer's cement.

required around a
iron

is first

smoke

stack, as

shown

is

in Fig. 245, the corrugated

cut out as shown, then a flashing built around one half the

upper part of the stack to keep the water from entering inside.
is

best done

sheet lead

This

by using heavy

and

riveting

to

it

the sheets, using strips of simi 1

ar

corrugated

iron

as

washer to avoid damaging the

lead.

Before

riveting,

the

must be well bedded

roofer's cement and then

flashing
in

make a beveled angle of

cement to make a good joint.
After this upright flashing
in position a collar

is

is

set over

same and fastened to the

stack by means of an iron ring
Cement is used to make a waterbolted and made tight as shown.
This construction gives room for the
tight joint around the stack.
stack to sway and allows the heat to escape.
Sometimes the end-wall flashing shown in ^ig. 23G can be used
Fig. 243.

the

268

SHEET METAL WORK

to

good advantage

189

in building the upright flashing in Fig. 245.

\\Tiere

D and D in Figs.

230 and

the corrugated iron meets at the ridge, as at

Fig. 244.

wooden core is placed

hip ridge, and an angle

231, a

in position as explained in connection with

tlie

ridge, pressed

by dealers who furnish the

Fig. 245.

corrugated iron,

a ridge

roll is

is

placed over the ridge as shown in Fig. 246.

required, the shape

260

shown

in Fig.

247

is

^^^len

employed.

SHEET METAI. W'ORK

190

These ridges are fastened

direct to the roof sheets

by means of riveting

or bohing.

LAYING CORRUGATED SIDING

Before putting on any corrugated siding or clapboarding, as

shown

in Fig. 248,

a finish

is

usually

made

at the eaves

by means of a

Fig. 246.

hanging gutter or a plain cornice, shown in Fig. 249, which

to the projecting

wooden

This method

or iron rafters.

used on elevators, mills, factories, barns,

crimped iron or clapboards are used

etc.,

is

is

fastened

generally

where corrugated

iron,

This

for either roofing or siding.

Fig. 247.

style of cornice covers the eaves

the building entirely ironclad.

at the left

hand

make
commence

and gable projections, so as

When

laying the siding

to

corner, laying the courses from base to cornice, giving

the sheets a lap of two inches as the ends and one and one half corruga-

Fig. 248.

tions at the sides.

Nail side laps every 6 inches and end laps at every

other corrugation, driving the nails as

Where

shown

the sheets must be fastened to iron framing use the

method as explained

in connection with Figs. 238,

this case, instead of nailing the sheets, they

is

in Fig. 250.

same

239 and 240.

would be riveted.

In

If siding

put on the wooden studding care should be taken to space the stud-

ding the same distance apart as the laying width of the iron used.

270

In

SHEET MET.\L WOEK

this

the

191

case pieces of studding should be placed between the uprights at

end of aach sheet

^^^len covering grain elevators

to nail the laps,

Fig. 249.
it is

necessary to use swinging scaffolds.

Commence

at the base

and

up the course to the eave, the length of the scaffold. Commence

at the left hand and give the sheets a lap of one corrugation on the side
and a two-inch lap at the end.
carry

Nail or rivet in every corrugation 3 inches from the lower

Fig. 250.

end of the sheet;

allows

this

for settling of the building.

Wlien any structure

is

to

be covered on two or more

made

sides, corner casings

flat

iron

of

are employed, of a

shape similar to that shown

B, Fig. 251.

It

that a rabbet

is

will

at

be seen

bent on both

sides a

and

siding.

This makes a neat

to

rough edges of the siding.

casings a jamb

is

finish

If

on the outside and hides the

a window opening is to have

used as shown at A, Fig. 251, which has a similar rab-

bet at a to receive the siding,

frame.

^^'

admit the

In Fig. 252

is

and a square bend

shown the cap

271

of a

at b to nail against the

window

or opening.

It is

SHEET IMETAL WORK

192

bent so that a

is

nailed to

tlie

window

or other frame at the bottom,

while b forms a flashing over which the siding will

the

sill

of a window, which has a rabbet at

Fig. 252.

set.

a, in

Fig. 253

shows

which the siding

is

Fig. 253.

slipped; then b forms a drip,

and any water coming over the

over the siding without danger of leaks; c

is

sill

passes

nailed in white lead to the

window frame.
Another use

to

which corrugated iron

wood

is

put

is

to cover sheds

awnings.

Sheets laid on

sheets laid

on angle iron construction are fastened as explained

and

are nailed in the usual manner, while

in the

Fig, 254.

preceding sections.

In Fig. 254

on angle iron supports.

is

shown an awning over a

In work of this kind, to

make a

store laid

neat appear-

ance, the sheets are curved to conform to the iron bracket A.

273

EXAMINATION PLATE5
SKYLIGHTS
The

Paper should be laid out the same

size as in the previous books (10 x 14 inches).
The student should
first practice on other paper, then copy and send the corrected drawing
for correction and examination.
These final Examination Plates to be

drawm in

plates of this Instruction

this course will consist of Plates

VI, Yll, and ^TII and will be

that of a hipped skylight with a ventilator.

No copies of

the plates are

given, but with the following explanation the student should be able to

same without anv trouble. The pitch of the skvlio-ht

be one third, and Fig. 178 is given as an example of the work to be

construct the
is

to

done with the following exceptions.

of the

margin

lines,

On

draw the one-half

plate VL, within | inch inside

section of the skylight, the one-

quarter plan, and the patterns for the

common and

On

jack bars.

VII place a reproduction of the one-quarter plan omitting the plan

the jack bar; and from the plan of the hip construct the diagonal

Plate
of

elevation of the hip bar, also

its

true profile and' pattern.

the heights are taken from the one-half section in Plate

ferred to Plate

VII so

In

this case

Yl and

trans-

On

Plate

as to obtain the diagonal elevation.

\^II place a tracing of the one-half section from Plate "VT, and
develop on Plate VIII the patterns for the curb as shown in Fig. 178.

On

Plate

Mil

also develop the patterns

181, so as to neatly

On

plate

IX

drawn to a scale
any reproduction

fill

shown

in Figs. 179, ISO

and

the plate.

shown a plan and elevation of a hipped roof

of ^ inch to the foot.
The student is not to make
is

of this plate but is only to figure out the quantities

in this roof also the

amount

of hip rolls required, followino- the

rules given in connection with the problems on

in this book.

275

Roof Mensuration

CORNICE OVER BRICK BAY*

An
sides of

elevation

and plan

of a brick

bay are shown

which are 8 inches, 3 feet 2 inches and 5

in the illustration, th

feet 10 inches wide.

or flanges for soldering are to be allowed on/ the 3 feet 2 inch pieces

on the 8 inch and 5

feet

10 inch pieces.

The lookouts or

Laps

and no laps

iron braces are indi-

by the heavy dashes making a total of 9 required.

After the detail section is drawn and knowing the angle of the bay in plan,
the angle is placed as shown by ABC, being careful to place CB on a line drawn
vertically from 3-4 in the section. The miter line is then drawn as shown by
BD, the section divided into equal spaces, and vertical lines dropped to the
miter line BD as shown. At right angles to BC the girth of the section is
drawn as shown by similar figures from 1 to 26, through which points at right
angles to 1-26, lines are drawTi and intersected by similar numbered lines
drawn from the miter line BD at right angles to BC, thus obtaining the upper
miter cut shown. Now using this miter cut in practice, make the distance
cated in the plan

from either points 25 or 24 (which represents the

8 inches, 3 feet 2 inches and 5 feet 10 inches.

The

line of the wall)

3 feet 2 inches

equal to

and 5

feet

10 inches have opposite miter cuts as shown.

As
right

will

be seen by the plan, two eight inch pieces will be required, one

and one

left

and two 3

feet 2 inch

and one 5

iron lookouts will be required formed to the shape

feet 10 inch pieces.

shown

in the detaU section,

where holes are punched for bolting as there indicated.

*

The

illustration referred to will

be found on the back of

Nine

tliis

page.

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SHEET METAL
PART

There

is

no trade

WORK

IV

CORNICE

WORK

in the buildino;

hne to-dav which has made such

rapid progress as that of Sheet-]\Ietal Cornice, or Architectural Sheet-

Metal Work.

It is not

very long since the general scope of this branch

of craftsmanship merely represented a tin-shop business

But

scale.

as things are to-day, this

is

on a large

From an

changed.

enlarged

tin-shop business, sheet-metal cornice work, including imder that

every branch of architectural sheet-metal work, has

title

become one of the

substantial industries of the country, comparing favorably vnih almost

any other mechanical branch

confined to the larger

cities.

In the smaller towns

ress of architectural sheet-metal

fronts constructed

Xor is this work

shown the prog-

in the building trades.

work

is

in the erection of entire building

from sheet metal.

CONSTRUCTION
Sheet-metal cornices have heretofore, in a great measure, been
duplications of the designs
turn, with

minor modifications, were imitations of

^Yith the

marked advancement

need no longer be the case.

It

tive.

tern

is

By

possesses a variety

too complex or too

in sheet

commonly employed

in

stone.

of this industrv, however, this

sheet-metal cornice

and beauty peculiarly

difficult.

wood, which,

in

is

its

not

now

imita-

No

own.

pat-

Designs are satisfactorily executed

metal which are impossible to produce in any other material.

the free and judicious application of pressed metal ornaments, a

product

is

obtained that equals carved work.

sharp and clean-cut

lines,

sheet-metal

For boldness of

work takes the lead

of

figure,

all

com-

petitors.

In order that there

parts contained in
Fig. 255 has

may be

no misunderstanding as

what the sheet-metal worker

the architectural name

270

for

a "cornice,"

calls

been prepared, which gives the names of

in the "entablature"

to the various

all

what

the

members

in the

shop

is

SHEET METAL WORK

194

known as the cornice. The term "entablature" is seldom heard

among mechanics, ~a very general use of the word "cornice" having
supplanted

An
frieze,

it

in the

common

language of business.

entablature consists of three principal parts

and the

show the

architrave.

is

cornice, the

glance at the illustration will serve to

Among mechanics

relation that each bears to the others.

the shop term for architrave

the

]oot-mouldincj; for frieze, jpanel',

and

for

riLLET

LOCK J-

OGEE
FILLET

rf

FASCIA

PLANCEER

QUARTER T ^
ROUND V
y/QUARTER
FJLLET
y

Id

O
I

z
o
o

a.

'

yJ

MOOILLION

CAP

MODILLION

MODILLION

yJ

'

E
BED
MOULD

"^'

1L-

2ui

w
Q3
OO
-I
-> cr

BAND
modilFion
r

oR ip

T- _MoyLp

COVE

50

i_

-J 05

UJ
cr

-J

a.

"k-

DENTIL

BAND

UARTER ROUND

y DENTIL
r_

STILE

MOULD n,0

f^I

UJ

COVE

-i

u
z

liJ

PANEL

^
-

X
u
a
<

PANEL mould"

WASH
FILLET

J QUARTER ROUND

FASCIA
1

OQ
O -I
U-3
o

FASCIA

..

Fig. 255.

the subdivisions of the cornice, dentil course, modillion course, bed-

mould, and croion-mould.

In the modillion course, are the modillion-

hand and modillion-mould; while in the dentil course are the dentilband and dentil-mould. Drips are shown at the bottom of the crownand foot-mould fascias, and the ceiling under the crown mould is called
the planceer. The edge at the top of the cornice is called a lock, and is
used to lock the metal roofing

into,

280

when covering

the top of the cor-

SHEET METAL WORK

In the panel, there are the panel proper, the panel-mould, and

nice.

the

195

The

stile.

Fig. 256

front of the niodiUion are also shown.

and

side

shows the side and front

cornices,

wh

mouldings, and against

mouldings end, are called

and a

side view

is

known

as a

above

common

ch

the

trusses, a

which are

of

in Fig. 257.

sho\^^l

what

Large terminal brackets in

which project beyond the

bracket

front

^iew of

block placed

bracket against

which the moulding ends,

is

called a
Fig. 256.

stop block, a front

and a

side \new of

which are shown in Fig. 258.

Fig. 259 is the front elevation of

a cornice^ in which are

shown the

truss, the bracket, the

modillion, the
panel.

It is

dentil, and the

sometimes the case,

in the construction of a cornice,

that

a bracket or modillion

is

whose front and sides

are carved as shown in the front
and side ^iews in Fig. 260. In
called for,

that case, the brackets are ob-

tained from dealers

in

pressed

who make a specialty

kind of work. The same

ornaments,
of this

FRONT

SIDE

applies to capitals wliich

^^S- 2o(.

I^g

umns, such as those shown

in

required for pilasters or col-

Figs. 261

and 262.

The

pilaster or

column would be formed

up in sheet metal, and the
capital purchased and soldered in
263,

position*.

In Fig.

shows an inchned

moulding, wliich, as far as

general

position

is

FRONT

SIDE
^^^- ^^^*

con-

cemed, would be the same as a gable moulding.

281

would

SHEET METAL WORK

196

Raking mouldings are those which are inclined as in a gable or

pediment; but, inasmuch as to miter an inclined moulding (as A) into a
horizontal moulding (as B and C), under certain conditions, necessitates a
ers,

change of

has come

profile,

mean

to

the term "to rake,"

among

sheet-metal work-

"to change profiles" for the accomplishment of

FRONT ELEVATION
Fig. 259.

such a miter.
profile

the term "raked moulding"

Hence

means one whose

has been changed to admit of mitering.

The term

miter, in

common

usage, designates a joint in a mould-

ing at any angle.

Drawings form a

ver^'

important part in sheet-metal architectural

SIDE ELEVATION

FRONT ELEVATION
Fig. 2G0.

work.

An

object,

on a plane perpendicular

Figs. 259

elevation

and 263.

is

a geometrical projection of a building or other

to the

horizon

Elevations are ordinarily

288

drawn

as, for

to

example.

a scale of I or

O
a

o
o

c3

Eh
a>

*3

O
;2

> o
^ a

c8

V
a

ll
cn

CD

(/)

PES

cSCfi

<
d
JeS -^

H
<;

d
13

O
u

a>
*->

ai
c

CU
<

i)
bo

3
O

a
a

cd

SHEET
7 inch to the

foot.

other object as
as, for

it

WORK

19:

A sectional drawing
would appear

example, Fig. 255,

V^^

INIETAL

if

shows a view of a building or

cut in two at a given vertical line

Detail drawings are ordinarily

full size,

and

SHEET

198

ISIETAL

WORK

A few words are necessary on the subject of fastening the cornice

to the wall.

made of such a wide range of sizes, and

in so many different locations, that the

Sheet-metal cornices are

are required to be placed

methods of construction, when wooden lookouts are employed and

Fig. 264.

when

the cornice

is

put together at the building in parts, are worthy of

the most careful study.

up,

is

The

general order of procedure in putting

as follows:

The

foot-moulding or architrave a h (Fig. 2G4)

wall finished

up

to

/,

is set

upon the

the drip a being drawn tight against the wall.

The brickwork is then carried up, and the lookout A placed in position,
the wall being carried up a few courses higher to hold the lookout in
position.

board

is

then nailed on top of the lookouts (which

should be placed about three feet apart); and on this the flange of the

foot-mould h

is

fastened.

the lock B, which

board

is

closed

The

frieze or panel h c is

now

placed into

and soldered; when the lookout

and the

are placed in their proper positions, as before described.

264

SHEET
The

planceer and bed-mould

D, and the lookout

WORK

IVIETAL

199

d are now locked and soldered

placed in position, with a board

F placed

at

under

the lookouts the entire length of the cornice; onto this board the planceer

is

Having the proper measurements, the framer now

fastened.

GH

constructs his lookouts or brackets

E, fastening to the

beam

at

T, when the crown-mould d eis fastened to the planceer, through the

and

flange of the drip at d,

of mouldings, are

at the top at

made by

c.

The joints between

lengths

lapping, riveting, or bolting, care being

taken that they are joined so neatly as

seam when

to hide all indications of a

and viewed from a short

finished
distance.

If brackets or modillions

be placed

are to

in position, they are riveted

or bolted in position; or sometimes the

back of the cornice

is

indicates
bolts.

blocked out

with wood, and the brackets screwed

in position

through their flanges.

Wliile

a galvanized-iron cornice

wooden lookouts

thus constructed on
will resist fire for

a long time, a

obtained only

ly fireproof cornice is

by the use of metal

strict-

and

for supports

fastenings, to the entire exclusion of

This fireproof method of con-

wood.

struction

is

Fig. 265.

shown

stead of patting

in Fig.

up

In-

265.

in parts

on the

structed in one piece in the shop or

building, the cornice

bottom of the foot-mould, and the

dicated at h and

c,

with a lock at

d.

con-

upon the ground, and hoisted

to the top of the wall in long lengths easily handled.

at the

is

joints

Band

A drip

made

in the

is

used

way

in-

and braces
shown by A B

iron supports

are used, formed to the general contour of the parts as

C, and bolted direct to the cornice, as shown, before hoisting.

AMien the cornice

to the

main

fastening.
his wall,

sets

brace, as at

on the wall as at C, anchors are fastened

and E, with an end bent up or down for

If the cornice sets perfectly

plumb, the mason carries up

which holds the cornice in a firm

back are then framed

in the usual

position.

The

top and

manner and covered by the metal

285

SHEET METAL ^VORK

200

In constructing cornices in this manner, the mouldings are

roofer.

run through

solid,

behind

all

The

brackets and modillions.

brackets

and modillions are attached by means of riveting through outside

flanges.

SHOP TOOLS
One

of the

most important

metal working shop

are bent

up

tools in cornice or architectural sheet-

On

the brake.

is

one continuous length.

to 8 feet in

power presses or brakes are used,

feet in length, the press

those operated by hand, sheets

in

In the larger shops,

which sheets are formed up

being so constructed that they

will

to 10

form ogees,

squares, or acute bends in one operation.

Large

8- or 10-feet squaring shears also

form an important ad-

and are operated by foot or power.

"\Mien cornices are constructed where the planceer or frieze is very
v.'ide, it is usual to put crimped metal in, to avoid the waves and buckdition to the shop,

les
is

showing

in the flat surface; for this

purpose the crimping machine

used.
In-

preparing the iron braces for use in the construction of

fire-

proof cornices, a 'punching machine and slitting shears are used for
cutting the

band

and punching holes

iron

While braces are sometimes bent

brace bender

is

constructions,

of great value
it is

to

it

admit the

bolts.

a vise, a small machine known as a

m the shop.

In large fireproof building

window frames, and even

and made in so neat a manner that,

necessary that

sashes be covered with metal,

when painted and

in

in

all

doors,

grained, no differences will be apparent to indicate

vvhether the material

is

wood

or metal, the smallest bends

down

to \

inch being obtained.

This, of course, cannot be done on the brakes

just mentioned, but

done by means of the draw-bench, which

structed in lengths

is

up

to

20

feet

is

con-

and longer, operated by means of an

endless chain, and capable of drawing the sheet metal over any shaped

wood mould

as tightly as

tools in the

shop are similar

if it

were cast

in

one

piece.

The

smaller

to those described in the Instruction

Papers on Tinsmithing and Sheet Metal Work, Part

I.

METHOD EMPLOYED FOR OBTAINING PATTERNS

The

principles applied to cylinder developments as explained in

the Tinsmithing
of *Tarallel-Line

and Sheet Metal Work

courses,

under the lieading

Developments," are also applicable for obtaining

286

SHEET METAL WORK

the patterns for

makes no

any moulding where

difference

what

profile

all

201

members run

parallel; for

employed, so long as the

is

lines

it

run

one another, the parallel-line method is used. While

this method is chiefly employed in cornice work, other problems will
arise, in which the "Radial-Line" and Triangulation" methods (exparallel

to

plained in previous Papers) will be of

ser^'ice.

The term generally used in the shop for pattern cutting on cornice
work is miter cutting. To illustrate, suppose two pieces of mouldings
are to be joined together at
90

angle of 90, as shown in Fig.

266.

The

would be

first

step necessary

to bisect the given

angle and obtain the miter-

and cut each piece so that

thev would miter together. If a

line

carpsnter had to

^ig- 266.

make a joint of this kind, he would place his moulding

and cut one piece right and one piece left at an angle
and he would be careful to hold the moulding in its proper po-

in the miter-box,

of 45,

sition before

sawing; or else he may, instead of ha\ing a return miter

as shown, have a face miter as in

a picture frame, shown in Fig.

The

267.

sheet-metal

maker cannot,
is

^Oo

lav

it

it

in the miter-

cut the miter, but

to

on

out

develop
Fig. 267.

after his moulding:

formed, place

box

cornice-

it

or, in

sheet of metal.

must

other words,
flat

surface or

He must

also

be

careful to place the profile in its proper position with the miter-

Une; or

else,

instead of having a return miter as

shown

in Fig. 266,

he

have a face miter as shown in Fig. 267. If he lays out his work
correctly, he can then cut two pieces, form one right and the other left,

will

when a miter will result between the two pieces of moulding and will
look as shown v\ Fig. 266. If, however, a face miter is desired, as
shown in Fig. 267, which is used when miters are desired for panels
and other purposes, the method of laying them, out will be explained as
we proceed. The same principles required for developing Figs. 266
and 267 are used, whether the mouldings are mitered at angles of 90

287

SHEET METAL WORK

202

or otherwise.

The

metliod of raking the mouldings

or, in other

words, changing their profile to admit the mitering of some other

moulding

at various angles

will also

be thoroughly explained as we

proceed.

VARIOUS SHAPES OF MOULDINGS

The stvle of mouldings arising in the cornice shop are chiefly
Roman, and are obtained bv using the arcs of a circle. In some cases,
Greek mouldings are used, the outlines of which follow the curves
of conic sections; but the majority of shapes are arcs of circles.

Fig. 269.

Fig. 268.

Figs. 2G8 to

Roman

In

272 inclusive, the student

is

given a few simple lessons on

mouldings, which should be carefully followed.

As

all

pat-

draw their full-size details in the shop from

small-scale drawings furnished by the architect, it follows that they
must understand how to draw the moulds with skill and ease; other-

tern-cutters are required to

Fig. 271.

Fig. 270.

wise freehand curves are made, which lack proportion and beauty.
In Fig. 268,

shows the mould known as the cyma

recta,

known

drawn as follows
Complete a square abed; draw the two diagonals a c and h d,
Through e, draw a horizontal line interintersecting each other at e.
Then, with / and h as centers, draw resecting adatf and b c at h.
spectively the two quarter-circles a e and c c.
in the

shop as the ogee, which

is

888

SHEET
In Fig. 269,

and a

c intersecting at e;

abatf and c d
a

and

C
is

in Fig.

through

e,

draw a

270 shows the

d at

shop as the

vertical line intersecting

cavetio, called the cove in the shop,

quarter-circle a

round, which
Fig. 270,

v\-ith

is

Draw

which proves the

center,

draw the

the

ovolo or

in

represents

the shop as the quarter-

constructed similarly to

in

the exception that b in Fig. 271

used to obtain the curve a

E in Fig.

which

c.

In Fig. 271,

known

45,

d as a

square; and, using

mould.

in the

which points are the respective centers for the arcs

at h,

drawn by completing a square abed.

echinus,

known

e c.

the diagonal

is

the cijma reversa,

203

Complete a square abed, and draw the two diagonals

ogee, reversed.

bd

B shows

ISIETAL \\ORK

272

is

known

27-2
/:::.

c.

as the torus,

known

in the

shop as a bead-

A given distance a 6 is bisected, thus obtaining c, which is the

center with which to describe the semicircle a

be drawn by the student to any deIn preparing mouldings from sheet metal,

All of these profiles should

sired scale for practice.

b.

SHEET METAL WORK

204

richment being indicatetl by a h in the section, in which the dotted line

shows the body of the sheet-metal moulding

pressed work.

In Fig 274, II represents

P'ig.

is

dart

soldered or riveted in position,

is

In

this case the

dm the section,

mould

Fig.

a l>ed-niould in which

274.

egg-and-dart enrichments are placed.

bent as shown by

])art of

l)ent to receive the

after

body of the

which the egg-and-

J in Fig. 275 represents part

275.

on w4iich an enriched bead is fastened. The body of

the mould would be formed as indicated by -c in the' section, and the
bead a h fastened to it. This same general method is employed, no
matter what shape the pressed work has.
of a foot-mould

PRACTICAL MITER CUTTING

Under this heading come the practical shop problems. The problems which will follow should be drawn to any desired scale by the
student, developed,

racy of the pattern.

shop and

te.st

and bent from

If the

stiff

cardboard to prove the accu-

student cannot use the small brake in the

his patterns cut

from metal, he can use the dull blade of

a table knife, over which the bends can be made,

when using cardboard

This at once proves interesting and instructive. Should

there be any problem which is not clear, he should write at once for
patterns.

further information; or, should

any problem

290

arise

on

w^hich he desires

SHEET METAL WORK

information, the School will inform

books contains similar principles, or

him.

The

first

problem

will

be

205

him which problem

will

in his text-

prepare such a problem for

to obtain the

development of a square
would occur when a moulding had to return
around the corner of a building, as shown in Fig. 276.
In Fig. 277
are shown two methods of obreturn miter, such as

taining the pattern.

The

first

method which will be described

the "long" method, in which
are set forth all the principles
is

applicable

to obtaining

pat-

terns for mouldings, no matter

Fig. 276.

what angle the plan may have.

The second method

is

ELEVATION

inol9l8l7Vs'4'3'2'

11-4-

PATTERN\i

^9'/

10"

Fig, 277.

281

the "short'^

SHEET METAL WORK

206

employed

rule generally

when the angle

To

in the shop, which, however,

can be used only

H G F in plan is 90, or a right angle.

obtain the pattern by the

method, proceed as follows:

first

draw the elevation of the mould as shown by 1, B, A, 11, drawing

Divide the curv'es into equal
the coves by the rule previously given.
spaces; and number these, including the corners of the fillets as shown
First,

In

its

plan as shown by

by the small figures

draw the

soffit

F by the line

to 1 1.

G D, which is

proper position below the elevation,

D E F G H.

drawn

at

Bisect the angle

an angle of

From

45.

HG

the va-

rious intersections in the elevation, drop lines intersecting the miter-line

At

as shown.

right angles to

G, draw the stretchout

line

11',

upon which place the stretchout of the mould 1 11 in elevation, as

shown by similar figures on the line 1' 11'. At right angles to 1'
11', and from the numbered points thereon, draw lines, which intersect
by lines drawn at right angles to H G from similarly numbered interTrace a line through the intersections
sections on the miter-line G D.

Fig. 278.

thus obtained, as
pattern.

shown by J G.

Then

will 1'

J 11' be the desired

This gives the pattern by using the miter-line

in plan.

In developing the pattern by the short method, on the other hand,

the plan

is

not required.

At

right angles to 1

in elevation,

draw the

upon which place the stretchout of the profile

11 in elevation, as shown by similar figures on 1" 11", at right
1
angles to which draw lines through the numbered points as shown,
which intersect by lines drawn at right angles to 1 B from similarly
numbered intersections in the profile in elevation. Trace a line through

stretchout line 1" 11",

points thus obtained, as

similar to J

1'

11'

shown by

K.

Then

obtained from the plan.

292

will

1" 11"

be

SHEET METAL WORK

In Fig. 278

207

shown a horizontal moulding butting against a

plane surface oblique in elevation. A miter cut of this kind
would
be required when the return moulding of a dormer window would
is

butt

against a
to

mansard or other pitched

roof.

we assume A
The method of

In this case

be the return butting against the pitched roof B.

PATTERN

SECTION

Fig. 279.

obtaining a pattern of this kind

is

shown

represent the elevation of the return,

In

AD

in Fig. 279.

Let

AB CD

representing the pitch of the

proper position as shown, draw the section 111, which

divide into equal spaces as shown, and from which, parallel to
A B,
roof.

draw

its

lines intersecting the slant line

right angles to

AB

AD

erect the stretchout

from

Hne

1 to 11,

as shown.

At

upon which place

the stretchout of the section as shown by similar figures on 1' 11'.
At right angles to 1' 11', and through the numbered points thereon,
draw lines, which intersect by Hnes drawn at right angles to A B from
similarly numbered intersections on the slant line A D.
Through

293

1'

11',

SHEET

208

WORK

INIETAL

the various intersections thus obtained,

ir r be the
It is

butts,

draw E

Then

F.

EF

will

desired pattern.

sometimes the case that the roof against which the moulding

has a curved surface either concave or convex, as shown by

which surface

in Fig. 2S0,

moulding, as

1)

E; and

is

in

Complete the elevation of the

convex.

its

proper position draw the section

which divide into equal spaces as shown by the small

which draw horizontal

lines until they intersect the

At

struck from the center point A.

which

is

of the

moulding erect the

BC

line 1' 9',

figures,

cun'ed line

1 9,

from

C,

right angles to the line

upon which place the stretchout

PATTERN

SECTION

C
Fig. 280.

shown by the figures on the stretchout line. Through

the numbered points, at right angles to 1' 9', draw lines, which
intersect by lines drawn at right angles to 2 D from similarly numbered
of the section, as

intersections

on the curve

9" in the pattern, as shown.

C, thus resulting in the intersections I" to

The arcs

2" 3"

ductions of the arcs 2 3 and 7 9 on

traced bv anv convenient method: or,
to

make

it

as follows:

C.

These

the radius

AC

inconvenient to use, the arcs in the pattern

Using

AC

as radius,

arcs intersecting each other at A'

as centers,

if

and 1" 8" are simply

and 7" and 8"

in similar

is

re})ro-

arcs can

be

not too Ions:

may be

obtained

as centers, describe

manner, using 2" and 3"

and with the same radius, describe arcs intersecting each

294

SHEET
A\

other at

draw the

With the same

arcs 8" 7"

ISIETAL

WORK

and with A* and A^ as centers,

and 3" 2" respectively. Trace a line through
radius,

the other various intersections as shown.

desired pattern.

209

Then

will 1' 1" 9" 9'

be the

In Fig. 281

is

shown an

panel for which a miter-cut

elevation of
is

an oblong or rectangular

desired on the line a b

known as a

The

"panel" or "face" miter.

rule to apply in obtaining this

pattern

shown

is

in Fig. 282.

shows the part elevation of

and

the panel; a b
miter-lines
45.

In

drawn

the

c d,

at angles of

proper position

its

with the lines of the mould-

draw the
curve or mould
ing,

into

profile

of wliich divide

shown
7 and from

equal spaces,

by the figures

B, the

1 to

as

pomts thus obtained, par-

the
allel

draw

to 1 b,

inter-

lines

Fig. 281.

Fig. 282.

secting the miter-line a 6 as shown.

allel

to b d,

draw the

draw

From

fines intersecting also c d.

these intersections, par-

At

right angles to b

upon which place the stretchout of the

profile B.
At right angles to 1' 7', and through the numbered
points of division, draw lines, which intersect by lines drawn at right
angles to b d from similarly numbered intersections on the miterlines

stretchout fine

a b and

c d.

Trace

1' ,

lines

section in the pattern as shown.

through the various points of inter-

Then

will

CD EF

be the required

cut for the ends of the panel.

The same

miter-cuts woujd be employed for the long side a c in

295

SHEET METAL WORK

210

Fig. 281,

make

being necessary only to

it

DE

in Fig.

282 that length

when laying out the patttern on the sheet metal.

Where the miter-cut is required for a panel whose angles are other
than right angles, as, for example, a triangular panel as shown in Fig.
283, then proceed as

shown

the triangular panel as

being equal.
miter-lines

in Fig. 284.

shown by

AB

First

draw the

elevation of

C, the three sides in the case

Bisect each of the angles A, B, and C, thus obtaining the

A c, B 6,

and

C a.

In line with the elevation, place in

its

proper position the profile

E, which divide into equal
spaces as shown; and from

numbered division
points, parallel to A C, draw
the

ELEVATION

lines cutting the miter-line

From

a.

these intersec-

tions, parallel to

B, draw

lines intersecting the miterline 6

B.

At

right angles to

C B draw the stretchout

1' 7',

line

upon which place the

Fig. 283.

Fig. 284.

Through the numbered points of divi1' 7', draw lines as shown, which intersect

stretchout of the profile E.

sion

by

and

lines

at right angles to

drawn

at right angles to

numbers on the

miter-lines a

obtained, trace the pattern

It

makes no

C and

FGH

difference

C B

from intersections of similar

h B.

Through the

points thus

I.

what shape or angle the panel may have;

the principles above explained are applicable to any case.

In ornamental cornice work,

it

often ha])pens that tapering mould-

ed panels are used, a plan and elevation of which are shown in Fig. 285.

296

SHEET METAL WORK

By referring to the plan,
and

a' b are

it

be seen that the four parts b

will

symmetrical; therefore, in practice,

draw the one-quarter

211

plan, as

shown

it is

a,

&', 6' a',

necessary only to

and omit the elevation, since the height d e (Fig. 285) is known.
Thus, in Fig. 286, draw
the quarter-plan of the panel, no matter what is its shape, as shown
in Fig. 286,

Fig. 285.

by a

5 6

Divide the curves from

9.

spaces, indicated respectively

by

1, 2, 3, 4,

From these points, draw lines to the apex

a.

5 and 6 9 into equa-

and

As

5,

and

6, 7, 8,

and

9.

the pattern will be de-

veloped by triangulation, a set of triangles will be required, as shown in

CENTER LINE

SL-

Fig. 286.

which proceed as follows: Draw any horizontal line, as

and from a erect the perpendicular a a' equal to the height the

Fig. 287, for

1;

panel

is to

from a

to

have.

1,

Fig. 287, as

a to

2,

Now^ take the lengths of the various lines in Fig. 286

a to 3, etc., to a to 9, and place them on the line a 1 in

shown by similar numbers. Then using

297

as radii the various

SHEET METAL WORK

212

lengths a'

1,

288 as center,
point on

tlie

and with any point, as a! in Fig.

describe the various arcs shown from 1 to 9.
From any

a' 2, a' 3, etc., to a' 9,

arc

draw a

line to a'

Set the dividers equal to the

spaces
curve

contained in the

5 in Fig. 286; and,

starting from

step

from one arc

to an-

num-

other having similar

bers, as

288

in Fig.

shown from

to 5.

In similar manner, take the

distance from 5 to 6 and
Fig. 287.

in Fig. 286,

the spaces in the curve

and place them on corresponding arcs

in Fig. 288, step-

ping from one arc to the other, resulting in the points 5 to

line

thus

9.

Trace

through the points

Then

obtained.

will a' 1 5

6 9

be the

a'

which

cjuarter-pattern,

can be joined in
half or

one-

whole pattern as

desired.

In Fig. 289

shown

is

a perspective of a mould-

Fig. 288.

ing which miters at an

angle other than a right angle.

required for over a bay

This occurs when a moulding

window or other

structure

The rule given

-^\

^^

to

section or
as

whose angles vary.

in Fig.

any angle or

and with

From

C and E

the corner

is

apjji cable

First

draw

an elevation of the moulding

shown by A B 14

Directly below

its

extreme point,

draw a plan of the desired

angle as shown by C 2 D. Bisect this
angle by using 2 as center and, with
any radius, describing an arc meeting
and E. With the same or any other radius,
as

the sides of the angle at

290

profile.

the moulding, from

Fig. 289.

is

3,

as centers, describe arcs intersecting each other in F.

2,

draw a

line

through F.

298

Then

will

be the

00

'a

o
> O
en

o
Q
IS
o
b
<

'

CO

>n

CO

SHEET METAL WORK

miter-line, or the line bisecting the angle
profile

213

Now

2 D.

divide

the

14 into equal spaces as

shown by the figures, and from the

points thus obtained drop vertical lines intersecting the
miter-line 2
1

14

13

1211 109 8

7 6 5 4

3 2

PATTERN

in plan

At

right

line

from

to

angles to

14 as shown2,

draw the

J K, upon which place

the

stretchout of the profile in elevation

as

shown by

stretchout line,
lines

on the
through which drop

similar figures

perpendicular to J K, which

intersect with lines

to

drawn

parallel

from similarly numbered

Fig. 291.

points of intersection on the miterline 2

H.

Trace a

line as

shown by

L M,

which

is

the miter-cut

desired.

When

two mouldings having different

miter together as shown in Fig. 291, where

290

profiles are required to

miters at right angles

SHEET METAL WORK

214

with D, two distinct operations are necessary, which are clearly shown
in Figs.

which

The

292 and 293.

first

operation

is

shown

in Fig. 292, in

represents the elevation of an ogee moulding which

is to

miter at right angles with a moulding of different profile as shown at D.

Divide the profile

into equal

2 spaces, from which points draw

horizontal lines

moulding
right

intersecting

from

1'

to 10'.

the

At

angles to the line of the

moulding C, draw the

line

A B,

upon which place the stretchout

of the profile C as shown by similar figures on A B.
At right
angles to A B, and through the

PATTFRN FOR C B
Fig. 292.

points indicated by the figures,

draw

lines,

which

intersect with

drawn parallel
similarly numbered
lines

in the profile

D.

to

AB

from

intersections

Trace a

line

through the points thus obtained,

as

shown by

GH

H.

Then

be the pattern for

will

in

"

PATTERN FOR D ^

elevation.

To obtain

Fig. 293.

the pattern forD,

draw the elevation of D (Fig. 293), which is to miter at right

Proceed in precisely
angles with a moulding whose profile is C.
Divide
the same manner as explained in connection with Fig. 292.
the

profile

in

Fig.

which draw horizontal

293

into

equal

parts,

lines cutting the profile C.

800

as

At

shown,

from

right angles

SHEET METAL WORK

moulding D, draw the stretchout

to the lines of the

which place the stretchout of the

lines

drawn parallel

intersections in the profile C.

draw

At

D.

profile

and through the numbered points of

which intersect by

215

division,
to

line

B, upon

A B,

right angles to

draw

lines as

shown,

A B from similarly numbered

Through

these points of intersection

F G. Then will E F G H be the desired pattern for D.

It

should be understood that

when

the patterns in Figs. 292 and

293 are formed and joined together, they will form an inside miter, as

shown

is
If,

in

Fig.

291.

however, an outside

miter were required,

it

would be necessary only

to use the reverse cuts of

the patterns in Figs. 292

and 293, as shown by

292 for the

Fig.

in

EJ

FJG

mould C, and
Fig. 293 for the

in

mould D.

When joining

Fig. 294.

curved moulding with a straight moulding in either plan or elevation even though the curved or straight mouldings each

same

profile, it is

have the

necessary to establish the true miter-line before

the pattern can be correctly developed, an example being given in

Fig. 294,
is

which shows an elevation of a curved moulding which

intersected

A B. The method

by the horizontal mouldings

of ob-

taining this miter-line, also the pattern for the horizontal pieces,
clearly

shown

moulding

is to

Then, with
the arc
line

h.

in Fig. 295.

have, as

C on

A.

First

1 10.

draw the

profile v/hich the horizontal

Let the distance 9

the center line as center, and

From any point on

Through the various

divisions in the profile

line, as

take the various divisions on a

shown by points

to 10'.

lines of similar

h,

e d,

describe

10,

to 10 as

draw

shown.

C d, cutting the arc B A at e.

draw

e to

c?

as

as center, with radii deterarcs intersecting horizontal

numbers drawn through the divisions on a b.

801

and place them from

Then, using

mined by the various points on

be established.

the line 9 B, as a, erect the vertical

From the center C, draw any radial

1'

A C as radius,

horizontal lines intersecting the vertical fine a 6 from

Now

is

Through

SHEET METAL WORK

216

these points of intersection,

will

note that this line

is

draw the

miter-line, the pattern

horizontal moulding by drawing the stretchout line

9 B.

On E F

lay off

is

obtained for the

E F at right angles

the stretchout of the profile

through the numbered points and at right angles to

zontal lines,

student

irregular.

Having obtained the

to

The

miter-line shown.

which intersect with

lines

drawn

F,

and

10;

draw

hori-

at right angles to 9

from similarly numbered

tersections

in

the

vertical

in-

miter-line

determined by horizontal
already

lines

drawn through the

Trace a line
line a b.

through the points thus ob-

tained, as

shown by

which

the desired pattern.

is

J K,

SHEET METAL WORK

jecting the various points,

and

217

to avoid a confusion of lines,

number

through

the intersections between the Knes drawn from tlie profile

At the desired point
the wash B 2, '7", "4", and "3".

draw the lower

tion,

line of the gable

tracing of the profile

plan, with

in

all

moulding, as

H in eleva-

F.

Take a

of the

various intersections on

same, and
elevation

AS

place

it

shown

as

placing the line

by
8 at

right angles to H
Through the various
and 8

2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,

draw

parallel to

which intersect by

in

F H,
lines

at right angles to

C B

in plan

ilarly

numbered

from simintersec-

tions in the pilaster

thus

B,

in-

indefinitely,

lines

drawn

F.

1, 7, 4, 3,

tersections

A\ and

in

obtaining the

points of intersection 1^
to 8^ in elevation.

For the pattern, proceed as follows: At right

angles to

F,

stretchout line

which place

draw the
J K, upon

'the stretch-

out of the profile

with

all

At

lines as

^'

the points of in-

tersection
1 2.

A or A^

on the wash

right angles to J

^S"

K, and through the numbered

shown, which intersect by

lines

drawn

from similarly numbered intersections

Through the
will

^^^'

in

draw

at right angles to

the

joint-line

points thus obtained, trace the miter-cut

L M N O P be the pattern

points,

1^'

M N O.

H
8^

Then

for the gable moulding.

In Fig. 298 are shown gable mouldings mitering upon a wash.

203

The

SHEET METAL WORK

218

A A intersect at any desired angle the wash B.

In this case,

as in the preceding problem, an operation in projection

must be gone
clearly shown

mouldings

through, before the pattern can be obtained.

This

Draw

in Fig. 290.

is

the section of the

horizontal moulding B^ with the wash

From

h.

this section project lines,

and draw the part elevation

^^S- 298.

have, draw

Knowing

shown from
parallel to

A, and place

to 8;

C.

gable is to
moulding. Draw a

the bevel the

B, in this case the top line of the

section of the gable mould, as A,

which divide

into equal parts as

and through the point of division draw

lines

Take a tracing of the profile

shown by A^ Divide A into the same

C, indefinitely, as shown.
it

in section as

ELEVATION

SECTION

Fis. 299.

number

A; and from the various divisions in A^ drop

intersecting the wash a b as shown, from which points

of spaces. as

vertical lines

draw horizontal

lines

intersecting

lines

drawn

through similarly numbered points in A, at 1 to

parallel
8.

to

B C

Trace a

line

through these intersections as shown, which represents the miter-line

or line of joint in elevation.

For the pattern, draw any

line as

shown by similar figures

Through the numbered points of division
draw lines as shown, which intersect by

which place the stretchout of the

on the stretchout

and

at right

E F.
to E F,

line

angles

E F, at right angles to B C, upon

profile A, as

304

SHEET METAL

T^'ORK

219

drawn at right angles to B C from similarly numbered intersections on 1 8 and on the vertical line B D.
A line traced through
points thus obtained, as shown bv G H I J, vdW be the desired pattern.
In Fig. 300 is showTi a front ^iew of a turret on which four gables
are to be placed, as shown bv A A; also the roofs
over same, as shown by B B, The problem conlines

obtaining the developments of the gable

sists in

mouldings on a square

In developing

tun-et.

this pattern, the half-elevation only

as

shown

center line

which

Fig. 301, in

in

required,

is

draw the

first

F; then estabUsh the half-width of

right angles

C D, and draw the rake B

to the Une B C, and in its

position as

shown, draw the profile A, which

di^ide into

equal spaces as shown by the figures

the turret, as

1 to 6,

center line

Now

through which, parallel to

FE

proper

draw

C,

shown; and extend the

as

At

C.

lines intersecting the

lines

below C,

take a tracing of the profile A, and place

shown by A^ being
di^"isions, as

have

careful to

sho^-n from

to 6,

it

indefinitelv.

in position as

spaced in the same number of

D C, erect

to

drawn through the

lines

A, thus obtaining the intersections 1 to

which represents the

it

through which, parallel

Unes intersecting similarly nmnbered

traced,

^^'

6,

profile

through which a line

line of joint at the lower

is

end between

the two gables.

For the
J

pattern, take a stretchout of A,

and place

K draT\Ti at right angles to B C, as shown by the figures

it

on the

line

on J K.
draw lines,

to 6

At right angles to J K, and through these points of division,

which intersect bv lines drawn from similarlv numbered intersections
on
as

F B and

1 6.

Trace a

shown by F B C

6,

line

which

is

through the points thus obtained,

the desired pattern, of which eight

are required to complete the turret, four formed right

If the roof

shown by

in Fig.

300

is

left.

desired to be added to the

pattern in Fig. 301, then, at right angles to

equal to

and four

H in the half-elevation, and draw

6,

draw the

line

F F*

a line from F^ to 6 in the

pattern.

In Fig. 302
zontal returns at

is

which

shown

bottom

will follow, a

front ^^ew of an angular pediment with hori-

and top B.

change of

In this problem, as in others

profile is necessary before the correct

305

SHEET METAL W^RK

220

pattern for the returns can be developed.

In other words, a new pro-

must be developed from the given or normal

terns for the required parts can be developed.
file

stood Ihat

all

profile before the patIt

should be under-

given profiles are always divided into equal spaces; there-

fore the modified profiles will contain unequal spaces, each

one of

IF*

HALF

.ELEVATION

Fig. 301.

which must be carried separately onto the stretchout

this in
files

mind,

we

shall

and patterns

moulding, as at

gable moulding C.

Bearing

proceed to obtain the modified or changed pro-

for the horizontal returns at top

and

line.

and foot of a gable

A in Fig. 302, the given profile to be placed in the

In Fig. 303,

let

represent the gable moulding

306

SHEET METAL WORK

placed at

its

is

the proper angle, place the given

same

the rake, as shown; and divide

to.

G H.
profile A

proper angle with the horizontal moulding

ing that 6^ 6
angles

221

shown from

at right

into equal spaces as

through which points, parallel to

1 to 10,

Assum-

6"^

6,

draw lines

towards the top and bottom of the

Assuming that the

raking moulding.
length 6^ 6

correct, take a tracing

is

of the profile A,

and place

below

tical position

at A^

at A^, being careful to

it

in a ver-

and above

have the points

^^- ^^^

6 and 6 in the profiles directly in a ver-

below the points 6^ and

tical position

rious intersections in the profiles A^

same number

6, as

From

shown.

the va-

and A^ (which must contain the

of spaces as the given profile A), erect vertical lines

drawn through the profile A, as shown at the lower

10^, and at the upper end from 1 to 10.
Trace a line

intersecting lines

end from

1^ to

Then

through the points thus obtained.

and

profile for the lower horizontal return,

for the

will 1^ 10^

be the modified

1 10 the modified profile

upper horizontal return.

Note the

difference in the shapes

and spaces between these two

modified profiles and the given profile A.

It will

be noticed that a

portion of the gable moulding miters on the horizontal moulding

from 6^ to

GH

10'.

For the pattern for the gable moulding, proceed as follows:

draw the

At

K, upon which place

the stretchout of the given profile A, as shown by the figures 1 to 10 on
J K. Through these figures, at right angles to J K, draw lines as
shown, which intersect with lines drawn at right angles to E F from
right angles to

F,

similarly

numbered

10' at the

lower end.

tained.

Then

will

For the pattern

intersections

Trace a

10 on B, with

its

line

10 at the top and

on

right angles to

draw a side
and the profile

R the desired projection,

various intersections, an exact reproduction of

Extend the

line

R T as R
B

as

S; and, starting

shown by the figures

being careful to measure each space separately.

S,

6^

through the intersections thus ob-

10, lay off the stretchout of the profile in

to 10

for the horizontal return at the top,

1 10 in the elevation.

from

in

M N O be the pattern for C.

view as shown at B, making

1

stretchout line J

S draw the usual measuring

307

lines,

which

At

intersect

SHEET METAL WORK

222

by

drawn parallel to S R from similarly numbered points in the

Trace a line through points thus obtained. Then will
in B.

lines

profile

UV

10

be the pattern

for the return B.

In similar manner, draw the side view of the lower horizontal

return as

(\J

tn

shown
<

IT)

at

(DNOS

D, making the projection

<9

W 10

ecjual to

P R

I-

o
CO
tc

The

o)2

(virn^micNco

shown from

10 in D, with

in

B.

to

be an exact reproduction of the profile 1^

the line
1

profile

1 to

W X as X Y, upon which lay

off

all

unequal,

Extend

the stretchout of the profile

is

'f'hiough the figures

308

divisions, is

to lO'^ in elevation.

10 in D, being careful that each space

as they are

all its

measured separately,

on

XY

draw

lines as

SHEET METAL WORK

shown, which intersect by hnes drawn parallel
intersections in the profile in the side

D.

to

223

W Y from the various

A line traced through points

shown by Z V, will be the desired cut, and 1 Z

V 10 the pattern for the return D.
In Fig. 304 is shown a front view of a segmental pediment with
upper and lower horizontal returns.
thus obtained, as

This presents a problem of obtaining

the pattern for horizontal returns at

top and foot of a segmental pediment,

shown

respectively at

and B, the

given profile to be placed in C.

principles

The

^^s-

'^*^^-

used in obtaining these patterns are similar to those

in the preceding problem, the only difference being that the

ing

is

given.

curved in elevation.
First

In Fig. 305 the true method

mould-

is

clearly

draw the center line B D, through which draw the horizon-

Fig. 305.
tal line

C C^

From

the line

C C^

establish the height

E; and with the

desired center, as B,

EC

intersecting the line C*

In

line

its

draw the arc

proper position on a vertical

G, parallel

to

D B,

at C.

draw the

given profile of the curved moulding as shown by A, which divide into

equal spaces as shown from 1 to 10. Through these figures, at right
angles to

G, draw

lines intersecting the center line

309

DB

as shown.

SHEET METAL WORK

224

Then, using

as center, with radii of various lengths corresponding

to the various distances obtained

from A, describe arcs as shown, ex-

The

tending them indefinitely below the foot of the pediment.

or 6" being established, take a tracing of the profile A, with

various points of intersection in same, and place

it

come

6" in elevation in a vertical position.

Then, from the various

which

profile A.

Trace a

inter-

numbered

shown from

line as

the

below the point

sections in A^ erect vertical lines intersecting similarly

drawn from the

all

shown by A^

as

being careful to have the point 6 in A^

directly

point

arcs

1" to 10",

the modified profile for the foot of the curved moulding.

is

Establish at pleasure the point

of the given profile A. placing

it

at the top,

and take a tracing

in a vertical position

shown by A^

From

below

1',

as

the various

intersections in A* erect vertical

numbered arcs as before. Through

these intersections, shown from

lines intersecting similarly

V to

10', trace

which

is

the profile shown,

the modified profile for

the top return.

The curved moulding shown

in elevation can be made either
by hand or by machine. The
PLAN

general method of obtaining the

Fig. 306.

moulding

is

average a line through the extreme points of the

to

profile A, as I J, extending

angles to

We

will

until

it

intersects a line

drawn

at right

not go into any further demonstration about this curved

will

be taken up at

its

proper time later on.

obtain the pattern for the upper and lower return mouldings,

proceetl in precisely the

returns

it

D B from the center B, as B H, at K.

work, as the matter

To

blank or pattern for the curved

and

same manner

as explained in connection with

in Fig. 303.

In Fig. 300 are shown the plan and elevation of a gable moulding
in

octagon plan.

This problem should be carefully followed, as

it

and the principles used in

other problems, no matter what

presents an interesting study in projections;

solving this are also applicable to

angle or pitch the gable has.

By

referring to the plan,

310

it

will

be seen

SHEET METAL WORK

225

moulding has an octagon angle in plan a b c, while

similar
points in elevation a' h' c' run on a rake in
one line, the top and foot
of the moulding butting against the brick
piers B and A.
that the

The method
detail in

of proceeding with

work

of this kind

explained in
Fig 307, where the principles are thoroughly
explained. Let
E represent a plan view of the wall, over which a gable
is

AB C D
moulding

is

to

be placed, as

shoTVTi

by

G H I J,

the given profile

o^f

the

SOFFIT PLAN

Fig. 307.

moulding being shown by

L IsL

as show^l by the figures 1 to 8.

figures mentioned,

draw

Divide the profile into equal spaces

Parallel to I
or J G, and through the

lines indefinitely as

shown.

B C D in plan, and obtain the miter-line as follows

and any

radius, describe the arc

any radius greater than

other at P.

the miter-line

From

Q.

or

N O.

With

Bisect the'angle

With

C as center,

N and O as centers, and

O, describe arcs intersecting each

the point C, and through the intersection P,
draw
Transfer the profile

311

L M in elevation to the posi-

SHEET METAL WORK

226

shown by R S in plan, dividing it into the same number of spaces

L INI. Through the figures in the profile R S, and parallel to D C,

tion

as

draw

lines intersecting the miter-line

sections

on the

the surface

miter-line,

A.

Now,

and

C Q,

From

the inter-

C B, draw lines intersecting

to C D in plan, and from the

parallel to

at right angles

^S

as shown.

ii''C

SOFFIT PLAN
Fig. 308.

intersections

on the miter-line

secting lines of similar

C Q, draw

vertical lines

numbers drawn from points

elevation parallel to J G.

upward,

inter-

M in

in profile

A line traced through points thus obtained,

shown from T to 8', will be the miter-line in elevation.

For the pattern for that part of the moulding shown by C D E Q'
At right
in plan, and H G 8' 1' in elevation, proceed as follows:
angles to 1 H in elevation, draw the line T U, upon which place the
as

312

SHEET METAL WORK

stretchout of the profile

T U,

angles to

L M,

as

shown by the

and through these

figures

draw

figures,

227

intersect with lines of similar number's

drawn

from intersections on the miter-line

right

shown, which

lines, as

at right angles to 1

and from

8'

At

to 8.

intersections

H G. Lines traced through points thus

obtained, as shown by V W X Y, will be the pattern for that part of
the gable shown in plan by C D E Q' of Fig. 307.
against the vertical surface

In Fig. 308, on the other hand, the position of the plan

so as to bring the line

the vertical line

manner,

From

A Q horizontal.

J indefinitely.

Now

moulding.
line

B, draw the vertical line

set

ZZ

C, draw the line

Now take the

the line J B, as shown.

from J to E, which

B C draw

In the same

the point E, parallel to

and

right angles to

changed,

E, on which locate any point, as E.

at right angles to

tion, Fig. 307,

At

is

it

off

8", intersecting

distance from 8" to J in eleva-

Draw

from 8" toward J in Fig. 308.

will represent the true

a line

rake for this portion of the

take the various heights shown from

to 8

on the

and place them as shown by Z Z

in elevation in Fig. 307,

in

elevation. Fig 308, being careful to place the point 8 of the

line

Z Z on

the Une 8"

At

extended.

right angles to

and from points on same, draw

lines,

which

intersect

with lines drawn at right angles to

B C

from

intersec-

Z,

numbers on

tions of similar

in plan.

through points thus obtained, as shown by

tion, will

From
parallel

be the miter-line on

Q in plan.

to

J,

draw

which

lines,

intersections of similar

plan at right angles to

C.

thus obtained, as shoAMi by

shown
it

section or profile at right angles to the

of Fig. 308, as

and

figures

shown

the intersections in the profile L,

lar

numbers

in

FDE

J.

At

draw

Trace a

line

818

by

moulding

on same,

at L.

in

points

^^S- 309.

A.

be necessaiy to obtain a true

Transfer the given profile

307, with the divisions

lines

be the miter-line

in plan

will

and

AB

numbers on

will

J,

Before obtaining the pattern

ceed as follows:

intersect with

A line traced through

or line of joint against the pier

FD

D E,

the intersections on the miter-line

drawn from

to

A line traced
D E in eleva-

F D.

jNI

To

do

so,

pro-

in elevation in Fig.

to a position at right angles

right angles to

D, and from

lines intersecting those of simi-

through intersections thus ob-

SHEET METAL WORK

228

tained, as

shown from

at right angles to

to 8, thus giving the profile

M,

or true sections

F D.

For the pattern, proceed as follows: At right angles to F D,

draw the line H K, upon which place the stretchout of the profile M, as
shown by the figures. At right angles to H K, and through the figures,

draw

lines,

which intersect with those of similar numbers drawn at

Fig. 311.

Fig. 310.

FD

right angles to

from points of intersection in the miter-lines

DE

and J F,

JLS

shown by

N C) P R, will be the pattern for the raking moulding shown

shown.

in plan, Fig. 307,

In Fig. 309

four gables.

AB C

through points thus obtained, as

Q'.

shown a view of a

spire,

In practice, each side

manner shown
tlie

is

by

I^ines traced

in Fig. 310, in

center of the gable, as

E F.

which

first

is

square in plan, intersecting

developed separately in a

draw the center

Establish points

314

B and

line

through

C, from which

DORMER ON MUSEE DE CLUNY, PARIS. FRANCE

Built In the Pit teeuth Century.

Note the Figure Sculpture at Sides of Dormer.

SHEET

:\IETAL

WORK

229

At pleasure, establish A D. At right angles

J, draw the lines B H and J K respectively.
For the pattern, take the distances B K, K A, and A F, and place them

draw lines to the apex F.

to F E; and from B and
as

shown bv

on the

B F

vertical line

At

Fig. 311.
to

similar letters

right

in

angles

F, and through points

B and

A, d

a w lines as

shown, making

and

H^ on the one hand, and

A N and A O on the other
hand, equal respectively

to

H and A X in elevation in
Then,

Fig. 310.

in

Fig.

<-^

Fig. 313.

Fig. 312.

311,

draw

lines

from

sents the pattern for

In Fig. 312

is

X to H to Iv
one

plied to similar

may

be.

Let

H^

to

O, as shown, which repre-

side.

shown a perspective view

against the face of the bracket

for developing this

to

of a drop

as indicated at A.

problem are explained

in Fig. 313,

The

mitering
principles

and can be ap-

work no matter what the profiles of the drop or bracket

A B C D E represent the face or front view of

the bracket

H G I the side of the drop and bracket. Di^^de one-half

to 7
of the face, as D C, into equal spaces, as shown by the figures
on either side, from which points draw horizontal lines crossing H G
drop, and

iri

7'.

side view

and

In line with

out of the profile

intersecting the face

H*I of the bracket at points

1' to

H G, draw the line J K, upon which place the stretchB C D,

as

shown by

1 to

7 to 7 to

on J K.

At

right

draw the usual measuring lines as shown, which intersect by lines drawn parallel to J K from similarly numbered intersections on H I.
Trace a line through the points thus obtained. Then
angles to J K,

315

SHEET METAL WORK

230

will J

T.

ho the pattern for the return of the drop on the face of the

bracket.

In Fig. 314,

A shows a raking bracket placed

in

a gable moulding.

When lirackets are placed in a vertical position in any raking

thev are called "raking" brackets.

represents a raking bracket

The patterns which will be develop-

placed at the center of the gable.

ed for the bracket

moulding,

A are also used for B, the cuts being similar, the only
difference being that one-half the

the

width of

bracket in

is

formed right and the other half

the two halves being then

left,

joined at the angle as shown.

In Fig. 315 are shown the

principles

the

ing

employed

patterns

for

face, sink strips, cap,

principles can
Fig. 314.

Let S

U V T

front elevation of a raking cornice placed at

line.

face of the bracket as

as shown,

and returns

These

be applied to any

forai or angle in the bracket or

gable moulding respectively.

any peq^endicular

the side,

a raking bracket.

for

ELEVATION

for obtain-

In

its

proper angles

w'ith

proper position, draw the outline of the

its

E G M O.

shown by

draw the normal

represent part of a

Also, in

its

proper position

profile of the side of the bracket, indicated

by G-Y-Z-15; the normal profile of the cap-mould, as

W and X; and

the normal profile of the sink strip, as indicated by 10 10' 15' 15.

Complete the front elevation of the bracket by drawing

allel to

EO

from points 7 and 9 in the normal

at pleasure the

K and L H.

width of the sink

To

profile;

and

lines par-

establish

strip in the face of the bracket, as at

complete the front elevation of the cap-mould of

the bracket, proceed as follows

front of the brackets, as

Extend the lines

shown by

G E and M O of the

E 6 and O 6, on which,

position as shown, place duplicates (W^.,

W'-^)

in a vertical

of the nonnal profiles

shown by the figures 1 to 6 in W*

and W^. From these intersections in W'^ and W-, drop vertical lines,
which intersect by lines drawn parallel to E O from similarly numbered

and X, divided

intersections in

Then

will

into equal spaces as

X, and trace

R E and

1^

lines

through the points thus obtained.

represent respectively the true elevations, also

316

SHEET METAL WORK

231

the true profiles, for the returns at top and foot of the cap of the raking
bracket.

Now di\'ide the normal

shown by the figures 6
intersecting the
of the bracket

profile of the bracket into equal spaces, as

to 15, through which, parallel to

normal sink

from

profile

10' to 15'

EFG, JH, KL, and ONM,

E O, draw lines

and the face

as shown.

To

lines

ol)tain the

PATTERN
FOR

D&A

PATTERN

(TOR SIDE
BRACKET
I

6'

7'

'WW
-1-^/3'
-14f'yi4'

PATTERN FOI^Xn ^^,

RETURN R E ^>" ^

FOR SINK
STRIP

>,

-0

PATTERN
FOR B

Vk*^"
^IApaTTERN
H

FOR C

Fig, 315.

true profile for the side of the bracket on the lines

ceed as follows
angles to

OM,

Parallel to OjNI,

draw any line,

and from the various

lines .indefinitely, crossing to the line

in

each instance from the line

as

intersections

Y^ Z^

as shown.

OM and GE, proY^ Z^ and

;

at right

on the same, draw

Now, measuring

YZ in the nonnal profile, take the various

and place them on similarly

numbered lines measuring in each and everv' instance from the line
Y^ Z^ thus obtaining the points 6' to 15' and 15" to 10", as shown.
Trace a line through the points thus obtained. Then will Y^ 6'
distances to points 6 to 15

7' 9' 10' 15' Z*

and

15' to 10',

be the pattern for the side of the raking bracket,

317

SHEET MEIWL WORK

and

10' 10" 15" 15'

lines

K L and H J in the front.

the

For the pattern

rifjht antjles to

nonnal

the

for

pattern

for the face strip B,

G M, upon which

sink strip

draw any Hne,

place the stretchout of 10 15 in the

shown from 10 to 15 on A* B^ Through these

angles to A^ B*, draw lines as shown, which intersect

with lines drawn from similar intersections on the lines

Trace a

line

will

FG

through points thus obtained as show^n by F

and

G H

J.

J,

be the pattern for the face B, B.

For the pattern

GM,

as A^ B', at

profile, as

points, at right

which

shown by the

for the sink-face C,

draw C^ D^

upon which place the stretchout of

at right angles to

10' 15' in the

shown from 10' to 15' on C* D\ through which,

D', draw lines, which intersect by
lines drawn from similar intersections
on K L and II J. Trace a line through
as

normal

profile

at right angles to

the points so obtained as J

which

is

the pattern

for

K L

H,

the sink-

face C.

The
the face
piece,

EO

pattern for the cap

and

be developed in one

wil^

by drawing

the line FJ

at right angles to

Y\

At right angles

Fig. 316.

and through the

Fig. 317.

draw lines, which intersect with lines

drawn at right angles to EO from similarly numbered intersections on
KEF and NOP. A line traced through the points thus obtained, as
shown by U E F and N 0 P will be the pattern for D and A.
For tlie patterns for the cap returns R E and O P, draw- any line
to E' F',

at right ajigles to 1

figures,

in the

nonnal

profile, as

H^

G',

upon which

R E and P, being careful to carry

each space separately onto the line H* G\ as shown respectively by
0''
and G^ P Through these points draw lines at right angles to
G' IP, which intersect by lines drawn at right angles to 1 1 from
place the stretchouts of the profiles

318

SHEET :METAL WORK

similar

numbers

Then

obtained.

in

W and X.

will

N^ O- R^

Trace

lines

233

through the points thus

be the pattern for the lower return

S^

R E; while J* ]\I^ L^ K^ \\nll be the pattern for the upper re-

of the cap,

P O.

turn,

In Fig. 316

is

shown a perspective view

of a gutter or eave-

trough at an exterior angle, for which an outside miter would be required.

It is

immaterial what shape the gutter has, the method of

obtaining the pattern for the miter

In Fig. 317

the same.

is

let

10 represent the section of the eave-trough with a bead or wire

edge at ab

c;

divide the wire edge, including the gutter and flange, into

an equal number of spaces, as shown by the small divisions

to 10.

Draw anv

vertical line,

as

B, upon which place the stretch-

out of the gutter as shown by similar letters

through which, at

AB

draw

and numbers on
lines,

rig-ht

Tc^

D't

B,

ELEVATION

angles to

which intersect by
^

/y//Al'//////y/M

-D-

drawn

parallel to

Fig. 319.

AB

from similar points

a line through the points thus obtained.

pattern for the outside angle

shown

If a pattern is required for

in Fig. 318,

it is

^^A //UMua^U^M'

pL^fg

''^//////^/^^^///y^////

Fig. 318.

lines

to 1 to 9

rf

an

Then

will

DEF

be the

in Fig. 316.

interior or inside angle, as

necessary only to extend the lines

draw any vertical line,

the inside angle shown

CD
H.

and

is

shown

FE

in the

Then will

pattern in Fig. 317, and

as J

EH

in Fig. 318.

be the pattern for

Trace

in the section.

In Fig. 319 are shown a plan and elevation of a moulding which

has more projection on the front than on the

side.

In other words,

represents the plan of a brick pier, around which a cornice

constructed.

The

projection of the given profile

is

is

AB

to

be

equal to C, the

shown by C^ The projection of the front

The projection of the left
in plan is also ecjual to C, as shown by C^
side of the cornice should be only as much as is shown by D in plan.
This requires a change of profile through D, as shown by D^ To obprofile in elevation being

319

234

SHEET IMETAL ^VORK

tain this true j)rofile

and the various patterns, proceed as shown

A B C D represents the plan view of the wall, against

proper position, the profile E is placed and divided into

which

Fig. 320, in

which, in

its

equal spaces, as shown by the figures

allel to

in

C D, draw G

Through

to 12.

par-

2,

Locate at pleasure the projection of the

F.

re-

p
s'

2
3

4
5
6

7
8
9
10

PATTERN FOR
FRONT
I

III

I)

\'\\

12

..'u'i'.'hJL

M-

r g'3'4'5'

'

'

6' 7'8'S'10'

11'12'

|1S

'I'l

B'

PATTERN
FOR
RETURN

111.*

A
H

-I

PLAN

>C

C
111
I

'///////////,/A ////////////A/.//////^/////^///,

m:
1^

'

ti

Fig. 320.

H G parallel to B C, intersecting F G
Draw the miter-line in plan, G C. From the various divisions

turn mould, as
at

G.

in the j)rofile

CG

a.s

B H, and draw

E, draw

shown.

nitely, as

shown.

liiies

From

parallel to

C D,

intersecting the miter-line

these intersections, erect vertical lines indefi-

Parallel to these lines erect the line

K J, upon which

place a duplicate of the profile E, with the various divisions

as

shown by E^

Through these

divisions

320

draw horizontal

on same,
lines in.

SHEET METAL WORK

235

numbered vertical lines, as shown by the inTrace a line through these points. Then will

tersecting the similarly

tersections

1'

to 12'.

H B in plan.
return H G C B in plan,

F^ be the tnie section or profile on

For the pattern

A, as

]\I,

for the

upon which place the

stretchout of the profile

measure each space separately

shown by figures 1' to 12' on ]\I B.
careful to

At
which

right angles to this line

points on

C G.

lines

drawn

F\

being

(as they are unequal), as

and through the

at right angles to

figures,

HG

draw

lines,

from similar

Trace a

through the points

line
tlius

will

by

intersect

extend the line

Then

obtained.

H^ G^ C^ B^ be the

TRUE PROFILE
THROUGH
1"

pattern

for the

return

7" IN

PLAN

mould.

The

pattern for the

GCDF

mould
is
obtained by taking a
face

stretchout of the profile

and placing

it

on the

Fig. 321.

Fig. 322.

P O, as shown by similar figures, through which, at

right angles to P O, draw lines intersecting similarly numbered lines
pre\'iously extended from C G in plan.
Trace a line through these
vertical

line

intersections.

Then

will 1

B^ C^ 12 be the miter pattern for the face

mould.

In Fig. 321
to

a chamier.

is

shown a perspective view

of a gore piece

A joined

This presents a problem often arising in ornamental

321

W )RK

23fi

SHEET

.sheet-metal work, the

development of which

INIETAL

is

Let

given in Fig. 322.

D show the elevation of the comer on which a gore piece is reH 7' E in plan is a section through C D, and E F G H is
quired.
a section through X I, all projected from the elevation as shown. The
AB C

profile

7 can

for the sides.

be drawn at pleasure, and at once becomes the pattern

Now divide the profile 1 7 into an equal number of

spaces as shown, I'rom which drop vertical lines onto the side 7'
in plan, as

to

shown from

1'

From

to 7'.

these points

draw

lines parallel

G, intersecting the opposite side and crossing the line

(which

drawn

is

from 70

at

Draw any

J,

upon which

the intersections contained on 7'

place

all

1" in

plan, as

From

these points erect perpendicular lines,

which

shown by
by

intersect

lines

numbered points
C D. Through the

1 to 7

on

drawn from

J.

simi-

larly

in elevation parallel

to

points thus obtained

trace a line.
Fig. 323.

on

profile

For the pattern

as

V
F G

7'

angles to

2" 3" 4" 5" 6".

C D,

line parallel to

PATTERN
FOR GORE

right

at

for the gore,

Then

V to 7^ be the true

will

7' 1" in plan.

draw any vertical

line, as

AB

Fig

in

in Fig. 322,
upon which place the stretchout of the profile V
At right angles to AB,
as shown by similar figures on A B in Fig. 323.
and through the figures, draw lines as shown, Now, measuring in
7^'

323,

each instance from the line

7'

V in

the vdrious distances to points

in

Fig. 323

F
l)y

FG

Trace a

lines,

measuring in

B, thus locating the points

through the points thus obtained.

in

Fig. 324.

Then

will

Fig.

322

7'.

arises in cornice
y)rincij)les

is

shown a face view

work.

No

matter

which are explained for

size or shape.

.shown in Fig.

line

and place them

be the pattern for the gore shown in plan

In Fig. 324

any

to 7',

on similarly numbered

each instance from the line

.shown.

1'

plan in Fig. 322, take

BCD E

32;").

F G.

Triangulation

of a six-pointed star,

how many
its

is

which often

points the star has, the

development are applicable to

employed

in this

problem, as

draw the half-outline of the star, as shown by

Above and parallel to the line AG, draw JH of

Fir.st

similar length, as shown.

Draw the ection of the star on A G in

322

plan,

SHEET METAL WORK

as

shown by J

miter-Hnes
I

G,

K H.

I,

I,

I,

erect a line cutting J

I,

I,

we

find the true length

draw an arc

radius and I as center,

Draw

K into plan as shown at and draw the

E and F I. As K H is the true length on

Project

necessary that

it is

on

on

Using

I F.

intersecting I

as

From a

at a.

in section at h.

a line from b to K, which

true length

237

the

is

I F.

For the pattern, proceed as

shown in Fig. 326. Draw any line,

as K H, equal in length to K H in Fig.
Then, using K b as radius and
325.

K in

Fig. 326 as center, describe the

arc b

b,

an arc

which

GG

and with
radius.

intersect at a

and a by

as center

struck from

F G in plan in Fig. 325 as

Draw lines in Fig. 326 from

K to a to H to a to

K, which

will

be the pattern for one of the points

of the star of which 6 are required.

When bending

the points on the line

we may know

stay or profile so that

made.

To

secting J

c d.

H at

Using

H at

Set off

in Fig. 325 a line

from which point,

at right angles to

and cdas
i

radius, strike

line

meeting

B^ equal to

from

after

which the pattern

bent.

to d' to

If the stay in

of a hipped roof,

a hip ridge
off

on a

an arc

inter-

A G in plan

at

B, and draw a line

is

the true profile

in Fig.

326

d'

be

been cor-

Fig. 325 has

B^ or

to

is

B must equal

a in Fig. 326 on both sides.

In Fig. 327
Fig. 326.

B^ which

rectly developed, then d'

e

necessary to have a

what angle the bend should be

drop a vertical

d'.

^CORNER

c,

c as center,

From

e.

PATTERN FOR

and cuts

is

obtain this stay, erect from the corner

intersecting the base-line J

J K, draw

at

HK, it

shown a finished
on the four corners

is

A A butts

elevation
of

which

against the upper base

vertical line at the bottom, as

C and

C.

To

obtain

the true profile of this hip ridge, together with the top and lower cuts

and the patterns

for the lower heads, proceed as

where the front elevation has been omitted,

as only the part plan

shown

this not

being necessary,

and diagonal elevation are required.

323

in Fig. 328,

First

draw

SHEET

238

the
line

FC

lines

CB

and

in this case

and between

has equal pitch

would be used

ever,

EF

1)

a horizontal position; and

in

FA

ABC

shown by

as

i)art i)lan

A, placing the hipor diagonal

make

equal, because the roof

(The same

around.

all

the distances between the

F E and C

had unequal

the roofs

if

WORK

INIETAL

Above

pitches.)

the plan,

draw the

G H.

From

and

how-

principles,

line

the points

In plan, erect

F G and C I,
extending C I to C* so

the lines

that I C*

be the

w^ill

re-

quired height of the roof

above

-FRONT ELEVATION

I at the point

in plan.

^^-^m

to

Draw a line
C\ and from

C* draw a horizontal and

vertical line indefinitely,

Then

as shown.

roof

on

FC

The

w^ill

in plan.

next step

is

to obtain a true section of th? angle of the roof at

right angles to the hip line

at right angles to

FA

and

FE

From

c.

intersecting

G C*

which

is

FC

at d.

G C^ in elevation.

in plan,

as shown.

elevation at

the line

C^ be a true section on the line of the

c,

any

Extend a

line, as

h until

at right angles to

Take

C, measuring from

is

done by drawing

ah, intersecting ths

cuts the base-line

it

CS draw

the distance c d, and place

i to

the true angle desired.

Draw a

d\

On

shape of the hip ridge as shown by

equal spaces, as shown by the figures
resents the line of the roof,

This

line

lines
I in

line, as c d,
it

in plan

from a

on

to d' to b,

this angle, construct the desired

J,

each half of which divide into

1 to

6 to

1.

and as the point d'

As the line

G C* rep-

in plan in the true angle

also represents that line, then take a tracing of the profile

J with the

various points of intersection on same, together with the true angle

a d'

h,

and place

careful to place

G C^

shown by J^ and a' d" h\ being

the point d" on the line G O, making a' b' parallel to
it

in the elevation as

From

the various points of intersection in the profile J, draw

lines parallel to F C, intersecting B C and
F at points from 1 to 6,

as shown.

only to

As both sides of the profile J are symmetrical,

draw lines through one-half.

324

it is

necessary

SHEET

ISIETAL

WORK

In similar manner, in elevation, parallel to

239

CS draw

lines

through the various intersections in J^ which intersect by lines drawn

at right angles to

FC

in plan

PATTERN

from similarly mmibered points on

AF

FOR

HIP RIDGE

W 214

34 12
5
PATTERN FOR LOWER
3

HE-AD

Fig. 328.

and BC.

Trace a

line

through the points thus obtained.

Then

will

K L be the miter-line at the bottom, and M N the miter-line at the top.

For the pattern, draw any

line, as

325

P, at right angles to

C\

SHEET

240

upon whidi place

hv the figures

right angles to

K L and

OP;

and through these numbered points,

P, draw lines, which intersect by lines drawn at

on

C* from similar intersections in the lower miter-line

N M. Trace a line through the points thus

Then will R S T U be the desired pattern.

upjier miter-line

obtained.

In practice

it is

top or the bottom

necessary only to obtain one miter-cut

and use the reverse for the opposite

U T is that part falling out of R

which cuts away from

S, the

The upper

T.

same

as

oi)tain this flat

head, extend the line I

3 5, 4,

by

shown by

as

V W. From

6 on the line
intersect

1, 2,

lines

drawn

In other

side.

is

shown

that part

at C.

B in
To

W, upon
line A F in

in Fig. 328, as I

which place twice the amount of spaces contained on the

fi,

either the

miter-cut butts against

Fig. 327; while the lower cut requires a flat head, as

plan, as

shown

stretchout of J in plan or J' in elevation, as

to G to 1

angles to

at right

words,

tlie

AVORK

I\IETAI>

similar figures

on

either side of

these divisions erect vertical lines, which

parallel to

from similarly numbered

intersections in the miter-line

K Ij G. a line traced through

thus obtained, as

the points

shown by

X Y Z,

be the

will

pattern for the heads.

AMiere a hip ridge

is

re-

quired to miter with the apron

shown

of a deck moulding, as
in Fig. 329, in

sents the apron of the

at a

and

])receding

a,

A and A

problem

is

used.

first

be drawn as shown

C.

the hip ridges mitering

C,

draw a

Let

in Fig. 330.

DB

E.

Draw E

EX then represents the line of the roof.

position, at right angles to

in

the

ABC

mansard, the section of the

deck moulding and apron being shown by

repre-

In this case the part elevation of the

rej)resent the part elevation of the

allel to

from that described

slightly dift'erent process

mansard roof must

deck cornice,

which

In

its

par-

proper

half-section of the hip mould,

shown by F G, which is an exact reproduction of B E of the deck

mould. Through the corners of the hip mould at Y and G, draw
lines ])arallel to B C, which intersect by lines drawn parallel to B A
fromV, W, and E in the deck cornice. Draw the miter-line HI,
as

which comjiletes the part elevation of the mansard.

326

SHEET METATv AVORK

241

Before the patterns can be obtained, a developed surface of the

mansard must be
tical

Hne, as

tance of

Therefore, from

dravn.

J, intersecting

C, and place

it

the hne

on a

(Fig. 330),

at J.

Now

drop a ver-

take the dis-

vertical line in Fig. 331, as

shown by

B C^ Through these two points draw the horizontal lines B A and

C K as shown. Take the projection J to C in Fig. 330, and place it as

PART ELEVATION
OF

MANSARD ROOF

PART PLAN

\ \
\

TRUETn

TRUE
SECTION
ON 0-P'

SECTION
OF HIP

R'

Fig. 330.

shown from C^

to

C in Fig.

331,

and draw a

line

from

to

B.

Then

A B C K be the developed surface of A B C K in Fig.- 330.

As both the profiles B Y W E and F Y G are similar, take a tracing
of either, and place it as shown by D and D^ respectively in Fig. 331.

will

Divide both into the same number of equal spaces, as shown.

the angle

ABC

by establishing a and

327

b,

Bisect

and, using these as centers,

SHEET METAL WORK

242

the miter-Une.

Through the points

in

moulds, as shown, intersecting the miter-line

to their respective

and the base-line

draw d B, which represents

D and D', draw hnes parallel

intersecting at c; then

l)v (les(Til)in<i; tires

C C^

For the pattern

for the hip,

draw any

line, as

F, at right angles

upon which place twice the stretchout of D, as shown by the

Through these divisions draw lines at
to 1 to 6 on EF.
divisions

to

C,

vpatterm for
.HIP RIDGE

|g

K/4
Jl

d'
?

E^
5 6

^^
DEVELOPED

SURFACE OF

MANSARD

ROOF

C
Fig. 331.

numbered lines drawn at

on B d and C C^ Trace a line

right angles to Vj F, intersecting similarly

right angles to

BC

from the divisions

through the points thus obtained.

Then

will

G H J L be the pattern

for the hip ridge.

"\Mien bending this ridge in the machine,

it is

necessary to

know

what angle the line 1 in the pattern will be bent. A true section
must be obtained at right angles to the line of hip, for which proceed as
shown in Fig. 330. Directly in line with the elevation, construct a
at

N O, through which, at' an angle of 45 degrees (because

the angle I. O N is a right angle), draw the hip line O
Establish at
pleasure any point, as P^ on O M, from which erect the vertical line
j)art

plan

Ty ]\I

:\I.

into the elevation crossing the base-line

CB

at

shown.

U.

Parallel to

M in

Extend P' P^ as P^

R^

plan,

at

P and

the ridge-line

draw O^ P^ equal

which make equal

328

to

to

O PS

as

PR in elevation.

SHEET METAL WORK

Draw a line from R^ to O^
OP^
be,

P^ represents a true section on

Through any point, as a, at right

O and ON at b and c respectively.

in plan.

cutting

Then O^ R^

243

angles to

Extend

OM,

draw

b c until

it

O^ P^ at d. From d, at right angles to O* R^ draw the line

d e. With d as center, and de as radius, draw the arc e e' intersecting
O^ P^ at e' from which point, at right angles to OINI in plan, draw a
Draw a line from b to e" to c, which repreat e"
line intersecting
sents the true section of the hip after which the pattern shown in Fig.
intersects

OM

331

is

formed.

The pattern for the deck mould D B in Fig. 330 is obtained in the
same way as the square miter shown in Fig. 277; while the pattern for
D^ in
ridge shown by
the apron

Fig. 331

In Fig. 332
this

view

is

7i

is

shown a

same

the

as the one-half pattern of the hip

1 6.

front elevation of

an eye-brow dormer.

In

ABC represents the front view of the dormer, the arcs being

SECTION

THROUGH
H

Fig. 332.

struck from the center points D, E, and F.

line

J in elevation

is

shown

at the right;

section taken

on the

L M shows the roof of the

dormer, indicated in the section by N; while the louvers are shown in

elevation

O P and in section by RT.

by

In Fig. 333

is

shown how

ABC represents the half-elevation of the

various parts of the dormer.

dormer, and

EFG a

EF that of the roof,

the doiTiier

The

is

to obtain the various patterns for the

side view, of wljich

and

EG is the line of the

dormer^

GF the line of the pitched roof against which

required to miter.

front

and

side views being placed in their proper relative

positions, the first step

Proceed as follows:

is

to obtain a true section at right angles to

Divide the curve

shown from 1 to
on A B, draw lines

At

A to B

into a

right angles to

spaces, as

9.

figures

intersecting

889

E G

in side

number

EF.

of equal

C, and from the

view as shown.

SHEET ]METAL WORK

244

From
tlie

these intersections,

roof-line

GF at

and

P, 2^ 3^

EF, draw lines intersecting

Parallel to EF, and from the point

parallel to

etc.

.9

ONE HALF TRUE

PROFILE ON LINE
E-H IN SIDE VIEW

ONE HALF PATTERN

FOR SHAPE OF
IN ROOF

OPENING
Fig. 333.

G, draw any

line indefinitely, as

from the point E, draw the

line

H.

At

right angles to

EH, intersecting lines

330

EF, and

previously drawn,

SHEET
2\ 3\

at IS

draw

K J.

At

Trace a

B.

Then

KLMJ

K J, and from the figures P, 2\ 3^

right angles to

which

lines,

at right angles to

245

Now take a duplicate of the hne E H, with

thereon, and pLice it on the center hne AC

the various intersections

etc.,

WORK

as shown.

etc.,

extended as

INIETAL

intersect with those of similar

CB, and from

similarly

numbers drawn
numbered points on the curve

through the points of intersection thus obtained.

be one-half the true profile on the line E
in side

line

will

view, from which the stretchout will be obtained in the development

of the pattern.

For the pattern

to

EF

in side

for the roof of the dormer,

view the line

draw

at right angles

O, upon which place the stretchout of

on the

EH

shown by the small figures

V, 2\ 3S etc. Then, at right angles to N O, and through the figures,
draw lines, which intersect with those of similar numbers drawn at
right angles to EF from intersections on EG and GF.
Trace a line
one-half

th-e

true profile

line

as

Then

through the points thus obtained.

will

PRST

represent one-

half the pattern for the roof.

To

obtain the pattern for the shape of the opening to be cut into

GF, with the

UV, as shown

the roof, transfer the hne

to

any

vertical line, as
-^

by the figures P,
similar

CB

2,

3,

etc.

manner, transfer the

various intersections thereon,

PATTERN FOR
louvre ^4

HALF"

line

6|_t!

In

in front view, with the various

intersections

on same,

the

line

ZW, drawn

at right angles to

UV,

1, 2, 3, etc"

as

shown by the

At

to

figures

UV, and from

right angles to

the figures,

draw

lines,

which

in-

numto YZ.

tersect with those of similar

drawn at
Through these
bers

Then
to

will

right angles

points, trace a line.

UXYZ

^^^
^^v^--~

^ig. 334.

be the half-pattern for the shape of the opening

be cut into the main

For the pattern

roof.

for the ventilating slats or louvers, should they

be required in the dormer, proceed as shown in Fig. 334.

figure,

In this

A B C is a reproduction of the inside opening shown in Fig. 333.

Let

1, 2, 3, 4,

will

be placed in

5 in Fig. 334 represent the sections of the louvers which

this opening.

As

the methods of obtaining the pat-

331

SHEET METAL WORK

246

No. 4 will illusNumber the various bends of louver

trate tlie principles employed.
right angles to A B, and
No. 4 as shown by points 6, 7, 8, and 9. At
T, A\ 8S
these points, draw lines intersecting the curve A C as 6S
pattern for louver
terns for all louvers are alike, the

from
anil

as
it

On B A extended as E D, place the stretchout of louver No. 4

9^

shown by the
will

on ED.

AC

a curve,
introduce intemiediate points between 7 and 8

figures

be necessary to

Since the miter-line

is.

In this

in the pattern.
of the profile, in order to obtain this curve

marked 4 has been added.

Now, at right angles to DE, and through the figures, draw lines,
which intersect with those of similar numbers, drawn parallel to AB

instance the point

,_-,

from intersections

iiA E

on the curve AC.

G^ to 9*

Aline

traced through the points

thus obtained, as
will

be the half-pattern

for louver

r--B

A--

FKJH,

No.

The

4.

pattern for the face of

the dormer
onto the

pricked

is

metal

direct

from the front view in.

Fig. 333,

',/^^//u/MU/i/>(ufW'^{^'^^^'^^'^^-

B C

is

HI

the half-pattern.

In laying

Fig. 335.

that each side of the

in Fig. 335, in

which

work,

window has an unequal

DEF shows an

AB

line

the

of the

fini.sh

is

bay shown by

drawn

A B.

It will

ABC
is

in Fig.

a half-spun

often happens

projection, as

is

shown

All that part of the

making

it

335

will

ball.

bay

and

be treated here.

A^ B^ F^

is

a true

lines

Ca, Cc, and Cd,

cd, are

each of different

be noticed that the

respectively at right angles to ah, he,

lengths, thereby

window

obtained by the method shown in Fig. 290, while

In some cases the lower ball

section through

it

the

elevation of an octagonal base of

a bay window having unequal projections.

above the

out

patterns for bay

p.

A8

which

necessary to obtain a true profile on each

of these lines, before the patterns

can be obtained.

This

is

clearly

explained in connection with Fig. 336, in which only a half-elevation

and plan are required as both sides are symmetrical.

332

First

draw the

SHEET METAL AVORK

247

AB, on which draw the half-elevation of the base of the

At right angles to AB draw the wall line
bay, as shown by CDE.
in plan, as FK; and in its proper position in relation to the line CD in
From the
elevation, draw the desired half-plan, as shown by GHIJ.
comers H and I draw the miter-lines HF and IF, as shown. As DE
center line

HALF ELEVATION
D'

HALr PATTETRN
FOR

3
Fig.

336.

represents the given profile through

DE

into

From

an equal number of spaces as shown by the figures

shown.

From

these intersections, parallel to HI,

lines intersecting the miter-lines IF,

from which

lines intersecting the center line

points of intersection in

and

1 to 13.

these points drop vertical lines intersecting the miter-line

in plan, as

draw

FG in plan, then di\'ide the profile

left

DE, draw

FB.

FH

draw

points, parallel to IJ,

Through the various

horizontal lines indefinitely right

as shown.

333

SHEET METAL WORK

248

any reason

If for

FI

line

plan

in

(it

tern), tlien erect

show the

desired to

it is

elevation of the miter-

not being necessary' in the development of the patvertical lines from the various intersections on FI,

To

intersecting similar lines in elevation.

avoid a confusion in the

have not been showTi. Trace a line through

is the desired miterpoints thus obtained, as shown by D 13, which
drawing,

lines

tliese

line in elevation.

The
and IJ

next step

is

to obtain the true profile at right angles to

To obtain the true profile through No.

in plan.

HI

3 in plan, take

and place it on
a tracing of J F, with the various intersections thereon,
a line draw^n parallel to CD in elevation, as J^ F\ with the intersections
to 13, as

.1

From

shown.

these intersections, at right angles to J^

drawn through the

erect lines intersecting similar lines

Trace a

elevation.

by

13, as

through the points thus obtained, as shown

drawn

IH

parallel to

until they intersect

LM at points 1 to

shewn.

Take

a tracing of

LM,

with the various points of intersection,

MS as shown by the figures

13, from which, at right angles to L^ MS erect vertical lines inter-

and place

it

on any horizontal

secting similarly

DE.

Trace a

line, as

numbered horizontal

For the pattern

L^

lines

profile

for

through No. 2

No.

on NO.

At

right angles to

which intersect with

lines,

in

DE

as

Then

IP

as

will

NO, upon
figures

the figures,

shown) drawn

from similar intersections on the miter-line FH.

the points thus obtained; then will

FK,

shown by the

NO, and from

lines (partly

profile

plan at right angles to HI.

in plan, extend the line

which place the stretchout of the profile

to 13

drawn through the

through the points thus obtained.

line

1" 13" be the true

in

to 13',

rious lines

to

DE

which represents the true profile for part 3 in plan. At

angles to IH in plan, draw^ any line, as ML, and extend the va-

right

line

profile

FS

draw

parallel to

Trace a

line

FG

through

13 be the pattern for part

in plan.

At

right angles to

I,

draw any

line, as

T U,

the stretchout of profile No. 2, being careful to

separately, as they are

all

upon which place

measure each space

imequal, as shown by the small figures 1" to

TU.

Through these figures, at right angles to TU, draw lines

as shown, which intersect by lines (not shown in the drawing) drawn
at right angles to I II from similar points on tlie miter-lines HF and FI.
13" on

334

SHEET METAL WORK

Trace a

line

249

Then

through the points thus obtained.

will

W X be

the piittern for part 2 in plan.

For the half-pattern

in plan as
3,

for part 3 in plan, extend the center line

R, upon which place the stretchout of the true

AB

profile for

being careful to measure each space separately, as shown by the

figures

to 13'

on BR.

At

right angles to

the figures, which intersect by lines

similar points of intersection

drawn

B R draw

1'

through

at right angles to J I

on the miter-line

through points thus obtained, as

lines

13', will

I.

from

line traced

be the half-pattern

for part 3.

DEVELOPMENT OF BLANKS FOR CURVED MOULDINGS

Our
it

first

attention will be given to the

being necessarv' that

we know

the methods of construction before

For example,

the blank can be laid out.

methods of construction,

in Fig.

337

is

a part elevation

dormer window, with a semicircular top whose profile has an ogee,

If this job were undertaken by a firm who had no
fillet, and cove.

of a

circular

many of the smaller shops,

be made by hand. The method of construc-

moulding machine, as

is

the case in

mould would have to

tion in this case would then be

the

as show^n in Fig. 338,

which show^s an enlarged section through a

337.

Thus

the strips a,

b,

and

c in Fig.

6 in Fig.

338 would be

and would be nothing more

metal, while d d' would be an

cut lO the required size,

than straight strips of

angle, the lower side d' being notched with the shears

and turned to the required circle. The face strips e,

and h would represent arcs of circles to correspond
f,
to their various diameters obtained from the full-sized
^^'

These face and sink strips would all be

soldered together, and form a succession of square angles, as shown, in
which the ogee, as shown by i j, and the cove, as shown by m, would be
fitted.
In obtaining the patterns for the blanks hammered by hand,
the averaged lines would be drawn as shown by Jc I for the ogee and
elevation.

The method

o for the cove.

or principles of averaging these and

other moulds will be explained as

we

proceed.

shown the same mould as in the previous figure,

a different method of construction being employed from the one made
by hand and the one hammered up by machine. In machine work this
In Fig. 339

is

335

SHEET METAL WORK

250

moukl can be hammered

sheets in use,

if

one

in

such length

is

piece, 8 feet long or of the length of the

required, the

machine taking

Fig. 339.

Fig. 338.

mould from

The

to B.

pattern for

by drawing a

line as

shown by CD.

more

fully as

we

plained

in the full

work

of this kind

This method

is

ayeraged

be ex-

will also

proceed.

SHOP TOOLS EMPLOYED

in

\Vhen working any circular mould by hand, all that is required

the way of tools is various-sized raising and stretching hammers,

square stake, blow-horn stake, and mandrel including raising blocks

made

of

wood

or lead.

by the mechanic

in the

knowledge must be employed

first-rate

handling and working of these small

a thoroughly up-to-date shop will be found what are

known

tools.

In

as "curved

moulding" machines, which can be operated by foot or power, and

which have the advantage over hand operation of saving time and

and

labor,

work, as

also turning out first-class

seams are avoided.

all

EMPLOYED FOR OBTAINING APPROXIMATE

BLANKS FOR CURVED AlOULDINGS HAMMERED BY HAND
PRINCIPLES

The
same

governing principles underlying

as every sheet-metal

patterns in flaring ware.

worker uses

all

such operations are the

in the laying out of the

simple

In other words, one who'understands

how to

lay out the pattern for a fru.stum of a

cone understands the principles

of developing the blanks for curved mouldings.

be described

Our
shown

in detail in

first

problem

in Fig. 'Mi).

what
is

First

The

principles will

follows.

that of obtaining a blank for a plain flare,

draw the center

half-elevation of the mould, as

DE

336

F.

line

A B,

Extend

and construct the

D E until

it

inter-

SHEET METAL WORK

AB

at

G.

equal to

D, as shown.

sects the center line

as

H, draw

D,

At right angles

Divide

Avith radii

7,

equal to

From any

point, as

arc at E^.

Take a

GE

1',

and

draw the

radial line

1'

at E.

if

which

a section on

is

7'

and

E.

it

as

shown

Fig. 341.

and draw a

Then

will

E^

as center,

G, intersecting the inner

stretchout of the quarter-section place

to 7';

1' 7'

line

from7' to G, intersecting the inner arc

E be the quarter-pattern

If the pattern is required in

in elevation.

from any point,

H as center, and with

D, describe the arcs

Fig. 340.

from

AB

Now using G

7 into equal spaces, as shown.

to

Using

as radius, describe the quarter-circle

251

for the flare

DE

two halves, join two pieces;

required in one piece, join four pieces.

In Fig. 341

To work

is

shown a curved mould whose

this profile, the

hammer.

We

to the rule for

center line

mention

profile contains a cove.

blank must be stretched with the stretching

obtaining patterns for stretched moulds.

AB

Divide the cove

pay

attention

First

draw the

this here so that the student mill

also the half-elevation of the moulding, as

ED

into an equal

337

number

of spaces, as

CDE

F.

shown from

SHEET

252

a to

the center of the cove c <lraw a hne parallel to c a,

Thr()ii;li

r.

extendiii"-

it

until

WORK

ISIETAL

it

AB

meets the center line

ino'

c c

and

the flare a'

wards

inter-sectino;

and

II

c' , c

and a

and place

c a,

it

as

III,

shown by

remains stationary,

respectively.

drawn

c c'

c'

the center

the stretchout of the

and

and

is

a'

c a',

^^^len stretch-

being

hammered

to-

Therefore, from c erect a vertical line

at right angles to

as radius, describe

G, which

Take

point from which to strike the pattern.

cove

at

the arc

A B, at

Using

radii equal to

describe the arcs e"

Draw

a".

as center,

Gc, and

a',

c",

e',

and a"

7',

a line from e" to G, inter-

the center and lower arcs at

secting

With

spaces as shown.

and

H as center

which divide into equal

7,

and

a".

Starting from

lay off

1',

the stretchout of the cjuarter-section as

shown from
HALF
'elevation

JP'^^-^

1'

Through

to 7'.

7'

draw

a line towards G, intersecting the in-

,<yN

ner arc at a"; and, extending the line

upward, intersect the outer arc at

Then

be the quarter-

will a" c" e" a"

pattern for the cove

If

ED

the quarter-round

liistruction

be applied

In Fig. 342

is

Paper

to all cases of raised

shown a

1S[

O were reE

D, then,

would require

raised, the rule given in the

be
Fig. .342.

Work would

in elevation.

cove

(juired in place of the

as this quarter-round

curs^ed

e".

to

former

on Sheet

]\'Ietal

mouldings.

mould whose

profile is

an ogee.

In

draw the center line and half-elevation,

and divide the ogee into a number of equal parts, as shown from a to h.
Through the flaring portion of the ogee, as c e, draw a line, extending
this case as in the preceding,

upward and downward until it intersects the center lihe A B at G.

Take the stretchouts from a to c and from e to h and place them respectively from c to a' and from e to h' on the line h' G. Then, in workit

ing the ogee, that portion of the flare from c to c remains stationary;

the part from c to h' will be stretched to form c

fn)m

c to a' will

ary' flare,

be raised

to

as d, erect a line

fonn

c a.

li

while that part shown

From any point in

meeting the line

338

1,

the station-

drawn

at right

SHEET METAL WORK

angles to

B, at

Using

1.

as center

the quarter-section, and divide

G as center and with

With
the

arcs

Starting at

/t''

a',

G d,

From

If.

1 as'

radius, describe

into equal spaces, as shown.

radii equal to

and

7',

h"

lay off the stretchout of the section

1',

Through

7'.

a" a",

same

and

253

and

G h'

describe

draw a line to G.
as shown from V to

draw a

7'

G, as before de-

line to

Then wull

scribed.

/i"

a"

a" h" be the quarter-pattern for the ogee

In Fig. 343

how

E
is

D.

shown

the blanks are de-

veloped when a

moulding

is

As

first

before,

bead

employed.

draw the
A^ B^ and the

center line

AB C

half-elevation

D.

As the bead takes up

shown by

of a circle, as

c e

j,

and as the patbe the

tern for / e will

same

as for e

then will

c,

the pattern for

c c

only

be shown, which can also

be used for
a

and

which

obtaining

c e,

points

the

Bisect

f.

and

represent

d,

the

stationary points in the

patterns.

Take

the

stretchouts of & to a

and

^'S- 343.
and place them
as shown from b to a' and from h to c' also take the stretchouts
oi d to c and d to e, and place them from d to c' and from d to e' on

to

c,

lines
d.

line

drawn

parallel

Extend the
A* B^

at

lines

respectively to a c
e' c'

and

and

c' a'

until

respectively.

erect lines intersecting the line

339

and

1,

c e

from points

and

they intersect the center

From
drawn

the points

at right angles

and d
to

A^

SHEET METAL WORK

254

14 and

IV, at

equal to

14 and

1,

as center,

arcs c" c",

draw a

d'

d',

and

c" e"

point on one end, as e"

radial line to E, intersecting the inner arcs at d!

shown from

off the stretchout as

1'

1 to 7,

and, starting at

Now
d lay
,

to T.

draw a line
Through
and the outer one at c"

c e, also for

For the

in elevation.

f,

c".

be the quarter-patterji for that part of the

bead shown by
e

and
7'

towards E, intersecting the inner arc at c"

will c" c" e" c"

Divide

From any

radii

and from 8 to 14. With

E d, and E e describe the

c',

take the stretchout of the section from

Then

and with

1 to 7,

radii equal to

and with

as center,

describe quarter-sections, as shown.

both into equal parts, as shown from

Using

respectively.

shown
use F* as center; and

pattern for that part

cl=^

by a c,

with radii equal to

'
'

Fig. 34-1.

a" a",

and

and

c" c".

b' b',

on the arc

b' b' ,

as

From any point

lay off the stretch-

quarter-section 8 14,

out of the

shown from

Through

8' to 14'.

two points draw

lines

towards

them

until

F', in-

and

they intersect the

and

Then

outer arc

at c"

c" a" a" c"

be the desired pattern.

c".

wall

shown an illustraa round finial which contains

In Fig. 344
tion of

as

these

tersecting the inner arcs at a' ";

e.xtend

b,

describe the arcs

c',

8',

F a, F

moulds, the

is

principles of

the preceding problems.

or vertical sections.

which have already been described

The

is

in

made of either horizontal

shown how the moulds in a finial

ball

In Fig. 345

of this kind are averaged.

Fig. 345.

is

The method

of obtaining the true length

of each pattern piece will be omitted, as this

in the

preceding problems.

side of

First

was thoroughly covered

draw the center line A B, on either

which draw the section of the

finial,

as

shown by C

E.

The

blanks for the ball a will be obtained as explained in the Instruction

Paper on Sheet
the line c

f,

j\Ietal

Work.

The mould

extending same until

it

is

averaged as shown by

intersects the center line at

//,

r /

representmg the stretchout of the mould obtained, as explained in the

340

SHEET METAL WORK

paper on Sheet Metal Work.
radii,

describe the blank

In the next mould,

the dotted
it

Using h as center, with h

and h

e as

b.

c c' ,

a seam

is

shown by
extending same until
same

as

line

m, extending

located in

Then average C by the

line.

255

line zy,

meets the center line at h; also average

c'

by the

Then

this also until the center line is intersected at n.

and

mould c c', the blanks c

and c^ being struck respectively from the centers k and n. The mould
b' h" also has a seam, as shown by the dotted line, the moulds being
represent respectively the stretchouts of the

averaged by the lines p o and

and

6^.

The

if

center x, with radii equal to

iv

extended, intersect the

centers, respectively, for

flaring piece

is

struck from the

346.

Fig.

By

which,

t,

These points are the

center line at r and u.

striking the blanks b

and x

thus obtaining the blank d.

v,

referring to the various rules given in previous problems, the

true length of the blanks can be obtained.

The
to

principles used for blanks

almost any form that will

hammered by hand can be

arise, as, for

applied

example, in the case shown

and B represent circular leader heads; or in

that shown in Fig. 347, in which A and B show two styles of balusters,
a and b (in both) representing the square tops and bases. Another
in Fig. 346, in

example
which

is

which

that of a round

slips

finial,

as in Fig. 348,

over the apex of the roof.

but one

it is

is

The

necessary that they be

showing the hood

AMiile these forms can be

bought, yet in some cases where a special design

architect,

A
is

brought out by the

made by hand,

especially

required.

last

problem on handwork

is

shown

in Fig.

obtaining the blanks for the bottom of a circular bay.

moulding

when

will

be

hammered by hand

841

349

that

of

The curved

or by machine, as will be ex-

SHEET METAI.

256

\V()RK

problem before us. The

plained later on, while the bottom B is the
circle; and, to obtain the various
plan, it will be seen, is the arc of a
blanks, proceed as

shown

A B C is the elevation
J K being a plan view on A C, showing the
which

in Fig. 350, in

of the bottom of the bay, I

r'

Fig. 347.

curve struck from the center H.

front view of the

In

this case the

bottom of the bay

given,

is

and

must have the shape indicated by A B C taken on the

It therefore becomes necessary to
line I J in plan.

on the center

establish a true section

line

in

plan, from which to obtain the radii for the blanks or

Fig. 3 IS.

Fig. 319.

j)atterns.

number

To

obtain this true section, divide the curve

of equal parts, as

shown from

division, at right angles to

wall line I J at points

equal to II

0',

center line

II 5',

AC,

drop

4',

E shown from

lines as

and

3',

1"

to 6".

342

From

to 6.

2',

into

any

the points of

shown, intersecting the

Then, using

1' to 6'.

AB

as center, and radii

draw

arcs crossing the

At any convenient point

SHEET

INIETAL

WORK

opposite the front elevation draw any vertical

the lines from the spaces in the profile
the vertical line

TU

from the point S

257

line,

A B

Extend

they intersect

until

Now, measuring

as shown.

T U.

as

in every instance

num-

plan, take the various distances to the

in

TBUE SECTION
K

O N S- K

E
*

Fig. 350.

bered points in plan and place them upon lines of

similar numbers, measuring in every instance from

TU

the line

in plan,

T U to K^
in plan,

in

and place

and place

the true

S
It

shown from the line T U to 2" on

Proceed in this manner until all the points
it

section

as

have been obtained.

shown, when \" to 6" to

line

it

Thus take the distance

as shown from the line

then again, take the distance from S to 2"

line 2 in section.
in

section.

will

Trace a

line as

\\

\\
\

be the true section on the

in plan.

should be understood that the usual method for

making the bottom of bays round in plan is to divide the profile of

Asthe moulding into such parts as can be best raised or stretched.
suming that

this

has been done, take the distance from

the center point H,

and place

it

From the point L, draw a vertical

as

shown from

line

L M,

1" to

as shown.

\" in

plan to

in section.

For the pat-

mould \" 2", average a line through the extreme points,

Then,
at N.
as shown, and extend the same until it meets L
2"
and N \", describe
with N as center, and with radii equal to N
tern for the

343

SHEET METAL WORK

2oS

The

the blank shown.

ing on the arc

1'

length of this blank

\" in plan,

and placing

is

obtained by mea,sur-

on the arc

this stretchout

\"

The other blanks are obtained in precisely the same

manner. Thus P is the center for the blank 2" 3"; R, for the blank
3" 4"; O, for the blank 4" 5"; and M, for the blank b" 6".
The moulds \" 2", 2" 3", and 3" 4" will be raised; while
of the blank.

the blanks 4"

and 5" G"

.5"

will

be stretched.

APPROXIMATE BLANKS FOR CURVED MOULDINGS

HAMMERED BY MACHINE
The
to

be

principles

rolled or

employed

a moulding

in averaging the profile for

hanmiered by machine do not

any material

differ to

extent from those used in the case of mouldings

hammered by hand.

shows the general method of aver-

Fig. 351

aging the profile of a moulding in determining the radius of the blank or pattern.
will

be seen that

manner, so

AB

drawn

to speak, as to

equalities of the profile

Thus

made.

is

are the distances c

and

required to be

and
and

d,

in such a

average the in-

DC

distances a

It

h are equal, as
e

and

/.

It is

very difficult to indicate definite rules to be

'B
Fig. 351.

observed in drawing a fine of

in

this kind, or,

other words, in averaging

the profile.

Nothing short of actual experience and intimate knowledge of the

material in which the moulding

is

to

be made,

will

enable the operator

SECTION

Fig. 352.

to decide correctly in all cases.

making very grave

There

however, no danger of

errors in this respect, because the capacity of

the machines in use

is

such, that, were the pattern less advanta-

geously planned in this particular than

it

is,

through the dies or

rolls

it

should be,

an extra time or two,

to the recjuired shape.

844

it

still,

by passing

would be brought

SHEET METAL WORK

In Fig. 352

would occur

shown a part

is

259

elevation of a circular moulding as

it

in a

segmental pediment, window cap, or other structure

arising in sheet-metal cornice work.
B shows the curved moulding,
joining two horizontal pieces

A and C, the true section of all the moulds

being shown by D.

In

this

connection

may be

proper to remark that in practice,

no miters are cut on the circular blanks, the miter-cuts being placed on
the horizontal pieces, and the circular moulding trimmed after it has
been formed up.
In Fig. 353

is

mouldings curved

it

shown the mjethod

of obtaining the blanks for

no matter what their radius or

in elevation,

profile

Fig. 353.

may be.
as

First

draw the center

A B,

and, with the desired center

At right angles to A B, in its proper

line

B, describe the outer cuitc A.

draw a section of the profile as shown by C D. From the

various members in this section, project lines to the center line A B
as 1, 2, 3, and 4; and, using B as center, describe the various arcs and
complete the elevation as shown by A B C in Fig. 352, only partly
shown in Tig. 353. In the manner before described, averao-e the
profile C D by the line c d, extending it until it intersects the line drawn
position,

through the center B

from which

at right angles to

A B, at E. Then E is the center

Centrally on the section

to strike the pattern.

C D,

estab-

on the line c d, where it intersects the mould, and take the

stretchout from f to C and from e to D, and place it as shown respeclish e

tively

from

e to c

and from

c to

c?

on the

845

line c d.

Now,

usino-

as

SHEET

200

and

Draw

c' c".

inner arc at

e'

and

c,

and

a line from

c'

to E, intersecting the

c"

then becomes the measuring line

The

d'.

d,

arc

e'

c,

describe the arcs d' d",

middle and

obtain the length of the pattern, the length

to

WORK

center, with radii ecjiial to

e' c",

IVIETAL

being measured on the arc 2 in elevation,

which corresponds

In

ELEVATION

Fiff.

moulding

354

to the point e in section.

shown the

is

elevation of a

curved in plan B, the arc being

struck from the given point

This

a.

occur when the moulding or cornice

FIT

on a building whose corner

PLAN

is

apt to

is

placed

is

round.

To

ob-

when the moulding is curs-ed

proceed as shown in Fig. 355. Draw

tain the pattern

in j)lan,

the section of the moulding,

ing the

Fig. 354.

C B

tion,

is'

draw the horizontal

edge of the mould, as

drop a

Knowing
on the

ED

line

drawn

straight strip

be-

desired.

which

at-

is

or rolled to shape.

In

At pleasure, below the

sec-

From

D.

is

AC

the extreme or outside

at E.

line

it

D, thus obD.

With

as center, describe

line

which the pattern

hammered

not required.

B,

the radius of the

taining the point

arc

is

b,

arc on b in section, place

it

line intersecting the

horizontal

for

represents a

tached to the mould after

practice the elevation

mould

as

the

F, intersecting a line

angle to

at right

from D.

Average a

line

through the section, as

H, intersecting the line D F,

drawn vertical from the center

D,

pleasure
point
center,

Establish

at J.

a,

at
Fig. 355.

the stationary

from which drop a

and with

measiuing

line

line cutting

a' as radius,

when

ED

a'.

Using

describe the arc a' a", which

laying out the pattern.

346

at

Now

D
is

as

the

take the stretch-

SHEET

:\IET.\L

outs from a to 6 and from a to

c,

from a to

line

and from a

to

"WORK

and place them on tbe averaged

respectively.

with radii extending to the various points G,

arcs

G G\

the

arc

a'

measured

and

a'",

to correspond

a,

Using J as

center,,

and H, describe the

On

H^

the pattern

a'",

261

is

the

to

arc a' a" in plan.

In Fig. 356

is

shown a

front

view of an ornamental bull's-eye

window,

AB C

mould

we

case

showing

the

circular

D, which

in

desire to lay out in one

piece, so

that,

when hammered

or rolled in the machine,

same

principles can

to the

upper mould

connection

in

will

it

have the desired diameter.

used

this

The

be applied
F, as were
^vith

Fi:s.

Fig. 356.

352 and 353.

To

obtain the blank for the bull's-eye

proceed as shown in Fig. 357.

Let

AB CD

of the bull's-eye struck from the center E:

Fig.

and perpendicular

section of the

mould, as

represent the elevation

Through

E draw the hori-

357.

shown.

In

its

proper position, draw a

shown by F G. Through the face of the

average the line H^ I\ extending it until it intersects

window

I,

lines

in Fig. 356.

ELEVATION

SECTION

zcntal

window shown

as

?47

SHEET METAL WORK

262

the center line

1) at J.

and from a

the average hne intersects the

mould

a stationary point; and take the stretchouts from

at a, establish this as

a to

Where

H, and

to

lav

them

off

on the

and a

to

line

H^

H^ V from a to P

As

respectively.

5 in elevation represents the

quarter-circle

on the point a

in section, divide this quarter-

to J V,
in

a,

and J

Fig. 358

From any

I I.

on one
Fig. 358.

ner arcs at a and

1

to 5 in elevation in

from

From
at T

to 5.

and with

center, de-

H, a
point,

draw a

off

and

in-

the stretchout of the quarter-circle from

Fig. 357,

Step this

and
as H,

a,

line to J,

intersecting the middle

Take

I.

side,

radii equal

H\

as

scribe the arcs

as

spaces,

Now, with

shown.

equal

into

circle

and place

four times, as

it

on the arc a a as shown

shown by

5', 5",

and

5'".

J draw a line through 5'", intersecting the inner and outer arcs

and

II.

Then

will

a a

be the

348

full

pattern.

EXAMINATION PLATES.
The

size as the plates in

and

laid out the

same

Tinsmithing and Sheet-Metal ^York (Parts

I, II,

plates of this Instruction

The

III),

Paper should be

border lines should be drawn as there described.

Before starting on the drawings which will be sent to the School, the
student should

first

practice on other paper, then copy and send cor-

rected drawings for examination.

PLATE

X TRIANGULAR

PANEL

ABC represents the outUne of a triangular panel.

ing

this,

margin
point

make

the line

and

line

CB

When

draw-

9| inches long, 3 inches above the lower

Place the

in the center of the length of the sheet.

A 5 inches above and in the center of C B.

Draw

the profile of the

the face width a b IJ inches,

mould
tlie

in the position

projection from

shown, making
to

d 1^ inches,

the projection of 6 f inch, the face d h inch; and, using

as center,

Then proceed to
with a radius equal to f inch, strike the cove d h.
c e at
lay out the pattern for the one side of the panel. shown by

AC

right angles to

C, using the method given in Fig. 284.

PLATE XI CIRCULAR PANEL

Three inches from the left margin
Three inches below the upper margin
Using

AB C

as center, with radius equal to

Then,

D.

-^-ith

G.

Now

a radius equal to

AL

in elevation, or f inch,

which completes the plan view by drawobtain the pattern in one piece for the cove O, by

draw the coves shown

ing

draw the center line B J.

line, on the line B J, locate e.
2Vinches, draw the outer circle
line,

in plan,

averaging the line a 6 as shown, being careful to follow the rule given
in connection with Fig. 341,

and place the pattern

in the center of the

space in Plate XI.

PLATE XII GABLE MOULDING ON A WASH

Draw the center line A B 4^ incbe.s from the left margin
inch above the bottom, and 3 inches below the top.
of the line

B C

8|

inches'.

If inches

353

line,

f
^Nlake the length

above the bottom margin.

SHEET METAL ^YORK

Make

the height of the lower

AB

from the center Hne

from

to

member C

to the point

S\ inches, and the distance

5f inches, and draw a Hne from C to A, giving the deParallel to A C, draw the face view of the members of

sired pitch.

the mould,

making the upper

'.ower

fillet

inch.

Draw

the perpendicular h F.

From

V inch, the

fillet

cove

inch,

Make

the projection from b to

upper and lower

inch; and, using a as center, with a radius equal to

fillets

centrally

position to

B and from H,
;

at

If

each f

draw the
H, placing

Now draw a section of the wash G

the line A B and margin; place H in its

between

inch,

quarter-round shown.
it

and the

A, locate 6 at a distance of 2| inches.

j\Iake the projection of the

inches.

]\Iake the distance

| inch.

an angle of 40 degrees, draw

H G.

relative

Four

and one-fourth inches above the point G, draw a duplicate of the profile E & F, as shown by E^ F* &'.
Then proceed to obtain the miterline in elevation,

and lay

manner explained

off the pattern at right angles to

the profile

the

in connection with Fig. 290.

PLATE
In this plate

A C in

is

shown

XIII REDUCED
the

MITER

plan of a reduced miter in which

soffit

given for the front piece and must return in a given dis-

is

Three and one-fourth inches below the upper margin, draw A B 2 inches long, the corner B to be 5f inches from the
right margin.
Make the distance from B to C f inch, and from
tance at the side.

C to D 4^ inches. Draw the outline of tne front mould 1 \ inches from

and parallel to C D, and the outline of the return mould 1 inch from
and parallel to B C. On the line C D, 1|^ inches from C, locate the
point

b,

then construct the profile

as shown,

making

b c equal to

equal to f inch; d equal to 1 inch; e equal to f

equal to ^ inch; and with a radius equal to f inch, strike the

21 inches.
inch; /

Make

cove shown, using a as center.

Above

the line

A B,

obtain the true

A B C F, and lay off this pattern at right angles to

A F centrally between A F and the margin line. Also lay off the patprofile for the return

tern for the front

lire

F E and

F C D E at right angles to F E,

the lower margin

line,

centrally between the

following the rules given in con-

nection with Fig. 320.

354

PRACTICAL PROBLEMS

MENSURATION
FOR SHEET METAL WORKERS.

square tank, Fig.

1, is

IN

required whose capacity should be

200 gallons, the sides h a and a c each to be 30 inches; liow high

must c d be, so that the tank will hold the desired quantity ?
Suppose the height c d is to be 51^ inches, and the tank is to

CAPACITY
GALLONS

CAPACITY
200 GALLONS

510

dC
Fig.

Fio-. 2.

1.

have similar capacity, and one side

.how long must the alternate side a

hold 200 gallons

is

tank will

round tank, Fig.

its

20 inches wide,

h be, so that the

2,

is

whose capacity
high from g io a\ what

to be constructed

should equal 510 gallons, and be 5 feet

must

to be

diameter a h be, so as to

liold the desired capacity

Suppose the diameter of

the tank

is

to

be 50 inches

what must

as

c be, so that the

!)

hold 510 gallons

its

height

tank will

A large drip pan, Fig. 3, is

Fig.

3.

to

be constructed whose ca-

pacity should be 1G5 gallons, and whose top measurements a h and b e

are

GO

40 inches

respectively,

and bottom measurements r?<?and

S57

PROBLEMS IN MENSURATION
54 inches respectively; what must
hold the desired volume ?

ef'6-i:

as to

its

height

it/

l)e,

so

round tapering measure, Fig. 4, is to be constructed Mhose

volume will equal 42 quarts; its bottom diameter a h is to l)e 14

Fig.

4.

inches, its top diameter c

to

<l

hold the desired quantity

An

18 inches; what must

its

height

efhe

elliptical tapering tank, Fig.

5',

is to

be constructed whose

24 inches, and minor axis c d 14 inches at the

top, while at the bottom the major axis ef'i?, 20 inches, and minor
axis y h 10 inches; the capacity of the tank should equal 44
quarts; what inust the height in n be, so that the tank will hold
major axis

in h is

the desired

amount

tank, Fig. 6,

is

to be constructed

with semicircular ends

Ol''

CAPACITY

30 GALLONS

JJ.
^.
Fig.

6.

whose capacity should equal 30 gallons; the length a b io be 20

inches, and the diameters of o and d to be each 10 inches; what
must the height <?/*be, so that the tank will hold the desired
quantity

Suppose the height efis to be 24 inches, the diameters c and

d each 11 inches; what must the length of a h be, so that the tank
will

hold 30 gallons

358

PROBLEMS
111

Fig, 7

diameter a h

shown a

is

is

IN

fitting

11^ inches and

MENSURATION
used in ventilation piping; the

it is

desired that the oblono- pipe

on the opposite end shall have an area similar to the round pipe a h\
if
/'must be 5 inches, what must c d be so that both areas are alike ?
6^

Suppose the pipe

to

is

be square in place of oblong, what must

the length of each side be, so that both ends have similar area

In Fig.
branches

<?,

a
and

8,

c7,

1)

40 inches in diameter; and each one of the

are to have equal diameters, what must the

is

diameter of the branches be, so that the combined area of

and e will equal the area oi ahl
If

is

10 inches

in

diameter,

what must be the diameter, of

the branches

ct

<l

12 inches, and

c, c/,

8 inches,

have the combined area of

h, to

Fig. 9 shows a transition piece from a round pipe a to an

ZS~\

\1
Fig.
elliptical

pipe

Fig.

8.

b,

9.

both sections to have similar area;

Fig.
if

10.

the round

24 inches in diameter, and the major axis of the elliptical

pipe must be 32 inches, what must the minor axis of h be so that
the area at b will equal the area of a ?
If the minor axis of b is to be 16 inches and the major axis 35
inches, what must the diameter of a be, so that both sections will
have similar area ?
In Fig. 10, a is 20 inches in diameter and forms a transition
pipe

to

is

an oblong pipe with semicircular end; the semicircular ends

what must the length of c d be,

so that the area of h will be equal to the area of a ?
If the pipe b measured 40 X 11 inches, having semicircular
ends, what must the diameter of a be, so that both sections are
are to be 10 inches in diameter;

equal in area
If

is

20 inches

in

diameter and the upper section was to be

359

PROBLEMS IN MENSURATION
rectangular in shape, 8 inches wide, Mhat would the lentrth of the

upper section be

Suppose the upper section

must the

was desired

Ij

have an area similar

lencrth of each side be, to

In Fig. 11

is

and the method

shown the

is

be square, what

to

illustration of

an ordinary

to a

steel square,

given of obtaining accurate diameters of pipes,

round or square, without any computation whatever, the rule being

based on the geometrical principle that the square of the hypothe-

nuse of a right angle triangle

of its base

and

To

altitude.

equal to the

is

sum

of the squares

illustrate the rule. Fig.

12 has been

^.iJ.I.I.I-.l.l.l.l.lil.l.lil.l.lil.l.l 'lil'I'I'^Nl^^^'I'I'I'I'lil'I'I'lilililil'li
I

2 3

4 5

6 7' 6 9

10

12 13

II

14 15 16 17

20

16 19

21

22 23 24

Fig. 11.

Let

prepared.

and

A represent a round or square pipe,

20 inches across,

a round or square pipe 12 inches across;

it is

take a branch from the main so that the two branches

equal the area of the main A.

The

size of

is

What must

desired to

B and C

the size of

be

will

found by simply taking a rule 20 inches

long and placing one end on the arm of the square in Fig. 11, on

number
number 16.
the

12.

We

when the opposite end of

Then 16 is the required size

12,

in.;

The

area of 12-in. pipe

118.098

= 201.062 in.; and

113.098

in.

The

area of a 20-in. square pipe

400

pipe

=
in.

144 in.; area of

4 144 in. =- 400

in Fig.

not

is

area of a 20-inch round pipe equals

pipe

256

of the branch

can prove this by computation which, however,

necessary in practice.

314.16

the rule will touch the

16-in.

in.;

201.062
in.;

800

314.160

in.

area of 12-in. square

square pipe

iu.

in.

area of 16-in.

256

in.;

and

PROBLEMS

IN

MENSURATION

Suppose any two branches are given as

what must the

size of

be so that

bined area of the two branches

Simply

its

and

in Fig. 12,

area will have the com-

'i

on the numbers 12 and 10 on the two

arms of the square respectively, and the length
will measure 20 inches.
from If to in Ficr.
If A, Ficr. 12, were given, and two branches

set the rule

,

7j

were required, so that

equal size, then simply

and

were both of

set the rule

20 inches

on both arms of the square so that the

distance from O to c and O to d would be
equal, as shown in Fig. 11, which would be
found to measure 14i in. plus a least trifle.

loner,

This rule can be used to advantage for any size round or square
pipe in blower, blast, heat, and ventilating piping, saving time and

Where ld square is at hand, one can be

drawn on paper and used for work of this kind.
trouble in computation.

361

HOTEL MARLBORODGH-BLENHEIM, ATLANTIC

CITY, N.

J.

'.ThisMagniflcent Structure, Huilt Throughout of Reinforced Concrete is Especially Noteworthy as the Most
Elaborate Application which has Yet been Made of this New Material of Construction. It is
Located Near the Famous " Boardwalk," Overlooking the Ocean.

PLASTERING
The

subject of plastering in relation to

necessarily divided into

two

The

sections.

first

modern dwellings

is

treats of the plaster-

ing of walls on the inferior of the house; the second will briefly de-

some

scribe

house

of the various

ways of

finishing in

cement plaster the

exterior.

INTERIOR PLASTERING
The

marks the division between

on the residence, and the very

installation of interior plastering

the completion of the rough tcork

beginning of the placing of the finish that

The

to follow.

is

plastering cannot be started until

the walls

and

ceilings

have been lathed, and the ceilings must be furred before even the
lathing can be begun,
^^^len the building is ready for lathing, all
of the rough studding, framework,

place;

and

and the piping and wiring necessary

lighting, etc., of the dwelling,

must be

must be

partitions
in the

installed

set in

plumbing, heating,

and

tested before the

lathing or furring can be started.

The

apparent break in the progress of building necessary to

lath,

and dry out a house, need not be altogether time lost for any
of the various trades. Those unable to resume work until this interplaster,

mediary process has been completed, can be securing

their necessary

materials and fixtures and arranging

for installation.

The

finish,

them ready
mill work and

carpenter can be getting out his

to put in his

window-sash,

set his

standing finish in place around

doors and windows, lay the upper

remainder of his contract.

their

work

The

floors,

and the dwelling

commence
install

soon ready for occupation.

sixteen inches apart

so that each lath receives four nailings.

of a stud;

and complete the

and heating contractors

is

The studs of a building are spaced

upon the center

etc.,

painter and paperer then

the electricians, pluml)ers,

their service fixtures,

be ready

Each end

on centers,

of the lath rests

and the two intermediate studs provide

fastenings at spaces equally distant in

865

its

length.

The

ceilings are

PLASTERING

and

customarily furred to provide lath nailings, four

five

in better

nailings to the lath, with furrings seven-eighths of

work,

an inch thick

and one and one-quarter inches or more wide, running crosswise of the
This furring is intended to level up the bottom of the
floor joists.
joists, and distributes the unequal result of their skrinkage or uneven
settlement from the weight above, thus preventing plaster cracks.

Before beginning lathing, the carpenter should see that each

partition, at its intersection with another wall,

is

nailed directly against the crossing studding.

This makes

run the ends of his laths

sible for the lather to

partitions

in

started with a stud

impos-

behind or over the

a careless practice that provides a very unstable internal

The

plaster angle.

carpenter also sets plaster furrings, three-cjuarters

of an inch thick, around

points where the

work

nailings for the finish

window and door openings and around the

top of his base skirting, so as to mark the

all

walls at the height of the

and lather end, and

of both plasterer

woodwork.

It is essential for the

place any necessary furring for cornices, door-caps,

lathing

it

is

carpenter to

etc.,

before the

may be

begun; also any other furring blocks that

by the plumber

to provide

required

to secure the setting of his fixtures or to support

and

carry his pipes.

LATHING

Wood

Laths.

Wood

up in bundles of 100 laths;

the wooden frame, with a space

laths are ])ut

and are nailed upon the studdings of

This distance

of one-cjuarter inch between tliem.

sufficient

is

to

allow for lath shrinkage or swelling, and

still

provide a firm clinch

much

less

than

for the plastering.

clinch will

down on

l)e

If the

weakened.

space
If

is

much more,

the laths

this,

may

the ceilings with the extra weight of plaster.

the plaster

possibly sag

In no instance

should these spaces between laths exceed a width of three-eighths of

an inch.
I'he clinch, or key, of the plaster

is

formed by the mortar being

pressed through the spaces between the laths and then spreading out

back of the laths upon both sides of the crack, so forming a

clinch, that holds the
It occasionally

to cover over

mortar firmly and securely

becomes necessary

to lath

tie,

or

in place.

on very thin furrings

a heating pipe, a brick or iron support, or some other

such exceptional instance of construction.

366

In that case a wider space

PLASTERING
between the

may

laths

strengthen the plaster clinch; or, better

may be

a strip of expanded metal

still,

used over or around such obstruc-

tions.

The

best

wooden

made

They should be

partially seasoned.

Both bark and knots are

knots.

ing

laths are

wood and

plaster

of pine or spruce,
free

from sap, bark, and dead

likely to loosen

from the surround-

so destroy the hold of the plaster; while the face of the

occasionally stained from pitchy knotholes, bark, or sap.

is

now machine-sawn. The

the market for now more than

old-fashioned split lath has

All laths are

not been in

If the laths are too dry, the

warp and

and

it

hardens or

saturated, their swelling

is

likely to

twist;

fifty years.

wet mortar

if

is

likely to cause

sets before the laths

them

to

become

produce parallel plaster cracks.

Better results can be obtained by using wet laths,

and

and are only

when both mortar

laths dry out together.

In specifying the nailing of wood

ensure better work
either

upon the

than doubtful

if

this

nails in the lath

is

upon both wall and

end are

likely to start

ceiling.

split,

It is

lath,

more

result, as

partially or wholly loosened

is all

from

Large lath

two

which may be increased

in applying the mortar, until the entire

upon the wall.

the work more secure, weaken
plastering

sometimes thought to

requirement produces the desired

by the pressure necessary

of the lath

it is

two nailings are required at each end of the

ceiling alone or
if

laths,

its

end

support before the

nails, instead of

making

way. The common

sized inch-and-one-eighth long
"three-penny fine"
fasten the
it

same

in the

nails

laths securely, even the ceiling nails rarely pulling out.

pounds of

The

nails will

be necessary to each one thousand

About

five

laths.

broken every eight courses.

joints of laths are ordinarily

This means that not more than eight adjoining lath ends are nailed

upon one stud or

furring, the next eight laths, in both directions, being

upon the next wall stud or ceiling furring to either

thus alternating the break and obviating the possibility

carried by, ending

right or

left,

of an extended crack occurring at the line of lath jointure.

Some

more convenient to handle

simpler and easier for them

lathers find a small handful of these laths

than a larger bundle, in which case

to

break joints every

six laths

Occasionally studding
joints

is

it is

which

is

equally good construction.

placed twelve inches apart, and the lath

broken for every other

lath.

Such precautions, however, are

367

PLASTERING
not necessary in the ordinary dwelling.

They

increase expense; and

the closer spacing of the studs, especially, provides more undesirable

weisht to be carried by the house frame.
"Wherever the wood studding of partitions comes up against the

brickwork of chimneys or a terra-cotta or brick wall, strips of expanded

metal or wire-mesh lath should be employed, extending seven or eight
inches over

upon

either side of such a joint; and,

if

such a joint occurs

an internal angle, future cracking from a difference in settlement or

shrinkage may be prevented by cutting through each plaster coat,

in

when

soft,

with a sharp trowel.

Of

Metal Lath.

late years

placed upon the market.

on boiler-room

ceilings,

The

and

many varieties

use of such lath

in other places

]\Iany varieties of metal lath

heat.

of metal lath have been

exposed to strong

including

require supports at closer intervals than

generally required

is

is

all

those

artificial

made

of wire

provided by the studding,

nine inches being generally considered the best distance. This necessitates either a closer spacing of studs than is otherwise necessary or
desirable, or a series of furrings fastened to the wall studding.

There are some metal laths

principle

that are

sufficiently

generally those made on the expanded

stiff",

in

one direction, to allow of a spac-

ing of supports greater than nine inches; but, for ordinary wire cloth,

no wider distance should ever be allowed, unless the cloth is itself

All metal lath should be securely fastened by
artificiallv stiffened.
staples,

and stretched before

nailing, to increase

its

stiffness as

much

as possible.

In using metal lath, care should be taken to prevent plaster cracks

along the line of jointure.

The

use of metal lath also requires three

coats of plaster, in order to stiffen the lath snffici(>ntly to resist the

pressure required to finish the last coat.

Lathing and plastering are generally estimated, and the various

In small work, no openmaterials are all figured, by the square yard.
In

ings are deducted unless they exceed sixty square feet in area.

up

figuring

plaster

by

in

order to

inj;

when openings

are allowed for,

it

is

add half of the contents when .measuring

while small triangular wall i)ieces are figured as though s(juare,

sometimes cu^stomary
closets;

cjuantity,

make up

to

for the extra

amount

of labor required in

])last(M'-

such restricted or odd-sized surfaces.

The

use of expanded metal or wire lath

368

is

frequently tlemanded

PLASTERING
bv the building laws

of

some

and

cities,

is

always required on a

fire-

proof or first-class building.

makes

Several

of plaster board are in the

They come

extensively advertised.
large sheets of 32

eight inch wide boards or

in

and are nailed

inches,

One

framing.

by 36

coat of plaster

market and being

directly

in three-coat

work

upon the wall

may

then be

These boards save time, being rapidly set in place

even by unskilled carpenters, and the plaster itself drys out much more

dispensed with.

They

rapidly.

appear

however, frequently the cause of cracks that

are,

in the finished plaster

together

where the edges of the boards come

sometimes even after the wall has been papered.

PLASTER A\ATERIALS
principally

composed

is

Lime

obtained in different sections

is

and water.
of the country from calcined

of lime, sarid, hair,

Plaster

limestone, the

carbonic acid and moisture contained

being driven

by the burning

ing

is

off

The whole

process.

theory of plaster-

based upon the reduction of limestone to lime, and

recombination,

when

distributed

something approaching

its

upon the walls

original state.

The

the stone

in

its

chemical

of a house,

into

slaking of the lime

provides the moisture necessary for the process of crystallization that

produces the set of the mortar while the sole purpose of applying it
;

in several coats

upon the wall

to absorb the carbonic acid

burning
total

from

the air.

is

to present that

of which

The

it

was

much more

originally deprived in

thinner the coats and the larger their

exposed surface, the greater the absorption of

constituent.

For

coat plaster

work

this reason

to

surface

and

this strengthening

solely for this reason

be considered as better than

is

three-

tw^o.

Properly burnt lime slakes easily and completely, when water

added, until it is converted into a fine dust, which, in its turn,

is

is

moistened and turned into a paste under action of- the water, which
This is
bubbles and hisses with the heat generated by the process.

what

is

called the slaking of lime.

Very

rich

for plastering increases to about twice

slaked,

and

is

its

then almost pure white in color.

the best

and pure lime

original bulk

by being

Lime should always be

as fresh as possible, and must be delivered in tightly sealed barrels.

Care should also be taken to ascertain that it has been burned with

wood and not with

coal.

369

PLASTERING

Sand

is

broken or rotten rock which has become decomposed

That made by
running water, or from stones worn small by rolling over and over
upon the beach, is composed of particles so nearly round in contour
spontaneously or by the action of running water.

and so lacking

angularities of

in

surface that they are not good

material for mixing in any mortar where strength

The

necessity.

particles of rotten rock

is

a requisite or

decomposed by exposure

make good sand for mixing with mortar, their

shape being more irregular, with many sharp and angular corners.

are better adapted to

Sand obtained from ledge stones contains the essential elements of

those stones, quartz, feldspar, and mica being present in granite
formations, and lava, obsidian,

etc.,

coming from the

generally

softer stones

is

in volcanic

The sand

sand.

more thoroughly

disinte-

grated, being frequently so rotten as to be entirely unsuitable for use

in plastering.

In most parts of the country the principal supply of sand

now comes from

the beds of ancient lakes or rivers, and

True sand, no matter how

sand.

from dust by dropping

to the

it

may

fine,

always be distinguished

into a glass of water, as

bottom without leaving any appreciable

will invariably sink

it

upon the

dirt

For plastering purposes, sharply angular sand

Good

essential.

and

is

so clean

river sand, the coarser the better,

and

free

from

dirt, clay,

called pit

is

and earth

is

surface.

not absolutely

obtained so easily,

is

stains, that

it is

most

generally employed for plaster.

The
market

third necessary constituent

is

cattle hair

is

hair.

The

best hair

The

obtained from the tanneries.

upon

the

hair should be

lumpy or clotted, it should be separated by

soaking in water the day before mixing it with the mortar, as this
method of separating the hair is less dusty and more healthful than
beating or whipping it dry to obtain the same result.

of good length; and,

if

too

Occasionally brick dust

it is

is

in

added

to the

mortar for coloring, when

more rapidly especially if the dust

All
shortly before using and is dry at the time of mixing.

likely that the

mixed

is

mortar

will set

brick dust should be sifted through a fine sieve.

variety of colorings for mortar are used

black,

such

Besides brick dust, a

as lampl)lack, ivory

powdered charcoal, Spanish brown, raw umber, burnt umber,

red aniline, Venetian red, Indian red, vermilion, ultramarine blue,

indigo

blue,

chrome

Mineral colors should

yellow,
l,e

and,

occasionally,

preferred to

370

pulverized

earth colorings.

The

clay.
latter

PLASTERING
weaken the plaster, and fade rapidly. Variously colored sands
when thev can be obtained make the best and most durable ma-

terials possible for tinting the final plaster coat.

It is

impossible to state arbitrary,

set,

hard-and-fast proportions

mixing of plastering for either exterior or interior work. The

different makes of lime ^nd grades of sand, alone, vary sufficiently
for the

to

make any such

statements exceedingly inadvisable

pose and conditions under which the plaster

occasion considerable changes in

"Working"
is

the Lime.

the slaking of the lime.

reducing the hard,

by mixing

to

while the pur-

be used, frequently

proportions.

first

This

lumps

brittle

process in the

making

of plaster

consists, as already said, in

of

its

original

form

to a

simply

smooth paste

the utmost importance that the

It is of

with water.

it

The

its

is

lime should be entirely and completely slaked, and the paste smoothly
and evenly worked, before adding any of the other ingredients.

The

lime

is

slaked in a mortar-bed, a box of boards about 4 feet

and a foot to eighteen inches high," set in some

convenient location with its bottom about level with the top of a second
box placed at one end, and about two feet lower in grade. Both
mortar and lime-slaking beds should have tight bottoms and strong
sides, well braced to resist the pressure that will come upon them

wide and 7

when

feet long,

'they are full.

Poorly screened sand later causes extra trouble

also be near at hand.

Gravel

and work.
and

floating,

quantity of sand already screened should

in the

mortar delays workmen while plastering

and much good plaster material

will

be

lost in hurriedly

throwing or picking out these gravel stones in the rush of applying the

mortar on the wall.

The

barrel lime

is

emptied into the upper box, and water

is

poured on while a workman breaks up the lumps and works the mass
back and forth in various directions with a hoe. The thorough working of the material at this stage
ing.

The tendency

is

necessary to ensure

of the careless

workman

is

to

its

complete slak-

hoe back and forth

bed without any regard as to whether he is stirring

up the mortar that is down on the bottom boards, or whether the corners
are drawn into the mixture and worked as evenly as the remainder of
in the center of the

the box.

If the paste is

consistencv throughout,
of lime, or

if

not thoroughly and evenly worked to an equal

if

the Avater

is

not conducted to every particle

the other ingredients are mixed in before the paste

371

is

PLASTERING

evenly prepared, the lime will be apt to blister and slake out unevenly,

upon the wall. If the corners, for instance,

are imperfectly mixed, lumps of clear lime will afterward appear.
]Many of these lumps will pass ufinoticed under the hoe of the workcausing trouble after

man tempering

it is

the mortar, and will not be found until they are

flat-

tened out under the wall trowel of the plasterer.

much water

If too

great

amount

added

is

used in slaking the lime

is

once

at

dry (burns, as the plasterers

pile

slake through lack of

is

first

place,
its

it

if

into

added, the lime

lumps

is left

so

When

too

much

becomes so thoroughly

strength

is

lost;

and the proc-

by the very excess of water, much retarded. The

slowed up if very cold water is added, although the

ess of slaking

is,

also

water soon becomes heated from the reaction of the lime.

enough water should be put on

start, just

a too

small particles entirely

sufficient moisture.

chilled that a considerable portion of

is

and forms

chilled

many

call it) that

water droivns the lime in the

process

is

water

If too little

that slake too tardily.

fail to

the

especially

At the

to initiate the slaking process.

After this, as the slaking proceeds, more water should be added as

needed, taking care to keep the lime thoroughly moist at

all

times.

very active and quick slaking lime should be covered with water

from the very beginning,

once burns,

If the lime

of working, to get out

it

to

guard against the possibility of burning.

afterward be impossible, by any amount

will

all

lime will afterwards work cool,

when being

troweling

lumps that are then caused. Rich

the fine

is

likelv to crack,

little

and bears

finished, without the surface peeling off, blister-

ing, or staining.

lime

If

lumps

is

run

of unslaked lime escape through the screen

off,

and get mixed

into the mortar,

it

when

becomes very

the

difficult,

them afterward. It is not possible for the plasterer to

lumps out of the mortar when working it on the wall; and

to eradicate

get these

the results of their afterwards slaking out will continue to appear long
after the

house

times after the

the entire

first

is

finished.

work
year

is

If they

completed

occur in the

frec|uently extending throughout

these lime limips

will

forcing out the surface plastering outside

blister or

lump, generally about an inch

the ceiling, almost invariably

the final coat,

much

the

falls off.

same

coat, at various

first

suddenly

bloiv or

expand,

them and making a

in diameter,

If this

which,

if

large

upon

unslaked lime gets into

result occurs, although the particles

378

PLASTERING
are of necessity smaller in

Instead of being large, the resulting

size.

holes are then comparatively small, running generally about the size
of the head of a pin, and the entire surface of the plastering

quently pitted, the particles thrown

off

is

fre-

appearing about the room in

the shape of a white dust.

In the brown rough-coat, the spots of white, unslaked lime are

quite easy to see, as they are often the size of a bean or pea.
ever, in the final white coat, these spots, being smaller

How-

and of the same

color as the rest of the mortar, do not show.

After

it

warm

has once begun to

up, the lime should be worked

or stirred thoroughly during the process of slaking, so that, after the

action has been completed,

cream.

be of the consistency of a pasty'

will

it

After slaking, the lime should be run off through a fine sieve

(No. 5 screen) put at the end of the slaking box, into the next lower

The

compartment, or mortar-bed.

screen

intended to keep out any

is

lime lumps too large to slake before the mortar

settlement that

may be found

in the lime,

and

is

used, or

any

to allow only a

flinty

pure and

thoroughly mixed hydrate to be admitted to the bed.

When

drawing or running

a large supply of sand

off the lime,

already screened should be at hand to scatter in the bottom of the

may

mortar-bed and

to use for stopping leaks that

gradually

This screened sand should be

to

fills.

complete the mortar mixture.

in barrels or in hose piped

An ample

appear as

sufficient in

tlje

box

amount

supply of water, either

from a hydrant, should also be ready at

hand to avoid any possibility of the lime burning.

For the putty or finish coat, the paste should be made even thinner
before running off, and may be of the consistency of milk. The sieve
through which it is strained should also be finer, of about the mesh
of an ordinary flour or meal screen.

obtained by running

off the

cooler working putty

is

The

in

paste for this coat

is

often

lime a second time, as by this means a

secured.

length of time that mortar for plastering should be mixed

before being used,

stated

The

is

a much-discussed

question.

architectural specifications, that

mixed ten days or two weeks before using."

requirement

is

was

left

is

generally

"the mortar should be

As a matter of

not always either wise or desirable.

old English work, lime mortar

It

fact, this

It is true that, in

covered over with earth to

stand for long periods of time, often six months to three years elapsing

373

PLASTERING

10

before
to

it

was used.

be expected.

In this country, such slow-going methods are not

lime does gain in strength by standing in this

AVliile

thin putty state before sand or other materials have been

mixed with

it,

yet three or four weeks, at the least, are necessary before the increase

becomes very apparent.

necessary that the paste should

It is also

remain moist, by being kept covered

fourth

month

most of

its

At the end

of the

strength will have increased about one-fifth, and

made during

gain has been

this

the time.

all

that month.

From

then on

the gain continues, but gradually decreases in amount.

more economical for the plasterer to use a lime that has been
slaked for some weeks, as, when tempered down, it will work freely
It is

much

with the admixture of a

larger proportion of sand than

is

taken

up by lime mixed as soon as it can be readily worked. This extra

amount of sand does not add to the strength of the mortar; but, as it
causes the lime to cover a greater surface,
for the contractor,

made, however,

at the

it is

a considerable economy

expense of the quality of his

work.

Lime mortar need be

be thoroughly slaked, and,

particles to

down

standing only long enough for

left

properly mixed and wet

time need not be required to

in the first case, a great deal of

effect that result.

if

all its

This once secured, the (juicker the mortar

is

mixed

and put upon the building, the better and stronger will be the plastering
that

is

obtained.

it

is

if

also very harmful, as this water

is

for carrying

Yet,

claimed that the accompanying loss of

from the properties

has already absorbed from the lime much better suited

limewater

which

It is further

on the process of mixing than newly added clean water.

the lime has been long standing,

water to replace the water

maybe necessary to add clean

it

by evaporation or seepage, although

mortar mixed with clean water never becomes so hard as that mixed
lost

with the water obtained in slaking the lime.

The sand and

hair are next added, the hair being put in before

the mortar becomes too

stiff

to

work

readily.

After the sand

is

mixed,

the mortar should not be left to stand for any length of time, as

would become considerably

If the

mortar does become

before

it

set

and a

loss of strength Avould result.

set in the bed, reworking would

could be put upon the walls.

a direct relation to the length of time

has attained, before this

final

be necessary

Th(> strength then lost bears

it

working up.

374

it

has stood, and the solidity

it

PLASTERING
In plastering mortar where hair

is

required, a

11

still

further loss of

rotted or eaten by its

strength would result, as the hair would be so
almost or quite
long exposure to the action of the wet lime as to be

worthless.

when

the

hair cannot well be mLxed evenly, except at the time

mortar is first run off, while it is in a very thin paste. If,

The

after a lime-and-sand mixture

were attempted

to bring

it

had been standing

for

some months,

it

to a sufficiently fluid state to receive the

by wetting it down a second time, a considerable proporwould

tionvarying from a quarter up to almost a halfof its strength

hair properiy,

be

sacrificed.

Bearing these facts

mind once certain that the lime is slaked

in

before
would appear better that not more than a week should elapse
is, under many circumthe use of this mortar; and a less time than that
undoubtedly desirable. It is evident that no more lime-and-

it

stances,

be used within a
sand mortar should be mixed at one time than can
mortar should be
few days at the most. The length of time that
dryness or moisture
allowed to stand, is determined more or less by the
dryer the atmosphere, the shorter the time,
chemical result of the drying
as the setting of the mortar is, in part, a
crystallization, as it is called.
out, or evaporation, of the water of
of the atmosphere.

The

parts of the
has already been said that limes made in different
composition and properties.
country vary extensively in their chemical
of the chemical composition of lime mortars and the
It

knowledge

used, is necessary before

individual peculiarities of the lime locally
In
here set forth.
applying or attempting to utilize the principles

limes frequently contain from

the eastern part of the United States, the
and the mortar in which
a third to a half of carbonate of magnesia;

such limes are employed sets very readily.

To sum up, the lime should be slaked as evenly and thoroughly
bed through a fine
It should be run off from the slaking
as possible.

sieve into the mortar-bed

It

should

lie

there no longer than

is

abso-

could be possible to add the hair and sand

moist to take up and work
while the original mixture is sufliciently
to be added, the resulting
the entire amount of the latter material
undoubtedly be that much the stronger and more
lutely necessary;

and

if

it

mixture would
durable.

Mixing the Mortar.

the lime paste

is

The amount

of sand to be

mixed

in with

a variable quantity, depending upon the sand

375

itself.

PLASTERING

12

upon the quality and thickness of the lime paste, and also upon the
nature of the work for which the mortar is intended. With exceptionally rich limes, sand to the amount of about two times the bulk

measuring the slaked lime

of the lime

in the

form of a rather firm

may be added.

As will be seen, this is a most uncertain proportion, for a great deal depends upon the firmness of the lime paste alone.
Allowing for variation in size of the lumps of lime and their closer or
paste

looser packing together,

it

may perhaps

be better to say that the sand

should bear a relation to the lime, before

four and one-half times

The

its

slaked, of from three to

bulk.

and the

richer the lime

it is

finer the particles of sand, the

more

of the latter should be employed, although the finer sand does not

make

as hard or as good mortar as the coarser variety.

clean and sharp, the finer and coarser varieties of sand

together with good results.

INIost laborers are

If

both are

may

be mixed

apt to stop adding sand,

merely because the mortar mixture becomes hard to work when the
paste becomes too thick.

This

becomes much harder

ture

day or two

pleted, a

The

to

is

poor policy, inasmuch as the mix-

work when

the tempering

is

partly

com-

later.

fineness of the sand

as well as sharp sand

is

is

an important

factor.

considered best, as the

of the voids left in such a mixture

would be

rather coarse

amount and capacity

of such size as, without

any

doubt, would provide space to contain lime sufficient to cement this

granular mass very firmly together.

of the sand particles

would

The

close pressure

also lessen the possibility of settlement or

shrinkage, with accompanying inap-cracks.

in either before the

The

hair

may

be mixed

adding of the sand or when but a very small pro-

portion of the latter has been

is

and contact

worked

generally mixed with the mortar by

into the lime mixture.

means

any small sections of the mortar

seen.

This

will refjuire

in

hair

of an iron rake. It should

be thoroughly mixed, and enough should be used to

to find

The

make

it

impossil)le

which the hair cannot be

from one and one-half

to

two bushels of hair

to a cask of lime.
If the

surfaces,

it

mortar

is

to

will carry

be used as a

first

coat on stone, brick, or similar

more sand, and hair

is

not considered so essential.

a half-bushel to the barrel of lime being generally ample.

If too little

dry too quickly when

setting, and,

sand

is

after

it is

used, the plaster

is

liable to

dry, will crumble very easily, showing

37

up too white, or ashy

PLASTERING
gray, in appearance.
is

and

liable to fall off,

Mortar

If too
will

fnish) but very

putty

For

of sand.

run

is

on

For the

sand

little

is

anything of that sort

lath

harder the

sand

is

finish,

mixed

when marble

it is

is

same

this

finish, the less the

at the time

when

the

dust, brick dust, or

generally mixed together on the

Stucco, or plaster of

never mixed with putty until immediately before using, on

account of

When

No more

w^ater than

once

ing of the mortar at

moisture that

being applied,

set before

first

or in

its

becomes

useless.

subsequent tempering, as over-much

of a considerable proportion of

it

also retards the setting process

is

it

after

necessary should be added, either in the mix-

is

wetting of the lime deprives

and

moments

rapid setting, which occurs in a few

its

mixing.

strength,

fingers.

(the 'putty coat or hard

mortar-board immediately before applying.

Paris,

be of about

The

used.

added,

is

may

final coat

this coat, the

For hard

off.

has been used, the plastering

crumble when rubbed between the

for a second coat

consistency of mixture.

amount

much sand

13

its

by giving that much more

necessary to be disposed of by evaporation or crystalli-

zation.

A bushel
is

of lime

allowed to the barrel

cubic

feet.

A barrel

standardized to weigh 80 pounds; 200 pounds

is
;

a bushel contains about one and one-quarter

of sand

is

supposed to contain 3 cubic

feet of

sand, and a bushel of sand weighs about 120 pounds, and wet mortar

When

130 or 132 pounds.

pounds

is

figured to weigh about 110

to the cubic foot.

To summarize

one barrel of lime, 200 pounds,

a cubic yard of sand.

than

this,

will take

In most localities a load of sand

contain twenty- seven cubic

less

hard, mortar

extending

feet,

down

or a cubic yard; but

to two-thirds of the

is

about

supposed to

it is

frequently

To

amount.

the

as we

barrel of lime should also be used about two barrels of water

and

have seen upwards of two bushels of hair

Hair comes

for a first coat.

in paper bags weighing generally something

containing enough hair to beat

up

under eight pounds and

into a ^measured bushel.

This

amount of material, when the lime has been slaked and the whole
mixed together, will amount to 35 or 40 yards (about 5 barrels) of
mortar; and the amount should cover about 40 square yards of
lathed area, requiring about GOO laths to surface.

The

final

skim coat

is

mixed roughly

to the following proportions

cask of lime to a half-tub of water, which should take up about a

877

PLASTERING

14

barrel of the hard, clean sand used in

tlxe

surface coat.

Generally

the plasterer uses a larger barrel or hogshead for water, than the cask
in

which the lime

is

Also, in

delivered.

some

localities, the

lime will

run somewhat more than 200 pounds to the barrel, ]\Iaine lime from

Rockland being supposed

Rockland lime

average 220 pounds.

to

considered in the East good lime for scratch and

many masons
It

brown

is

coats, but

prefer Jacob's lime for the finish coat.

should be remembered that the bulk of the completed mortar

mixture does not equal the total combined bulk of

dients, but

is

less

its

various ingre-

than the aggregate bulk by about one-cjuarter.

PLASTERING
Interior plastering
ings.
first

now

is

applied either in two or in three coat-

Three coats are always necessary on metal or wire lath, the

coat being required to stiffen the body of the material sufficiently

Even upon wood

thorough working of the remaining coats.

to allow

make

laths, three coats

a better job of plastering than two.

and body are obtained by the addition of the extra

strength

Extra

coat, pro-

vided time be allowed to dry out each of the coats thoroughly before
the next coating

is

added.

It

has now, nevertheless, become the general

custom to employ but two coats on the less expensive grades of

resi-

dence work.

The
steel,

plaster mortar

is,

applied to the walls with a hand trowel of

about four and one-half inches wide by twelve inches long, having

a wooden handle that

mortar

is

is

parallel with the

back of the blade. After the

put on and roughly smoothed out with the steel trowel,

the darby, a long

in length, is

wooden

taken by the

trowel, about four inches wide

workman and used

to level the plaster surface

form density.

The

flat

and work

it

to

part of the darby

and three

feet

with a scouring motion

an even thickness and uniis

generally of hard pine, a

more in thickness.
Three-Coat Work. The best interior plaster work always used
be put on in three coats, and was worked to a final thickness of

half-inch or slightly

to

about seven-eighths of an inch.

thickest, so that,

when

dry,

it

Of

the three coatings, the

may

be strong enough to

pressure of working the coat or coats to follow.

advantage of three-coat plastering

is

first is

the

resist

the

large part of the

obtained by thoroughly drying

each coat out before applying another, thus securing the added dens-

378

PLASTERING

15

and strength made possible by forcing the subsequent coating

firmly and strongly against the surface upon which it is being placed.
Rubbing or troweling up the rough mortar l>efore it finally dries and

ity

makes it much more compact than

time when it is first applied.

sets, also
it

at the

The

first

possible from working

is

coat, called the scratch coat, contains the greatest propor-

tion of hair, that being useful in strengthening the key or clinch of the

plaster behind the edges of the

between which
the surface

is

it

has been forced.

scratched (hence

The

purpose.

wooden

its

through the crevices

laths,

Before this coat thoroughly dries,

name) with a

surface of the second coat also

tool designed for that

is

sometimes scratched

with nails set into a wooden float or darby like that used to rub over

When

the surface, before adding the finish coat.

dried out before another

is

applied, this scratching

the scratches forming a clinch or

to unite the

more firmly

tie

up

entirely

always necessarv,

to the preceding.

or brown

and even, especially

true

is

is

permitting the subsequent coat

The second coat generally contains

and much less hair than is necessary in
of this second coat

one coat

coat, as

.at all

a larger proportion of sand

the

it is

first

coat.

called

The

must be

surface

brought

and be plumb upon "the

applied, lumps must be removed
angles,

walls.

Before the finishing coat

and

other imperfections corrected, and the mortar must become

all

is

sufficiently set to allow the entire surface to

or darby and so

To

mads compact and

be rubbed up with a

float

firm.

save time, the plasterer adopted the custom of putting his

second coat on over the

combined mass

first

while the latter was

still

green.

The

one thick coat) was then darbied and

two-coat work, over which about the only ad-

(practically

same as in
vantage of this method was in providing a rougher sand surface on
the second coat than was possible when more hair (always necessary
Otherwise, substantially the same rein first coat) was included.
sults as are secured by thus working two coats together are obtained
treated the

in the first coat of ordinary

and time.

method does not furnish so good or so permaplastering, it is modernly considered as meeting the re-

While

nent a job of

two-coat work, at a saving of both labor

this

quirements of three-coat w^ork, when so specified.

The
by the

saving in this sort of three-coat plastering

plasterer, in the expense of doing his work.

379

made chiefly
The owner pays
is

PLASTERING

16

more money than a two-coat job would cost him, aiul actually receives
'J'he second coat, too, dries
substantially the same grade of work.
more slowly when applied before the first coat is dry and hard, and
there

is

therefore not so

work

If three-coat
first

much

saving in time as

attempted at

is

all,

it

generally believed.

should be insisted that the

coat be thoroughly dry before the second

The

is

is

added.

composed of lime putty, with a small

This
white, clean sand, gauged with plaster of Paris.

final coat is generally

proportion of

gives the whitest finished surface.

may be

a colored sand

If

a color

is

considered desirable,

All lath cracks or settlement cracks

used.

occurring in the previous coats should be cut out and patched before
the last coat

is

The

applied.

final

coat

is

about one-eighth of an inch

and the surface is burnished with the

straight surface, and worked sufficiently to
thick,

The

other surface defects.

run through a sieve of not

steel trowel to

free

It

from chip cracks or

lime for the white finish mortar should be

less

From thus combining the

than ten meshes to the inch.

first

two coats when green, the next step

development of methods of work, was to apply but

naturally, in the

one coat, making

it

and scratching it ready

except when it was desirable

of increased thickness,

receive the finish

skim or white

finish the plaster

with a rough surface, or to sand-scour

process

is

sometimes

Rough

an even and

coat,

it,

to
to

as the last

called.

Plaster Finish.

If the

mortar

is

to

be finished with a sand

or rough finish, two coats are applied.

The second

coat

which should be put on only

after the first

is

same as the brown coat described

above, the rough finish being secured by working the surface of the
second coat, before it dries, with a soft-faced float and a mixture of sand
thoroughly dry

is

substantially the

Sometimes the surface of the float is of carpet

Only so large a surface
cork or other soft wood.

with some lime added.

sometimes of

or

felt,

as

may be

before

it

readily covered at one time, can be floated, darbied, etc.,

has time to

set.

In this case no hair whatsoever

is

put

in the

second coat, as the hair destroys the evenness of the surface that

is

obtained by the scouring action of the particles of sand rolling around

between the surface of the

float is generally

float

and the face of the

used for scouring, and the surface

plaster.
is

worked

long

to

an

even and true face, care being taken not to leave any marks from the
instrument

itself.

380

PLASTERING
While

it is

17

generally the custom to add rough plaster finish on the

second coat, in inexpensive work, especially for

a very
the

artistic effect

first

coat.

If

summer

residences,

can be obtained by rough-working the surface of

one-coat finish

must remain much the same, whether

the consistency of the coat

In that case, however,

surface-finished or not.

must be used, and

employcfl, hair

is

is

it

it is

not possible to

work the surface as true and as even as the surface of a second coat.
Two-Coat Work. ^lost plaster work now consists of only two
coats.

The brown mortar employed

fresh lime used as soon as

for the first coat should be

mortar must always be put on with

between the

face of this coat

must be made as true and even

and angles, and plumb on the

may be worked

and so ensure a good

walls.

ment on the

felt

plaster surface.

The

first

err
it

attempt

If the

on the side of caution,

may

easily

is

made

is itself

is

likely to

likely to crack.

as, if the plaster

this float is

be dampened by sprinkling water upon

The

use -of water in this

out.

when it is
leave marks

It is better to

has become slightly too drv,

float.

it

it

with the plas-

immediately with the

way has accompanying advantages

tends to harden the plastering and to prevent the hairs

gathering along the edge of the

to

sufficientlv

is

to float the first coat

broad calcimine brush and following

it

on surfaces

attempt to trowel a two-coat job

terer's

in that

coat

and should be thoroughly dried

and the plastering

wall,

first

The

coat should run a strong five-

too thin or insufficiently set, the instrument

on the

as possible

Sometimes the face of

It is generally inadvisable to

smoothly.

After the

clinch.

or other material to produce a rough textural treat-

eighths inch in thickness,

ver}'

coat of

again with a float consisting of a piece of hard

pine about the size of the trowel.

covered with

first

sufficient pressure to force the

plaster through

set, it

The

and coarse, clean sand.

laths,

of

enouo;h to be worked, with stron"',

it is stiff

well-distributed cattle hair

made

be shaken

off

every few

float,

moments

when otherwise they would have

to prevent their rolling

under the

instrument and being pressed into the surface of the plaster in tufts

and

rolls, in

such a

way as

Care should be taken

to

show through even the

to see that

each coat invariably

dry and hard before the addition of another coat

wise the later coat will

fall off, in

finish coat.

is

absolutely

is

greater or less part, and

quite impossible ever to obtain a good surface finish while,

;

881

Other-

attempted.
it

if it

will

be

should

PLASTERING.

18

happen that the

applied,

when

will

it

is

be seriously injured by the pressure; brought upon

it

is

Its clinch to the lath is

floating.

when

only partially dry

the second

coat

first

thus often partially or wholly

bn)kcn, sometimes the plaster falling entirely

off,

leaving the laths

the

same

exposed.

The

finish

skim coat

second coat

two-coat work

is

as the final

work.

in three-coat

The

The Finish Coat.

in

finish,

skim, or white coat should never be

applied until the earlier coat or coats are thoroughly dry and hard, as
it

liable to

is

crack

quite aside from the

put on before

if

danger of injuring the

before

it

is

entirely

dry and

more sand than when

If plaster is used,

first-coat
set.

the finish

is

work by

the pressure of troweling

simple putty coat should carry

hardened by the addition of

the mortar should always be gauged (that

should be mixed with the putty) after

The

possible

is,

plaster.

plaster

placed on the mortar-board.

it is

making a hollow with the

trowel in the midst of the pile of lime putty lying upon the mortarboard. This hollow is filled with water, and the plaster sprinkled
upon it, the whole then being mixed rapidly with the trowel and put
upon the wall immediately, before the plaster has time to set. The
proportion of lime and plaster, while variable, averages probably oneusual process of gauging consists in

fourth to one-fifth plaster.

The
less

finish

is

skimmed

in a very thin coating that

than one-eighth of an inch in thickness.

troweled to smooth up the surface and prevent

The water

immediately

it

from chipping or

prevents the steel trowel staining the surface,

but the plaster should not be too wet, as

The whole

is

generally

dampened with a wet brush, and thoroughly

troweled several times,

cracking.

It

is

it

will

then blister or peel.

surface of the finish coat, whether of putty or hard finish,

should finally be brushed over once or

a polished (or buffed) surface

is

tw'ice

required,

it

with a wet brush; while,

if

may be gained by brushing

without dipping the brush into the water

until a glossy surface is

obtained.

Especial care should be taken, in the final coat, to finish

'joints

smoothly and evenly so that the point of jointure

apparent.
the wall;
tlie

fl

The
and

ceilings are

lastly the

completed

first;

will not

all

be

then the upper part of

bottom portions which can be reached from

oor and thus more carefully finished up to the joint.

382

PLASTERING
The

19

plasterer generally scaffolds the

sufficient height to

him

enable

easily to

room with boards

at a

reach the ceiling overhead

without raising his arms too high to work each of the coats evenly.

The

plaster

scaffolding,

are

is

be

same

If the

same

completed from the

is

tim,e elapses in joining the coats at this point, the

show

which

untreated.

left

together, one

much

likely to

to

at the

applied on the upper part of the walls from the

and the remainder of the work

If too

floor.

joint

is

is,

of course, not serious unless the walls

Occasionally two

on the scaffolding and one on the

men working
floor, finish

along

the walls

time.

wooden angle-beads are

old-fashioned

used, the plaster

should be neatly cut out from each side, forming a small V-sunk angle
that prevents the thin edge running up against the corner-bead from

breaking

makes a

off.

As a matter

of fact, the use of a metal corner-bead

and

far truer, sharper,

and one that does not

afterward tear or break the papering when it is put upon the wall.
Angles in the plaster are generally finished with a wooden paddle.
As the hair is used principally to insure a clinch back of the lath,
if

plaster

is

applied on a stone or brick wall, a scratch coat

and the coat of

necessary;

straighter angle,

bro\^;n

mortar

is

is

seldom

very often used without

and of about the composition of brick mason's mortar. If a

scratch coat is used under these conditions, it is generally mixed with
more sand and less hair than when put upon laths.
hair

For a

finish

where plaster mouldings are

any purpose an unusually

is

straight, level,

to

be used, or when for

and plumb surface of

plaster

required, three-coat work, put on in the old-fashioned manner,

should be demanded.
sufficiently level

This

and true

is

necessary in order to get a surface

run plaster mouldings evenly, and

to

avoid the inequalities that are almost certain to occur in

all

to

two-coat

plastering.

The second and

and

third coats allow opportunities to obtain a straight

level plaster surface.

Individual spots are brought up to an even

surface, the plaster then being

and amongst them, bringing

straight edge.

it

Occasionally

uneven that some

it

filling in is

sufficiently

even to receive the

half plaster

and half

|)utty

added and carefully worked between

all to the same face by means of the

may

happens that the rough coat

absolutely necessary to
last coat.

be used

383

make

is

so

the wall

In that case, a mixture of

in leveling

up the rough work.

PLASTERING

20

If

no

finish coat

as the mortar

is

be put on, the surface should be troweled smoothly

to

is

or uneven places; but

be

no marks, hollows,

applied, care being taken to lea^'e

the wall

if

is

to

be finished or frescoed,

it

should

with a floated surface.

left

Patent plasters, such as adamant,

Patent Plasters.

etc.,

are not

often employed for private dwellings, being chiefly suitable for mer-

The

cantile purposes.

self-evident

such

patent plaster has certain advantages that are

quick

as

hardens more quickly and

makes

ness of the mixture

ering

serious nature than

had been injured

The

resists

hardening.

slirface

Its

abrasure longer than the ordinary

However, a break once occurring, the extreme

lime plastering

more

and

drying

it

if

liable to extend further

more

the softer,

in the

flexible

to

be of a

lime plaster cov-

same manner.

extra stiffness of most patent plasters

an important part of

that generally forms

and

stiff-

caused by the cement

is

their composition.

These

plasters are sold ready for use, requiring ^nerely the addition of a
sufficient

for use

amount

of water.

They

are therefore especially adapted

by the inexperienced, and are valuable

for executing small

pieces of work, as they do not present the liabilities to failure, or loss

and delay, occasioned by mixing up batches of lime mortar.

Back Plastering. Occasionally a wood-framed house is back-

of time

plastcrcd for

This process consists

warmth.

in

nailing a strip

of

seven-eighths inch furring against the inside of the boarding on each

side of the studs.
(of necessity

The

space between the studding

is

then lathed

a slow and bothersome job) and plastered one rough

coat of hair mortar, which should be allowed to dry before any lathing
is

placed over

it

on the inside face of the studding.

practice, the efficiency of

back plaster

is

As a matter of
much injured by the fact

that the studding, in seasoning after the plaster

shrink

away from the

plaster, leaving

is

set,

is

a narrow perpendicular crack

on each side of the stud, which permits of the passage of cold

distance between- the ends of the laths, where they join on the

studding or furring,
place,

air.

Cracks in plaster occur from several causes.

Plaster Cracks.
If the

likely to

when drying

is

out,

should, however, be

Sometimes,

too great, the larger

may

filled

amount

cause a short crack.

of ])laster in that

Any such

by the lather before plastering

too, especially in the first coats, cracks are

is

spaces

begun.

caused by the

shrinkage or expansion of the wooden laths after the mortar has

384

PLASTERING
wholly or partially

The result

set.

to each other

and the width of the

narily filled in

and covered up by

up the coat before

a series of narrow cracks parallel

later coats,

too,
If

finally sets.

it

Cracks of a

like

mortar being too

and

so

do not often appear

be worked out when

float-

wide or deep, however, they

should be cut out to a width of an inch or

mortar before adding the

Lath cracks are ordi-

laths apart.

They may,

in the finished plastering.

ing

is

21

so,

and

filled in

new

with

last coat.

appearance are sometimes caused by the rough

by draughts

rich, or

from open doors or win-

of air

of the plastering too quickly.

dows drying out portions

The

too

rapid drying of plaster with stoves or salamanders, often produces a

like result
alile to

An

from similar causes.

experienced plasterer should be

determine the responsible cause and take measures accordingly,

using more sand

the mortar

if

draughts, and using less

is

too rich, screening openings to prevent

In green work,

drying stoves.

fire in his

damage already done may be repaired by refloating again before the

work becomes too dry, softening the mortar with water if necessary.
Cracks sometimes occur
the room.

^Yhen

in the angles at the ceiling or corners of

in this location, they

may be caused by the shrinkage

In the perpendicular angles,

or settlement of the partition or floor.

especially, they

may

extend only to the depth of the finishing coats.

In that case, the causes are

an

cient troweling, or

coat

causes which are

likely to

insufficient

easily

be either too thick

amount

remedied

the corners of doors and

from

are caused by the unequal

partition

brick wall, or at the ceiling line where a

remainder of the work.

They

settlement or shrinkage of the building.

wood

gauged

partition, or radiating

window openings,

perpendicular angle where a

of plaster in the

in the

Cracks running diagonally across a

plaster, insuffi-

is

wooden

frequently occur at a

brought up against a
floor

comes up against

a brick supporting wall.

Cracks occur

enough or not troweled or

and when too

little

chipped cracks.
will

when the putty is not gauged

brushed enough, when it is put on too thick,

in the final finish

sand has been used.

Plaster,

of too

much

sand.

called

and without cracks,

from too rapid drying or from the use

when apparently

sometimes crumble, either

These cracks are

Either too

much

injures the strength of mortar.

385

perfect

or too

little

sand materially

PLASTERING

22

If

unclean sand,

dirt,

or clay has become mixed with the mortar,

not only weakens the lime but prevents

it

particles, so that

at all times,

no

adhesion to the sand

Of

mortar ever occurs.

real set of the

poor materials

its

course,

sand, lime, or hairmay be responsible

for defects in plastering.

Plaster occasionally falls off even

when

apparently hard and good,

if

the laths are too near together,

there

is

insufficient hair,

the mortar

if

too rich or too sandy, or

is

been pressed against the laths with

or

may become

it

if it

if

had not

when being applied;

sufficient force

loosened by the springing of the laths under the

pressure of floating

it

On

too hard.

brickwork the mortar requires

considerable more sand than for application on laths.

Lime must have time

last well,

it

to set before

Therefore, to

dries out.

it

A stiffer working mortar makes better

should dry slowly.

and harder plaster than thin or wet material, provided, of course, it

is thin enough to clinch well to the lath in first-coat work, or to adhere
to brick

and dry scratched

coat work,

Stiffer

surfaces,

and

to spread evenly, in second-

mortar can safely be applied upon wet mortar

than on dry; and wide-spaced lathing will take

When two

close-laid laths.

the last coat

from the

falls

coats of mortar have been put on,

generally because the

first, it is

was not wholly dry when the second was applied.

either be entirely dry or quite green to
If possible, it is better to

mortar than

stiffer

The

coats

which he

is

lime vary considerably in their chemical composition.

Of

same make

will

acquainted.

this occasionally

such bad material

As a

final

is

happens,

it

is

swell

wood

used,

wood

last

by exposure
is

worthless.

and see that

finish

is

installed, as other-

absorb the moisture from the plaster, causing

house while plastering

it.

not even

coat of plaster has

and therefore opening cracks that are never

around

The

of

never added to the plaster bed.

to be altogether closed.

air

it is

well to be watchful

warning, be certain that the

will

makes

always run even in production,

and before

dried out hard and strong before any

wise the

It is

course, lime that has been slaked

to air or water while in the barrel,

As

must

have the workman use makes of materials,

Attention has already been called to the fact that different

year after year.

coat

be successfully combined.

especially lime, having those properties with

certain that lime of the

first

and

All
is

wood

finish

going on, as

it

it

to

likely afterward

should also be kept out of the

will

absorb moisture from the

reason that sash are not ordinarily set until after

386

PLASTERING
the plastering

is

finished,

23

because they absorb so

is

moisture as to cause the sash to swell in place.

sidered preferable to

window openings

the

fill

heat, or than

and glazed

it

would dry

sash.

if

if

con-

or doors with screens

much more

and

still

allows of a

rapidly than artificial

these openings were closed

by

solid doors

In very bad weather the screen of cotton

slightly strengthened,

of the

It is generally

of cotton cloth, as this prevents direct draughts

circulation of air that dries plastering

much

may be

necessary, by the application of a coat of white-

wash on the inner side.

window-screen

and

is

Contrary to what might be supposed, the cloth

almost as good a protection against external cold

glazed window, although the current of air passing

through the cloth meshes of these screens into and out of the house,
frost as is the

causes a slight loss of heat, adding somewhat to the expense for fuel
required to dry out a plastered building. In good drying weather,
these screens should be taken out and left out during the day, but

should be replaced at night or in

otherwise

time of

is

damp

likely to reabsorb moisture

its final

weather,

from the

air

when

the plaster

and so delay the

drying out.

If avoidable, the artificial

drying of plaster by salamanders should

not be employed; natural drying by sun and air is, under all circumstances, preferable.
it is

placed, too

and the

The salamander

not only dries the

quicklyespecially the

ceiling

plaster itself with gas fumes, and,

room

abovebut

by steaming,

is

in

fills

which

the air

frequently

the cause of the rotting of plaster or hair, thus reducing "its vitality

and

Heating a house

life.

dry out the plaster by means of the

to

regularly installed heating plant,

is

preferable to the use of salamanders,

the chief objection in this case being occasioned by the unduly rapid
drying-out of wall plaster back of or above registers and radiators.

The situation
screen

is

is

helped

if

the radiator

placed between

is

and the

it

set

out from the wall and some

plaster.

employed against the wall over a hot-air

means

of protecting the plaster

on

screen

register;

the whole

mass

frozen
so that

when
it

may

freezing are less troublesome

has once

set.

wet,

if

also be

but there

is

no

either side of a partition through

which a hot-air or steam pipe passes. Such plaster

severely strained by being dried too quickly.
If plaster is

may

it is

likely to loosen

eventually

the wall

If only slightly frosted,

387

is

is

fall

oflp.

frozen after

bound

up and

to

be

injure

The

effects of

it is

dried and

and thawed immediatelv and

PLASTERING

24

floated again,

much

may

it

different

often be saved, the effect in that case being not

from what

it

would be

if

the wall had been surface-

moistened and refloated.

now than

are less frequently employed

cially at the intersection of wall

was the common method of

more commonly

upon

Plaster mouldings

Plaster Moulding.

and

and walls

a few years ago, when, espe-

ceiling,

a heavy cornice of plaster

Nowadays a

finish.

ceilings

wood

cornice of

is

used.

moulded plaster cornice is

op screeds, are run on the ceiling and

Briefly described, the running of a

as follows

Two

parallel strips,

the side wall, with their nearer edges evenly straightened.

These edges

a piece of metal cut out

to a reversed

mould

are then fitted to the

The mould

section of the cornice outline.

fastened to the wall for guiding

fitted to

The

it,

is

run along the strips

the lower edge being cut out

and

run upon them.

plaster necessary to

fill

up the mouldings

of the cornice

may

be tied back to the wall and ceiling by rows of nails driven so as to

stand at about the location of

metal lath,

filling in

plaster

and render

upon projecting

the angle

and

best possible clinch,

its

greatest thickness

its

will

while a strip of

furrings, will offer the

help to reduce the thickness of the

drying and shrinkage more ecpiable and

its

sur-

face less likely to crack.

When

all is

ready, enough putty and plaster are gauged

equal parts to run the cornice

The moidding form

is

strip against the wall,

against the
of

it

down

the length of one side of the room.

then rested upon the supporting and guiding

and drawn along from

mass of mortar which

is

full

entirely at all times.

When

is

in front of the

of plaster mortar to

being kept sufficiently

the length

used up, the mould

length of cornice that has just

right to

left,

pressed

thrown into the angle just ahead

by the trowel, the space immediately

material

m about

is

fill

moulded

strip

out the moukling

completed, or the gauged

moved back and forth along the

been run, scraping away all the plaster
is

except that included within the outline of the mould.

Where hollows
mould should

at

occur, the gauged material scraped

by the

once be thrown on again at these places, so thav they

may be immediately

filled

and brought up

to the right section outline

by again running the mould over these porfions.

will set in

oft'

The gauged

putty

a few moments, and each side of the room or section of the

388

PLASTERING
moulding must be run and completed or

25

filled

The

out very rapidly.

room may be filled in by hand, or a section

of the mould may be separately run upon the floor, sawn in a mitre
box, mitred and fitted in place upon the wall, the joint between the
cast and run moulding being then carefully patched and evened off.
The extra amount of plaster included in the thickness of extreme
corners at the angles of the

projecting mouldings

is

the cause of occasional surface cracking; while

other cracks are occasioned by the settlement, shrinkage, and move-

ment of the house frame. For these and other reasons, it is now generally considered that a wooden cornice, despite its defects of shrinkage,

is

better suited than plaster to this purpose.

Finally, the

moulding may be sprinkled with the brush and the

mould may be run over

it

several times more, ending

by

finishing

with a brush so as to give the moulding a gloss just as on the wall

plastering.
ter

The same

process

is

repeated for

difl^erent

kinds of plas-

moulding, merely varying the method to provide for the different

conditions set

by circumstances, a

circular

moulding around the

lighting outlet in the middle of the room, for instance, being

swung

from a peg driven

Other

into the center of the gas pipe or outlet box.

kinds of plaster mouldings are run by unimportant variations of the

processes described.

made

Cast ornaments are

plaster

is

poured.

Most

hardened with glue or

separately in moulds, into wliich the

of these separate

moulds are made of plaster

shellac, or "surfaced with

beeswax, and are

generally oiled before being used. Plaster ornaments are fastened in

place with fresh plaster or glue; occasionally a few screws are used,
in

which case the heads should be countersunk and covered

in

with

plaster so as not to show.

EXTERIOR PLASTERING
Although exterior plaster surfacing for dwellings has been
in

Europe

country.

for

many

years,

it

in use

has but recently met with favor in

this

In Italy, plaster, or stucco, applied in large, unbroken

expanses upon a stone or brick building, has long been a favorite

method

of construction.

Frecjuently,

stained or colored and worked

up

too,

this

plaster

into different c'esigns.

surface

In P^ngland,

France, and Germany, plaster has been more frequently used

389

is

in

con-

PLASTERING

20

nection with a half-timbered frame, although these countries also

contain instances of

its

use in large, unbroken, simple surfaces.

In modern American work,

not often that a brick wall

is

it

is

covered with plaster, as the aesthetic possibilities in the use of rough

now

hard-burnt brickwork have

this

the

dwelling,

cheapest

material

brick-building

is

the exterior surface and to obtain the

itself utilized for

it is

when
employed upon a

long been recognized; and

exterior effect of the structure.

Plaster has been used in this country in imitation timbered houses

for

some years; but

recently

its

unbroken by the cross-barring

treatment

possess

much more

some examples

employment

strips of

in large, simple surfaces,

dark wood, has become popular

of brick

also

and stone houses, two hundred years

and surfaced with white

old or thereabouts, that were covered

most recent of American plastered dwellings,

ing; but in the

We

appropriate to this country.

plaster-

this effect

has been simulated by applying the plaster to a wooden frame lathed

with a fine-meshed wire cloth.

In any plastered building, the cornices should be projected

sufficiently far to protect the walls

The

the plastering.

and

all

exposed upper surfaces of

more

farther this projection, the

safety of the plaster,

especially in the northern

certain the

sections

of

the

country.

The
in

essentials for successfully-wearing exterior plaster applied

modern

fashion, are:

well-seasoned, shrunk, and settled frame;

a solid, immovable foundation and a carefully applied and thoroughly

;

worked job of

plastering.

The framework

should be somewhat better

movement

constructed and more carefully arranged to prevent

settlement than on an all-wooden building.

dwelling to be plastered outside does not

Other than

differ, in

any

part,

this,

plastering, the boarding

more waterproof grade

is

of paper than

strips of furring, seven-eighths of

to

and the lathing

if

shingling or clapboarding

is

is

furred with

an inch thick by one and one-eighth

one and one-quarter inches wide

placed nine inches apart, for

in.

then covered with a slightly better and

Outside of this papering, the house

were intended.

the

from the

ordinary house, until the structure has been framed and boarded

For

or

wood

(for

metal lathing they are to be

laths twelve inches,

applied upon these strips.

390

on centers),

PLASTERING

27

METAL LATH
The best lath for exterior plastering is jirohahly the No. 19 Clinton
wire cloth. The wire is sufficiently large to be durable, and the mesh
sufficiently
fill

and

ure to

open

to allow the

mortar to press through and completely

back of the wire, thus protecting it from exposthe elements or damage from water and rust, even if the plaster
close in over the

surface should leak sufficiently to admit water behind this covering.

Expanded metal

also used for this purpose, but

is

considered so good a material, from the fact that

not generally

it is
it

impossible to

is

cover entirely and protect the back of this lath with plastering, and
therefore there

is

no means of certainly protecting

it

from the

possi-

bility of rusting.

Occasionally, on a small, low house of not over a story and a-half of

wall height, the boarding
is

may be omitted

altogether.

The

metal lath

then placed directly upon the furred studs, and plastered both outside

and

in to insure

its

absolute protection from

damage by

How-

water.

ever, the shrinking of the studs

opens a small crevice along each side

which has already been mentioned as occurring in back plastering

and

it is

thus possible that water

may enter from the back and do

con-

siderable damage, even through the narrow space that this shrinkage

provides.

The

omission of the outer boarding also somewhat injures

the stiffness of the house, as a frame constructed in this

well braced as

when

the boarding

is

way

is

not so

Neither are the dwellers

applied.

house so completely protected from the exterior weather, as the

second air-space obtained between the papering and the exterior
in the

plastering

This extra air-space

is lost.

house more equably

warm

In the use of metal

absolute essential
rust.

is

and fastened

lath,

is

in

in

summer.

always to be remembered that the

from the action of water and

whatever fashion

ensured.

permanent and

Sometimes the metal lath

staples or

wired

some

similar fastening, allowing

the frame to occur without affecting or

straining the plaster surface,

which

is

by

this

means

from, while directly supported by, the house frame.

the

is

last-

to perpendicular iron furrings of tee-irons or angles,

wood frame with

any possible movement of

held to the

it is

of assistance in keeping the

and cool

to protect the lath

This once done

ing plaster surface

in winter

is

disassociated

Cracks around

windows and the angles of the buildings are thus prevented

391

but

PLASTERING

28

more expensive form of construction, and is not now employed

except in the larger and more expensive residences.
it is

From

the use of wire lath, there are occasionally obtained small

surface cracks, especially

where some strain

is

if

the lath joint happens to

afterward placed upon

come

and particularly where

it,

weakened from the movement of adjacent portions

it is

For instance,

ing.

the edge of the

if

a perpendicular lath lap

window

finish,

at a place

of the build-

made on

is

the line of

a crack on the line of this joint

certain to appear in the plaster, extending both

is

above and below the

Care should be taken to cut the

w^ood-surrounded opening.

come at least nine or

window or door finish. All

lathing so that the joint will

ten inches

side of the edge of the

fjirrings

be kept away and back from

walls, so that a certain clinch

all

almost

on either

should also

angles, internal or external,

may be effected by the

strips of

upon the

plastering at these

important points.

WOOD LATH
Wood

lath

occasionally used, and, in certain sections of the

is

country, apparently with good results.

ways

one,

in the ordinary

further apart than

The

It

may be employed

two

in

manner, only spacing the laths somewhat

would be advisable on the

interior of the dwelling.

other method consists in laying the laths diagonally over the

building in such a

manner as to form a

case the distance between the laths

In this

criss-cross lattice-w^ork.

is

from three-quarters

to seven-

eighths of an inch, so as to allow the plaster to enter easily and form a

solid clinch

behind these

criss-cross lattice

is

lattice

openings.

to provide

more or

The purpose of the diagonal

less flexibility for

the wall

covering, so as to take up, without injuring or cracking the plastering,

a certain amount of the movement that

in a

wooden-framed dwelling.
most

way,

is in

lath,

which

is

localities

may always

This method of employing

be expected
lath,

by the

almost as expensive as the use of wire or metal

probably a safer and surer material to employ.

and as good a quality of heavy wood

provided for exterior work.

lath as can

Lath cracks are

As

large

be secured, shoidd be

also then to be expected,

from the same reasons that apply to interior work; while the mortar
should be somewhat softer and slower drying
material than

when employed upon a metal

If possible,

that, after the

it is

when used upon

surface.

advisable so to arrange the

work upon the house

completion of the frame, some time will

392

this

still

elapse

PLASTERING.
before the plaster

applied.

is

29

the frame can

If

boarded

l)e

the interior of the house plastered and finished under

durinf; the winter,

and the

ably the best results are to be expected.

for the

frame

to shrink, settle,

placed inside of the building

surface

is

expected afterward to affect

artificial

in the sprin<j,

Opportunity

and contract.

is

heat

prob-

then provided

the weight to be

]\Iost of

then also installed before the exterior

much

applied, so that

is

added

exterior plaster

and

in,

and movement may be

less strain

than would be probable under the

it

opposite conditions.

PUTTING ON THE PLASTER

The

Exterior plaster requires three-coat work.

coat

is

indispensable

when metal

equally important over w^ood lath.

or wire lath

This

first

is

or scratch

first

used, but almost

coat should be scratched

or roughened while drying, and must be thoroughly dry before the

second coat

is

applied.

greater time ought to elapse between the

applications of exterior than of interior plaster coats, inasmuch as

many

then becomes possible to cut out

of the larger

it

and more import-

ant cracks than have had time to appear, and to patch them before
the second coat

then the

is

less likely to

plastering to dry,

The second

put upon the house.

it

crack; and,

if

a further extra time

can also be patched at the

final slap-dash or finishing coat is

progress aids in giving a

last

put upon the

brown coat

or

is

allowed the

moment

before the

This slower

w^alls.

more permanent job and one

is

that

is at

the

same time less likely to give annoyance from surface cracks afterward
making their appearance in the finish plastering.

The

question of proportion in mLxing the plaster

variable here as in the case of interior plastering, and

impossible to give absolutely definite directions.

quite as

is
it

is

Different plasterers,

each being guided by the experience obtained from working

added

to the lime

mortar

per cent of the mixture.

should be

less stiffened

the reverse

is

of

of

Some

first

coat,

cement

is

var>ang between ten and forty

plasterers prefer that the

with cement than the second.

first

coat

With others

true; while, contrary to the general supposition, the

exterior coat appears

amount

in proportions

In the

in dif-

ways

ferent sections of the country, prefer their individually different

proportioning or mixing their materials.

equally

in the majority of cases

cement necessary

to contain only that

to provide the tone or color that

393

is

desired

PLASTERING

30

(Conditions also greatly affect these propor-

for the exterior treatment.

When

tions.

the plaster

frame, for instance,

and

The
dash

from

far

still

is

added

worked

it is

on a well-seasoned and shrunk

last

stiffer

than when the building

newer

finished.

final coat for exterior plaster is generally

applied as a slap-

the surface texture being given by the throwing of hand-

finish,

fuls of variously sized

pitting or m.arking

employed

is

up

pebbles or gravel upon the fresh outer coat, thus

its

The smaller the size of the particles

surface.

for this purpose, the

more

likely they are to stick

and remain

in the fresh putty, slightly tinting the surface with the color

if

any

of the gravel employed.

as

The coloring of exterior plastering is done in much the same way

when it is used inside the dwelling. As a rule, it may be said that

not sufficient consideration

on the part of the w^orkman

and

wood

tion of the

many

in the carrying out of this class

here that the success or failure of exterior plastering

it is

Of

most often hinges.

offer

upon the

in this country

agreed that the utmost care to prevent absolutely any leakage

is'necessary

of work;

bestowed

provided by the use of color for exterior plaster work.

possibilities
It is

is

finish

course, the joints occasioned

and plaster around window and door openings

opportunities for leakage.

carefully flashed; and,

by the juxtaposi-

if

possible,

The

plaster should here be

an outer architrave backband should

afterward be put on so as to cover and protect this joint.

Otherwise,

a key should be provided for the plastering, by cutting away or hollowing out a space near the inner edge of the
plaster

may be

even

the wood, as

if

plaster after

it

quite likely, shrinks slightly

of

making

away from

th-e

and rendered more

companels by a

tight this exterior plaster wall is

difficult

so-called half-timber treatment.

of joints

which the

has been put in place.

The problem
plicated

facure, into

workman, and leakage thus prevented

pressed by the
is

wood

In

when

it is

divided into

this style of design,

a great number

between plaster and w'ood are occasioned where the wide

wood boards
and where,

are almost certain to shrink

too,

battens in any

Thorough

it is

away from the

plastering,

impossible to protect these joints by outer applied

way capable

flashing on

all

of covering such

an opening as may occur.

upper exposed surfaces, assisted by protecting

overhang of the roof eaves, and broad keys provided for the entrance of

804

PLASTERING
the plaster at

be

relied

all

31

perpendieular and lower horizontal joints, must alone

upon.

Under no circumstances,

so far as the lasting value of the

work

is

concerned, does the mixture play so important a part as the expending

upon the thorough

of great care

the mortar, pressing

it

surfacing, working,

and

finishing of

into every crevice provided to receive

thoroughly every exposed or upper surface provided by the

taking every precaution to w^ork out

all

it,

flashing

finish,

and

pinholes or other defects where

water could possibly penetrate the surface.

is

directed to providing a solid,

which

will, in

Every care and endeavor

evenly worked, and permanent coating

every possible way, throw

off

and prevent moisture being

admitted into the space back of the plaster coating

portion where

its

attack

is

most

that vulnerable

effectually concealed

and most

to

be

dreaded.

The

exterior plaster treatment of a

problem that from now on

importance.
nearly

7ieat

it is

desirable.

treatment of concrete construction

particular

consideration.

Hollow

attempted.

Its

but necessary to use the cement as

as possible, adding lime or a

is

is

be of rapidly increasing

will continue to

Here, however,

a brighter surface color

cement or concrete wall

make of white cement in case

The problem of the aesthetic

one that requires separate and

is

solution

terra-cotta tile

is

has,

as

yet,

been hardly

another material that

modernly used more and more as a structural base

to take

is

being

an exterior

plaster surface finish.

The

student desiring to obtain a wider knowledge of the intricate

subject of exterior plastering,

may be

referred to several articles pub-

numbers of The Architectural Review, Boston. For

a work treating historically and practically of the entire art and craft of
plastering ^^\-ithin and without the dwelling see Mr. William IMillar's
lished in the 1907

treatise "Plaster, Plain

and Decorative."

would be as well to
remember, in consulting the latter volume, that it was issued in 1S97,
and that the subject is treated from the point of view of an English
workman, accustomed to methods and materials somewhat different
from those

common

in

American

practice.

395

It

EXTERIORS AND INTERIOR OF HOUSE SHOWN

IN

PLAN ON PAGE 399

PAINTING
Tlie

Introductory.

man

thing a

first

contemplates painting a house,

is

This

the cost.

know when he

wishes to

will obviously

depend

on the cost of labor, of materials, and the kind of materials chosen.

The outside of a house is

ijiay

painted, either in whole or in part; the interior

be painted or varnished.

Some houses have

their walls partly

covered with shingles; these shingles are sometimes painted, and

sometimes
that

is,

in fact, often

left

unpainted; but what

called the trim

is

the boarding about the eaves, windows, doors, the base-board,

and corner-pieces

painted.

is

Shingles, either wall or roof, are often

stained with a creosote stain consisting of a coloring matter dissolved

or suspended in a liquid called creosote, which

of preserving

is

applied for the purpose

them; and though instances can be cited

shingles that were never stained are

believed to be

still

now two hundred and

creosote will undoubtedly prolong the

it is

noxious to insect

The

color of unpainted

life

which wall-

doing good service although

fifty
life

in

years old, yet the

of modern,

sawn

shingles, as

and a powerful deterrent of natural decay.

new

shingles

is

generally disliked; but after

four or five years wall-shingles take on a beautiful, soft color.

question of staining shingles

INIost

or zinc.

use of

is

The

a matter of taste.

houses are exteriorly painted with paint based on white lead

Some

of

idea

the cost

may

perhaps be gained from the

following considerations

White lead
less

commonly

is

in

sold either

ground with a

little oil

tea

thick paste, or

the dry state.

100 pounds of paste white lead with 5 gallons of linseed

oil, makes 65 gallons of paint, weighing 21.3 lbs. per gal.
Approximate figures are: 15 lbs. paste lead and 6.3 lbs. oil equals 1 gal.
(1 gal. oil equals 7.7 lbs.); 14 lbs. dry lead and 7\ lbs. oil equals 1 gal.
A mixture of 100 pounds of white zinc and 83 gal. oil, makes lOj gal. of

mixture

of

paint; 12 lbs. zinc

and

make 1 gal. white

made from iron oxides,
oil

gal. oil

make

1.3 gal., or 9.5 lbs. zinc

and

5.7 lbs.

zinc paint weighing 15.2 lbs.

ochers,

and the

like,

Dark-colored paints
weigh 12 to 14 pounds per gallon;

but exact figures cannot be given, as the raw materials

differ greatly.

Here should be noted the difference between the priming coat and
the succeeding ones.

priming coat

397

is

the

first

coat applied to the

PAINTLNG
wooden

clean
oil,

sm-face;

because the wood

differs

it

from the other coats

soak up the

will

To make the

such

is

and leave the coloring matter

paint for the priming coat, take a gallon of the paint

already described and mix with

made

more

on the outside.

of the paint

thus

oil

in containing

of course, lower

is,

it

a gallon of raw linseed

in price;

also

it is

much

Paint

oil.

thinner; but

the absorbent power of the wood, that the priming paint does

not cover as

much

surface as the succeeding coats per gallon.

gallon of this thin priming coat covers 300 to 400 sq.

ft.,

while a gallon

of second or third-coat paint, well brushed out, will cover about twice
this surface ; this is

because the surface for

but the

all

first

coat

is

hard

Priming coats are used for both outside and

and non-absorbent.

inside work, as will be described later.

The

made

dark-colored paints are usually cheaper than those

from lead and

zinc,

and

made

if

of good materials are not inferior in

made by the zinc and lead manuSome of the darkfacturers arc to be received with much doubt.
colored paints are the most durable that can be applied on wood. The

durability; the extraordinary claims

chief cost of painting

to locality

is,

however, that of labor, which varies according

and other conditions, seldom being

than twice that of

less

materials.

For

light-colored paints,

may be

pale japan dryer

either this or boiled

practically the

On

inside

same

oil,
;

it is

better to use

raw

added, as described

boiled

oil

which

linseed oil to

later; for

being darker in color.

dark

colors,

The

cost

is

also the durability.

work may be used

either

oil

or enamel paint, as

described later, the former being the cheaper, the latter the handsomer

more durable; or the wood may be finished in its natural

color, by varnishing it either with an oleo-resinous varnish or with
The oleo-resinous varnishes darken the wood very
shellac varnish.
and

slightly

appreciably, while white shellac varnish keeps

it

more nearly

in its

natural color; although the latter does not prevent the natural darken-|
ing action of light,

it

may retard

sive finish of the two,

finish

hard
zine.

if

Shellac varnish

it.

well applied.

What

is

is

the

more expen-''

sometimes called

oil

generally consists in the application of a cheap varnish called

oil,

which

Its

is

usually

only merit

is

made

that

it is

of

common

cheap.

398

rosin, linseed oil,

and ben-

fc |l-o"

FIBOT
SCALE

OECOND FLGDR PLAN

PLAN

FL(S)D

? I.f.71

^t7f

?'P'i"f

SUMMER HOME OF
W.

aCALE

FEET

? 1 ?

<?

? ?

','

FEEIT

McFATRICH, LAKE GENEVA, WIS.

Zimmerman, Architect, Chicago, 111.

DR.

C^arbj-s

J.

B.

Built in 1906. Plan is Conditioned by Narrowness of Lot Overlooking the Lake. The Interesting
Feature is the Screened-iu Porch, which, b.v a Series of Folding Door.s, can be Made Part of the
Living Room. The High Frieze in the Living Room Is Decorated with Woodland
Scenes Showing the Lake and Hills in the Distance. Exterior and
Interior Views Shown on Page 396.

Frame House

PAINTING
It

would indeed be possible

to apply neither paint nor varnish,

but merely to saturate the wood with

oil finish; it

would be truly an
would, however, make the wood dark and dingy, and

would readily retain

sometimes on

These are
boiled

floors

and

a practice seldom followed except

is

kitchen floors

especially

and

sink shelves.

at frequent intervals oiled with a mixture of equal parts

the purpose of this Instruction Paper to describe only good

and approved methods.

It

will

viated

by the omission of some

able.

For instance,

Two

practice.

No

will

methods may be abbre-

details that are here specified as desir-

it is diflricult

rubbed between coats, even

and

readily be understood,

certainly be observed in practice, that these

four.

this

and turpentine.

oil

It is

and

dirt,

oil,

if

to get interior finish

sandpapered or

so contracted; but this

the right

is

coats of varnish often have to serve in the place of

The methods

one, however, needs to be told these things.

herein described are not luxurious or extravagant; they are, on fairly

good houses,

truly economical ;

and we are not considering temporary

structures.
It is

not

uncommon

finished in varnish,
paints,

which are

to find part of a house, as the living rooms,

and the kitchen and pantry painted with

lighter in color

and more

oil

The

easily renewed.

sleeping rooms, on the other hand, are often finished in enamel paints,

because color effects are desired to harmonize with the furnishings;

and bathrooms are almost always done

siderations.

The

sulted in regard to

taste
all

and

in

enamel

inclination of the

for sanitary con-

owner are

to

be con-

these matters.

PAINTERS' SUPPLIES
Pigments and Vehicles.

Paint

a mixture of a finely-divided

is

solid substance with a liquid which,

when spread on

a solid surface

with a brush or otherwise, will adhere and in a short time form

evaporation, or

tough

film.

more commonly by oxidation

The

part, the vehicle.

an

oil

by

a somewhat hard and

finely divided solid is called the pigment; the liquid

The most common

vehicle

is

linseed

oil.

This

is

obtained by pressure (or extraction by solvents) from flaxseed.

^Mien spread out

in a film

and exposed

to the air, linseed oil

is

con-

verted into a tough, leathery, elastic substance called linoxin, insoluble

in water, and all

common

solvents.

This change

401

is

brought about by

PAINTING
absorption and chemical union of the oxygen of the

weight of the

oil is

fore a mistake to

air,

whereby the

increased about one-fifth or one-sixth.

It is there-

suppose that

by the evaporation of the

oil

paint gets dry as whitewash does,

Instead of that,

licjuid.

gets heavier.

it

There are some other vegetable oils which have this property in some
degree, but none which are used for paints to any considerable extent;

some are used a

Linseed

little

for artists' colors.

should stand at least a month or two before using.

oil

should then be perfectly free from sediment or cloudiness;

It

so, this is a sign that the oil

is

not

fit

for

making

Boiled

oil is this

raw

has not been properly aged, and such

In this natural state,

paints.

and the price of linseed

oil

not

if it is

refers to

which has been heated, usually

amount

F., with the addition of a small

called raiv oil;

it is

commonly quoted

as

oil

oil

raw

oil.

500

to 450 or

of oxide of lead or oxide of

manganese, or a mixture of the two (occasionally some other lead or

manganese compounds are used).

raw

color than

oil,

times as rapidly.
will

but differs from

longer greasy; but boiled

is

oil

is

usually done

dries five to ten

in five or six days, so as to feel

mixed with the

by power,

it

on a glass or metal surface

do the same

oil will

darker (browner) in

oil is

chiefly in that

warm, dry weather and out

The pigment
This

it

raw

thin film of

dry at ordinary temperatures

Oil dries best in

Boiled

oil

by

in a

no

day or half a day.

of doors.
stirring the

two together.

The

in a vessel called a paint mixer.

mixture should then be run through a paint mill; some paint mills are
of steel, but the best have a pair of mill-stones, between which the

paint

is

ground and most thoroughly mixed.

manner are much better than those which

Besides
ner, the

pentine

oil

Paints mixed in this

are mixed only by stirring.

and pigment, paint sometimes contains a

most important thinners being turpentine and

is

a well-known essential

oil, volatile,

volatile thin-

benzine.

Tur-

boiling at about 320 F.,

but evaporating at ordinary temperatures when exposed to the

Benzine
line;

is

a mineral

the kind

benzine,"

its

used

in

lighter than kerosene

paint

specific gravity

lighter than water.

tine, 7.2 lbs.;
oil

oil,

and

varnish

air.

and heavier than gasois

"r)2-degree

called

being 62 on the Baimit? scale for liquids

Linseed

and 02 benzine,

oil

weighs 7.7

6.1 lbs.

makers and dealers on the basis of

But

lbs.

per gallon; turpen-

linseed oil

7.5 lbs. per gallon.

403

is

sold

by the

PAIXTIXG

A dryer
in oil,

some form, is an essential ingredient of oil paint.

a compound of lead or manganese (generally both), soluble

dryer, in
is

and

is

usually sold, under the

name

of paint dryer or paini japan,

as a solution of such material in a mixture of

and benIt is usually of such strength that an addition of from 5 to 10

zine.
per cent of it to a raw-oil paint will make it dry in from six to twelve

hours sufficiently to be carefully handled.

to use, until they

oil,

turpentine,

Paints are not dry enough

hare stood four times as long as

tinue to harden for months.

color; but such are

more

The

and they con-

this;

strongest drying japans are dark in

injurious to the durability of the paint than

those which are paler, especially

the latter do not contain rosin.

if

The buyer

should always ask for a guarantee that the dryer

from

if

rosin,

great durability in the paint

is

is

free

Not more than

needed.

10 per cent of any dr}-er or japan should ever be used in any paint.

Slowly drying paints are more durable than quick ones.

In house painting, the white pigments are the most important,

because they are the base of

important white pigment

is U'hite

The most

light-colored paints.

all

This

lead.

is

sold either as a dry

powder, or (more commonly) as paste white lead, which

90

lbs.

dry white lead and 10

with boiled

oil to

make

^Miite lead

pigment; and with a giyen quantity of

oil,

more

than of any other pigment, except red lead.

or coyering power.

It

discolored

is

in

pure

air.

of

of

It

a yery heayy

is
it

can be mixed

has great opacity,

by gases containing sulphur,

becoming brown or black; and unless exposed

becomes yellowish even

made

This can be thinned

lbs. linseed oil.

a white paint.

is

to fairly strong light,

It is better if

it

it

has been mixed

some time a year or more.

White zinc is a somewhat purer white than white lead; not so
opaque. Three coats of lead are reckoned equal to five coats of zinc.
It becomes harder than lead, but is somewhat liable to peel off; while
lead, after exposure to the air for a long time, becomes dry and powdery
on its surface, and chalks.
with the

oil for

much

liked.

entirely different pigment,

made

mixture of two parts of lead and one of zinc

YAnc-lead, however,

is

the

name

of

an

is

by furnacing ores containing about equal parts of lead and zinc,

This pigment is free from
in which the lead is present as a sulphate.
the liability to turn brown if exposed to sulphur gases; it is said to be
not quite so pure a white as the preceding.

403

It is

a comparatively

new

PAINTING
pigment, but

is

coming rapidly

Liihoponc

the others.

Adulterants.

is

somewhat cheaper than

another white pigment of considerable merit.

these

All

into use, being

pigments

may be

adulterated

v\ith

barytes, or with terra alba (sulphate of lime), sometimes with whiting

These adulterants are powdered minerals,

Barytes is a good pigment, so far as protective action goes; and
terra alba is thought by some good authorities to be unobjectionable;
but whiting is injurious. All of them are transparent in oil, and
(carbonate

lime).

of

lessen the opacity or Avhitening

From

paint.

made by adding

these white paints, colored paints are

tinting colors, of

which

of lead; the blue

the" yellow is chiefly c/irowe yellow, or

may be

chromate

and the

either idtramarine or prussian blue;

chrome green, a mixture of chrome yellow: and prussian blue.

reds are (in house paints) made from coal-tar colors, and most of

green

The

power of the

is

them are now fairly fast to light. Some dull yellow colors are made from
ochers, which are ckys tinted with iron oxides, roasted and ground.
These are permanent colors.

The

dark-colored paints

may

not contain lead or zinc at

all.

The

deep yellows, greens, and blues are made from the colors already
named as tinting colors, none of which are entirely fast to light; the
dark reds and browns are chiefly iron oxides, which are a valual)le class
The blacks are either lampof paints, very permanent on wood.
black or drop-black (bone-black.)

and other carbon

are often added in small quantity to secure

colors;

and these

some desired tone or shade

of color.

The
case

it is

zinc

and lead pigments have some action on

oil,

and

in their

considered the best practice to apply thin coats; but the dark

pigments do not act on

oil,

and, of these, thick coats are best for (hira-

bility.

Paint and Varnish Brushes.

to

recommend

brushes

last

it

will

brush that has only a low price

prove a poor investment.

a long time, and

it

If

properly cared for,

pays to have good ones.

The

first

sign

uniform quality from outside to center. Inferior

brushes have inferior bristles in the middle, and some poor brushes
For ordinary oil painting, the bristles on a large
are actually hollow.

of A

good brush

is

new brush should be

stiff

be

five or six inches long,

as can be found they will be flexible

;

alike.

404

uniformly

fiexible,

enough anyway, but

all

and as
should

PAINTING
Paint brushes are round,
ordinary outside work

brush with

is

it is

or oval.

favorite brush for

called a 'pound brush, a large, round

Such a brush should be

bristles six inches long.

stiff

bridled when

what

is

flat,

a "bridle" being a piece of cord wound around

new-

become

the bristles to shorten their effective length; as the bristles

worn

inches wide)

and

is

the brush

is

22-inch oval brush (2^

a highly satisfactory tool to use in general painting,

recommended by the paint committee

Society for Testing Materials.

made up

may be removed.

the l)ridle

off,

It is

of the

worth noting that this committee,

equally of expert paint manufacturers and experts employed

by the large consumers, unanimously agreed that no larger

this should be used in making paint tests.

The

American

use of brushes

inches wide

five

is

common

Inrush than

for outside

work

may be had of the best quality, they are heavy

and the workman who uses such a brush will not

but while such brushes

and laborious

to use,

brush

is

should not exceed 3h inches in width; and three inches

is

brush the paint

used,

it

better.

sufficiently to get the best result.

good 2^-inch oval varnish brush

for all large

work

in either paint or varnish.

is

If

flat

a most excellent brush

The

painter should also

have a good H-inch oval brush for smaller work, and a number of
round or oval brushes, called sash

tools,

more

and frame painting.

delicate work, such as sash

brushes, which have been

rubbing-in

filling.

worn

off short,

For varnishing large

of different smaller sizes, for

Stiff-bristle

are suitable for such

work

as

surfaces, flat bristle brushes

2^ inches wide are good; also similar ones 2 inches, IV inches, and 1
inch wid'C are useful. All flat brushes should have chiseled edges.

For flowing varnish,

brushes, running

it

up

is

necessary to have thick,

to 3h inches in 'width,

flat,

camel's-hair

although most house

may be done with brushes not over 2^ inches wide.

Besides paint brushes, the workman will need some

varnishing

ordinary

scrubbing brushes and one or two painter's dusting brushes, to have the
surface properly cleaned.
Steel-wire brushes, with
like

stiff steel

wire instead of bristles, shaped

scrubbing brushes, are used for cleaning

cleaning structural metal work.

steel wires are of different lengths

They may be had

at

hardware

Care of Brushes

off old paint

These are of various

and

sizes,

sizes;

hence differing

and

for

and the

in stiffness.

stores.

Hair and

bristle

405

brushes must be kept clean

PAINTING

and

can be done by care and faithfulness.

soft; this

They should

become dry with paint or varnish in them. To

prevent this, wash them out in oil or turpentine as soon as you are
through using them or they may be left in the paint or varnish for a
few days. They may be kept over night by wrapping them very
not be allowed to

closely in
this

paper

if

they have been used

way they may be

should not be

left to

carried

in

a slow-drying material; in

from one place

dry with even clean

oil

Brushes

to another.

or turpentine in them;

they are to be put away, they should be well washed

if

with soap

first

and water, then with clean water, then hung up until thoroughly dry.
In use, brushes are best kept in what is called a brush safe. A
deep wooden

pail,

with nails driven in

its

sides at different distances

from the bottom, and with a close cover, makes a good receptacle

The

for brushes.

brushes have holes in their handles, or loops of

cord tied to them, and are hung on these nails; their

some

turpentine, or

l)ristles

the bottom of the pail; they are so

oil in

dip into

hung

that

they do not dip into the Htjuid above where the bristles project from
the binding.

If

brushes are

left

standing on the bristles on the bottom

become one-sided and distorted in shape.

brush-safes may be bought of any large dealer in brushes.

Tin

of a vessel, they soon

brush which has dried with paint or varnish in

recovered by soaking
in

time soften

it

so that

such treatment.

in a non-alkaline varnish-remover.

it

it

may be

used again, but

it is

may be

it,

This

will

not improved by

Brushes used in shellac should be washed out with

No

alcohol instead of turpentine or benzine.

brush

is

good unless

it is

clean.
Fillers

Fillers.

are

of

two kinds

paste

and

Paste

liquid.

fillers

are something like a very thick paint, and are composed of

solid

powdered substance, usually

silica

some

or powdered (juartz, mixed

with a (juick-drying varnish thinned with turpentine or benzine.

This

applied to the dry surface of the

is

brush, or

is

wood with a

stiff,

short -bristle

put on with a clean, white cotton cloth, and well rubbed into

the pores of the wood.

After half an hour or so, the surface of the

wood

wad

felt.

fillers

is

wiped
liquid

off

with a

filler is

of excelsior or a clean cloth or a piect> of

a (juick-drying varnish;

and most of the

li(|uid

on the market are cheap rosin varnishes loaded with dryers,

and should never be used.

Paste

fillers

cases.

406

are the best in almost

all

PAINTING

HOUSE PAINTING
Inside

Work.

All

window and door frames, whether

tliey are to

be finished with paint or varnish, should receive a good coat of paint

made with some cheap pigment, such as iron oxide, and boiled oil,
applied to the back of the frame, before they are brought from the

shop to the house;

ders decay.

oil,

possible;

if

The priming coat

ticable.

with

oil,

five to ten

with very

little

not,

is

composed

filled

common

fill

as this

The

with putty.

to

is

As soon

or by adding dry lead to

sistency.

of white lead

Turpentine

oil

little

paste

lead

or
all

not a good thing in a

is

the pores of the wood, and

dry to the touch,

is

raw

until

all

holes

is

white

with dry white lead,

oil
it

is

the right con-

of

This kind of putty hardens quickly as compared with

putty, and is the best for this purpose.
A steel putty-knife

should not be used on interior woodwork, as

scratch

and boiled

best putty for this purpose

made by mixing a

lead putty,

it

per cent of dryer; and should be almost

pigment.

turpentine evaporates.

should be applied as soon as prac-

if

priming coat, because the object

are to be

moisture and hin-

they are to be painted, they should receive a priming

If

coat in the shop,

raw

this prevents the absorption of

it;

it

is

almost certain to

a hardwood stick, suitably shaped, should be used.

cracks, joints,

and

nail-holes should be carefully filled.

All

All knots

and sappy places should be varnished with shellac varnish; this prevents the pitch and moisture from attacking the paint.
The shellac
should be applied where it is needed, before the priming coat. The
priming coat should be given time to get quite dry; at least a day
days,

if

possible;

better yet.

is

Then

it

is

ready for the

This should contain a considerable amount of turpentine.

second coat.
If

and a week

two

no turpentine

is

used, the surface

is

be glossy, and the next

likely to

coat of paint will not adhere well but by replacing part of the
;

turpentine,

we

not glossy;

if

get

what painters

this is

call

made from

that

flat coat

thirds turpentine.

some painters

This

is

for inside

be allowed to dry thoroughly

dry enough to

if it

oil

only.

it

is

can

and turpentine

prefer one-third

work

with

one which

paste lead or any paste paint,

be produced by thinning the paste with a mixture of

in equal proportions;

is,

oil

oil

and two-

This coat should

takes ten hours for the paint to be

handle, then at least four times ten hours additional

should elapse before the next coat

is

applied this
;

is

a good general rule

and as much more time as possible should be allowed.

407

If the finish

PAINTING

10

is

be ordinary

to

may be

paint, the next coat

oil

paint, thinned with

much turpentine as before, or with no turpentine at all.

latter case, when the coat is thoroughly dry, it must be carefully

about half as
In the

examined, and,

if

glossy,

it

should be rubbed with something to take

off the gloss; curled hair is often used,

Then

and water.

or a light rubbing with pumice

the final coat, which has no turpentine in

may be

it,

applied.

But

when

if

(he finish

(|uite dry,

is

to

be with an enamel paint, the second coat,

should be very lightly sandpapered with fine sand-

paper, and the third coat should be of like composition to the second,

same way; then the enamel paint is applied. For a really

first-class job, when this is (juite dry, it should be rubbed down with
curled hair or pumice and water, and another coat of enamel put on.
treated the

This may be

left

with the natural gloss

with pumice and water to a

flat (dull)

Old

Painting Plastered Walls.

with

oil

if

desired; or

it

may

be rubbed

surface.
j)lastered walls

may be

painted

or enamel paints as though they were wood, remembering that

the priming coat will have almost

New plastered

walls

all

do not take paint

of

absorbed by the plaster.

its oil

well,

on account of their alkaline

character, which gradually disappears with exposure to the atmosphere.

if it is

It is well to let

a wall remain unpainted at least a year.

necessary to paint a freshly plastered wall, the wall

by some painters by washing

it

with a solution of sugar

the sugar uniting with the lime to

by w^ashing

it

first

some

extent; or

with a strong solution of

with a solution of soap.

After this

is

insoluble
tent,

compound which

to

in vinegar,

more commonly

common alum and

it

then

is

closes the pores of the plaster to

and prevents the lime from acting on the

Outside Work.

prepared

washed with clean

The alum and soap form an

dry,

water, allowed to dry, and then painted.

is

But

Exterior paints are

be far more lasting, than those used on

some

ex-

paint.

more

elastic, as

they need

interiors, since the effect of

exposure to the sun and rain destroys paint more than almost anything else does.
indefinitely; but

surface,

if

Paint on the interior of a house will

on the outside the best paint

is

last

not very durable.

the

with boiled

The

new, should be cleaned by brushing; knots should be

shellacked: after which the priming coat should be applied.

may be

almost

This

same paint which is selected for the finish, only thiiuied

oil (or raw oil and dryer), using one to one and a-third

408

PAINTING
gallons of

oil to

The

each gallon of paint.

may

not be used as a primer,

face,

from which the next coat

11

why

reason

onlinarv paint

is that the wood absorbs the oil, leaving the pigment as a comparatively non-adhesive powder on the sur-

is

to putty

up

all

nailholes

probably peel

will

and other

The

off.

next step

For the second

defects.

coat,

many

experts advise the addition of half a pint of turpentine to the

gallon of paint; others make no addition to it.
The third coat is

applied after the second

is

thoroughly dry;

elapse between these coats, so

Repainting.
to be permeated

much

If the old paint

if

week or a month can

the better.

has been on a long time,

by minute cracks, which admit moisture

of the

wood and

paint,

which shrinks

loosen the paint.

in drying,

course the whole peels

If

now we

paint over

liable

it is

to the surface

the

this,

new

tends to pull off the old paint, and of

off in patches.

If the old paint is in this state,

must be removed before the new paint is applied. This can be

done by burning off. For this work a painter's torch is required,
which is a lamp burning alcohol, gasoline, or kerosene, and is so conit

structed that a blast of flame can be directed against the surface. This
melts or softens the old paint, ^^hich is then immediately scraped off

with a steel scraper.

The

paint

not literally burned, but

is

softened

is

by heat so that it can be scraped off. In some cases it is sufficient

to remove as much as possible with a steel brush; this is a brush like
a scrubbing brush, with

steel wires instead of bristles,

when

and,

vigorously used, will take off the loose paint.

Old
well,

it

paint, however,

may

and when

is

not always in this condition.

If it adheres
be cleaned with an ordinary scrubbing brush and water,

it is

quite dry, the

new

paint

the paint seems in good condition, only

in

such cases a coat of boiled

oil,

may
it

be applied.

has faded and

or raw

oil

Sometimes

lost its luster;

with dryer,

that

is all

is

needed.
It is w^ell to paint

casings, corner-pieces,

the trim

and the

that the window-casings, doorbefore painting the body of the

is,

like

house; then the paint can be applied to the

than

is

otherwise likely to be done.

coats, well

brushed on;

re-entrant angles while

difficult to

it

is

flat

surfaces

Paint should be applied in thin

not unusual to see paint

it is still

good on

brush the paint properly

flat

come

off

surfaces, because

in those places.

difference in durability between a thin paint flowed

400

more neatly

There

is

from

it

was

a great

on with a

large,

PAINTING

12

flat

brush, and one of proper consistency well brushed out with a brush

medium

of

In

size.

painting on wood,

all

desirable to brush

it is

it

on

with the grain of the wood and by painting only a few boards at once,
;

we may avoid

by painting the whole length. Rough surfaces

and more of it, than smooth. A gallon of paint will

laps

hold paint better,

cover, one coat (on a painted or well-primed surface), about GOO square

The priming

not flowed on, but well brushed out in a thin film.

feet,

coat will not cover

more than 300 or 400 square

In

feet to the gallon.

measuring the outside of a house for surface, make no deductions for

doors and windows;

if

the trim

is

to

be painted a different

color,

from

one-sixth to one-third of the paint will be required of that color.

A coat of dry paint

Paint should be stirred frequently while using.

from

-g-J

0"

to

T.oW

is

of ^^ ^"ch in thickness.

oil to

Roof paints should contain a larger proportion of

pigment than other paints, and less dryer (or none at all).

Many

think that the addition of ten to twenty per cent of

Roof Pai nti n g.

paint for roofs

is

advantageous;

fish oil greatly retards

prevents the paint from becoming

Tin

brittle.

roofs,

fish oil to

diying and

new, should

if

be thoroughly scrubbed with soap and water, or with pieces of harsh

cloth,

They may then be

such as burlap, well wet with benzine.

painted.
'

Paint dries relatively fast on roofs; but as a roof paint

is

very

must be allowed between coats. A new

three coats.
Metal gutters and spouts are to be

slow-drying, plenty of time

roof should receive
treated the

same way.

difiicult to paint;

Do not

have

it

new

or galvanized iron

is

very thoroughly scrubbed, even though

it

forget that

tin

looks perfectly clean, and then rub the paint on well with the brush.

Metal spouts

will usually

be painted the same color as the wall of the

house.

Sometimes shingle roofs are painted with fireproof

paint.

is

not really fireproof, but considerably retards the spread of

it

has become thoroughly dry; when fresh,

does

it

have much

made by adding
powdered boracic
and forms a
after a time

Canvas

effect after

it

sort of glass,

so.

It

may be

any good paint about a pound of

AYhen strongly heated,

which keeps the

washed out by the

after

does not even do that; nor

has been on a year or

to a gallon of

acid.

it

fire,

This

air

this material

fuses

from the wood.

It is

rain.

roofs are prepared in the following

410

manner

The canvas

PAINTING
duck

(10-oiince

draw it

tight;

it

is

often used)

will

13

down, care being taken

nailed

is first

show some wrinkles, but

to

these are not to be allowed

accumulate to form a large wrinkle or fold. Then the canvas

thoroughly wet; it shrinks, and all the little wrinkles disappear. It
to

common

practice to paint

while

it

tion to all other practice; but

it is still

some wait

is
is

wet, this being an excep-

until

it is

The

dry.

writer

has been accustomed to the latter method, and has not found that the
canvas shows wrinkles on drying, while the results are all that can be

A well-painted

desired.

canvas roof

very durable and satisfactory.

is

PAINTING STRUCTURAL METAL

Steel

is

a more perishable material than wood, and more

Without regular expenditure

to paint.

wooden
beams a

for maintenance,

bridges last longer than steel ones; there are

wooden

difficult

roof

thousand years old; and iron roofs are so short-lived that they are used
only over furnaces and the like, where w^ooden ones would take fire.

The

painting of structural steel

difficult, if

we

In the

we

is

therefore important

and

also

it is

are to judge by results.

place comes the preparation of the surface. "\Mien

first

paint wood,

we have

and dry; and then we soak

it wuth oil, so as to have the paint bound to it in the most intimate
manner. Iron and steel, on the other hand, always come to us dirty,
and covered with oxide; and as the surface is not porous, the paint
does not penetrate
If

we

comes

it,

the surface clean

but has to stick on the outside the best

way it

can.

paint over the dirt and scale,

off

with

it; if

the metal

rust, the corrosion is

is

and that ever comes off, the paint

actively rusting, and we paint over the

perhaps made slower, but

Air and moisture cause rust;

if

thing in painting metal

it

is

does not stop.

we can keep them away,

will last; but, unfortunately, all paint is

exposed to the weather

it

very slightly porous, and

in time deteriorates.

to get the 'paint

the metal

The most

if

essential

on the metal, not on an

inter-

mediate coating.

There are only two

pickling

it

in dilute acid (usually 10 to

of the sand-blast. Neither of these processes

painter,

who must do the next best thing.

all dirt

and

loose scale

and oxide.

411

is

by

20 per cent sulphuric acid),

followed by washing to remove the acid; and the other

all

One

w^ays to clean steel perfectly.

is

is

by the use

available to the ordinary

This

is

to

remove absolutely

First clean off the dirt,

if

any,

PAINTING

14

with brushes, as

would be cleaned

it

off

with scrapers and steel-wire brushes, clean off

come

If there is

off.

any new

scraped out and cleaned

done, immediately paint

One

before

it

will

harden into a cake

From 30

long.

for a first coat

gallon of

oil

not

on the metal;

Some

use raw

w^hich

is

oil,

is

to

oil;

it

it

does not

is

all

immediately painted
run and be uneven.

make much

paint dries rapidly; and as soon as

other paints in

aw^ay from the

be mixed with each

will

Red

a second coat of the paint can be applied.

from

this, that

This

air.

it

because

is

used, because

it is

of dry red lead

others boiled

The

used.

red lead in

allowed to stand very

put on in too thick a coat,

if it is

is

if

than 28 in any case. This

less

this is

can

in the pail or

pounds

to 33

When

begins rusting again.

most popular materials

of the

must be well

it

indispensable.

is

This must be mixed on the spot, shortly before

oil.
it

it,

the scale which will

all

rust (not mill scale),

This

off.

Then,

any other surface.

will finish

it

difference

seems hard,

lead

is

different

hardening just as well

does not dry by oxidation, as

it

other paints do, but by the lead combining chemically with the
just as w'ater

combines with Portland cement.

writer, red lead should

than red lead, over

may

be used.

it.

But red lead

Any good

paint

some

is

not the only

may be used

of the varnish-like coatings containing

important, in using any of these, to

let

for the purpose.

It is

plenty of time for drying elapse

than two coats

less

coating which

first

a good graphite paint, or

and asphaltum which are made

between coats. Not

In the opinion of the

have one or two coats of some good paint, other

other carbon paint, or

linseed oil

oil,

is

permissible,

and three are

desirable.

Projecting angles, edges, and bolt and rivet heads are the places

which

first

show

rust through the paint.

brush draws the paint thin at such places.

becoming common practice

to

This

is

partly because the

To overcome this, it

go over the work after the

is

first

now

coat,

and paint all edges for about an inch from the edge or angle, and all
bolt and rivet heads, with an extra or striping coat; then, when the
second coat goes on over the whole, there is the e(juivalent of two
full

coats everywhere.

Painting on iron, as on wood, shoukl be done in dry weather,

when

it

is

not very cold

at any rate

Full,

heavy

and well brushed on. Care must be taken

cracks and corners.

to get

coats should be used,

the paint into

all

not below 50 F.

412

PAINTING

VARNISH

is

li(|uid

is

to be applied to a surface in a thin

air,

hardens into a protective coating

usually glossy and almost transparent.

classes

spirit

and

by dissolving a

There are two

principal

olco-resinous varnishes.

which

Spirit varnishes, of

shellac-^ is the

most important, are made

resin (or sometimes, some other substance) in a volatile

They dry by

solvent, such as alcohol.

off

made

which, on exposure to the

fihn,

that

varnish

and leaving the

evaporation, the solvent going

resin spread out in a thin film, the liquid or vehicle

having really served as a mechanical means of spreading the resin over

the surface.
thin flakes.

Shellac
It

in the following

may

gum

a resin which comes on the market in large,

be dissolved in denatured (or any other) alcohol

manner

Put the alcohol

of

is

an earthenware

in

jar,

and weigh out

shellac for each gallon of alcohol.

night, carefully

and gently drop the

five

pounds

Just before leaving at

by

shellac, little

and leave it
In the morning the

into the jar

little,

Do

of alcohol, then put on the cover

until

on any account

flakes of shellac will be

stir

it.

5oaked and swollen; but

if

you had

stirred

they would have stuck together in lumps.

the mass with a

metal in

it,

wooden

stick once every

especially iron

barrel of shellac.

By

will

be ready for use.

gum

shellac contains

one iron

does not

hour or so

is

milky or cloudy;

alcohol

is

volatile, the

it

There are many grades

stir

do not put any

a whole

a clear solution, because the

dissolve,

and so the

As the

however, ready for use.

jar should be kept covered;

made, the varnish should be put

the day,

perhaps beforethe shellac

make

is,

not

the night before,

Now, during

some wax, which does not

varnish

in,

nail will spoil the color of

the next morning

It

them

morning.

and

after

it

is

in glass bottles or clean tin cans.

of shellac

gum, the

known by
The common

best being

C; but there are others nearly as good.

shellac is brownish yellow, and is called orange shellac; this is the natuWhite shellac is made from this by bleaching with
ral shellac color.
the letters

chlorine; but

it is

not of so good quality as the unbleached;

course, the advantage of being

gum

will,

much

on long standing, sometimes become

is,

has, of

White

shellac

insoluble.

Shellac

some painters, the term "varnish" is never used to include shellac.

however, no valid, objective reason for thus limiting the use of the term.

* Note. By

There

paler in color.

it

413

PAIXTIXG

16

varnish

may be

Shellac

is

lessens

thinned with alcohol, and often this

too often adulterated with

This

value.

its

Damar

is

which greatly

rosin,

by a chemical

easily detected

a white resin which

is

pounds

five or six

is

common

test.

soluble in spirits of turpentine

of resin to a gallon of turpentine. It

we

nearly colorless varnish

necessary.

is

the most

is

have, but never becomes very hard.

It is

used to a considerable extent as a vehicle for white lead and zinc, to

make a

very white enamel paint.

It is

not durable

if

exposed to the

weather.

important than

INIore

varnishes are the oleo-resinous var-

spirit

nishes, which consist of certain resins dissolved in linseed oil, the mixture

being thinned with turpentine or benzine.

is

put in a copper kettle and heated until

some hot

oil is

added

to

thoroughly combined.

it,

In making these, the resin

it is

thoroughly melted then

;

and the mixture cooked

The

from the

kettle is then taken

w^hen partly cool, the turpentine

is

until the

The

stirred in.

whole

and

fire,

makes

resin

is

the

makes it tough. Thus the larger

the proportion of resin, the harder and more brilliant will be the film;
the larger the proportion of oil, the tougher, more elastic, and more
durable it will be, and the slower it will dry. INIost of the color of varnish
film hard

and

lustrous,

comes from the

The
in

pale

gums

and the

resin; the paler this

Dark

color.

(except in color) as pale ones

resins are often harder

medium,

is,

the paler will be the varnish.

are higher in price than the dark ones, but are no better

any respect except

The hard and

oil

varnishes

in fact

may be

may be

just as

good

better, for the

dark

and better than the pale ones of the same

sort.

quick-drying varnishes are suitable for furniture; the

for interior house-varnishes; the slow

and

elastic, for

exposure

to the weather.

The wood

Varnishing.
better,

if

necessary to clean

it,

to avoid w^ashing as

using sandpaper instead, which will also

the carpenter
it

is

supposed to do

on that account.

^Mien

in

For

should be dry.

this,

make

reason

much

it

is

as possible,

Of

smooth.

course

but the painter must not neglect

proper condition,

o'pen-grain wood, a coat of paste

it

this

filler.

The

most common use are oak, chestnut, and ash.

it first

receives,

if it is

an

open-grained woods in

The woods

classed as

woods are white pine, maple, birch, yellow pine, whitewood, cherry, and sycamore. These latter do not need filling. If

close-grain

filler is

used,

it

should be well rubbed in with a short,

414

stiflf

brush; and

PAINTING
when

it

has

set,

17

say in fifteen to thirty minutes,

rubbed

it is

off

with a

handful of excelsior, rublMng across the grain, and rubbing hard, so as

to force the filler well into the pores of the wood.
Then it should
stand 24 to 4S hours.
"\Mien purchased, a paste

too thick to be used with a brush,

filler is

and must be thinned with turpentme or benzine; at the same time it

may be stained to any desired color with an oil- or varnish stain. These
stains can be purchased of any desired color. If a close-grained wood
is under treatment, the first thing is to apply a stain if it is desired to
stain the

wood; but

it is

common

practice to finish in the natural color.

Stains usually require a good deal of thinning before using; the

of thinning will determine the depth of color.

Water

amount

stains are

seldom

used, as they tend to raise the grain of the wood.

In cleaning
ings,

usmg

off

the

be careful to clean out corners and mould-

for this purpose, properly

use any steel

shaped hardwood

sticks;

do not

tool.

Where rooms

are to be finished in the natural color of the wood,

common

nevertheless a

it is

filler,

cherry or light

mahogany

practice to stain the window-sashes a

;

stain

is

often used.

used on close-grain woods; but this

is

Fillers are

sometimes

not advisable, as they tend to

prevent the varnish from getting a good hold on the wood.

Next comes the varnishing. Window-sills, jambs, inside

blinds,

and other surfaces exposed to the direct rays of the sun, are to be
treated as exterior woodwork, and are not varnished with the ordinary
interior varnish used

on the

rest of the

The

work.

floors also are left

The rest of the woodwork receives its

first coat of varnish apply it, as much as possible, with the grain of the
wood, brushing it out well in a thin coat. The varnish ought to dry
out of account for the present.
;

dust free
five

so that dust will not stick to

(i.e.,

days should elapse between

coats.

it)

overnight; but at least

\Mien dry,

it

should be rubbed

with curled hair or excelsior enough to remove the gloss, so that the next
coat of varnish will adhere properly; a better result will be had

sandpapered with 00 paper.

lightly

the

first.

The

third

is

it

surface.
thick,

may be rubbed
For

which

this

is

second coat

is

treated like

not sandpapered, but rubbed with curled hair;

the fourth or finishing coat

ferred,

The

if it is

may be

left

with the natural gloss, or,

if

pre-

with fine pumice and water to a smooth, dull

purpose the varnish dealers

well wet in clean water; a

415

sell felt,

little

about an inch

dry pumice powder

is

PAINTING

18

put on

it;

quite hard

done,

and the rubbing

and dry before

The

this.

this is attempted.

slow work; that

is

done with

is

much

is,

varnish must be

\'arnishing,

if

properly

time must be allowed for each

coat to dry thoroughly.

The

varnish which

too quickly;
to

and

it,

but

it

is

used on interior woodwork should not dry

should dry enough over night so that dust will not stick

in twenty-four

hours should be hard enough to handle freely

a chair, for example, were varnished with

if

on

entirely safe to sit

perfectly free

it

for a week. It should, however, finally

from tack, which

present prices (and

would not be

it, it

will not

it

do

if it is

become

a rosin varnish. At

not probable that they will ever be lower) var-

it is

nishes for interior

woodwork

at prices ranging

from 2.50

are sold, according to color and quality,

a gallon.

to $4.00

It is in the highest

degree inadmissible to use a cheap varnish forundercoats; theouter coats

will

crack

as what

this is

if

is

done.

A good

varnish that dries too quickly, such

called a rubbing varnish, or one intended for furniture, has

economy to use a good

varnish.
The winter has in mind a house which was properly varnished eighteen years ago and has been constantly occupied by a large
not the durability needed for this work.

family, yet the varnish

is still

in fair condition; if

papered and one new coat applied,

when new, never keep

well' even

Shellac.

varnish

would be

clean,

were

it

like

new

as good

shellac

dt^teriorate rapidly.

sometimes finished with

it is

shellac.

is

comparatively free from this objection; at

than anything

shellac

Orange

else.

shellac

is

more durable than

wood; but white

any rate it does it

is

a dark varnish, and even

described

rior

five

pounds

it is

If shellac is

shellac for this service.

Orange

and should be used wherever

white,

admissible, rather than white; but

it

This

a good varnish for inter-

white shellac darkens with age to an appreciable degree.

as

rosin varnishes never look

and

not used onexterior work, but

lightly sand-

All varnishes containing oil darken the color of

iors.

less

is

Interiors are

it

Cheap

possible for a surface to be.

it is

It is

usually necessary to use white

made up

to a gallon of alcohol,

as heavy as has been

and

this is the

standard

should be thinned considerably with alcohol before using on inte-

woodwork.

time to dry.

hard

in

It

It is

must

l)e

applied in thin coats, and given plenty of

very deceptive about this;

an hour, and

it is

it

hard enough to handle

coat after coat, even six hours apart,

416

we

appears to be dry and

freely;

we apply
the wood is

but

shall find that

if

PAINTING

19

covered with a waxy mess which will be the source of nothing

but trouble. The first coat sinks rapidly into the wood; a second coat
finally

may be

applied sLx hours later; but after that, allow two days at least

between coats.

makes a very

Shellac

thin coat; so

apply a large number of coats, at least twice as

it is

necessary to

many

as of oleo-

resinous varnishes, to get a sufficient thickness of coating.

of this labor, shellac

The

durable.

an expensive

is

treatment of

it,

but

finish;

is

it

Because

handsome

as regards rubbing, etc.,

same

the

is

f<nd

as has been described for other varnish.

Varnish makers usually advise that shellac should never be used

as a priming coat for other varnish this is probably because they wish
;

to sell

more of

their

own

goods, for shellac

where

coat, except for exterior work,

wood should be

it

is

an excellent

same

first

Of course,

should not be used.

before shellacking, the

filled

really

as for other varnish.

Varnish does not, however, wear well over a heavily shellacked surface.
Shellac makes a good floor varnish, discoloring the wood very
little,

with

and wearing
it,

fairly well. After the floor

say every one

very thin coats, applied rather frequently

four months, according to use

and

after applying

in a

flat

one of these thin coats

(of

to

floor in fine condition

thinned shellac),

will

it

This can be applied with a very

man

brush, and a

few minutes.

keep the

Avill

be dry enough to use in an hour.

wide,

has been well varnished

can go over the floor of an ordinary room

Shellac brushes should be washed out with alcohol

immediately after using.

Exterior Varnishing.
doors than within, so that

The

able materials.

it is

Varnishes dry

much more

practicable to use

more

In the

first

place,

do not use any

probably crumble and come out.

exterior

work;

shellac

as an undercoat exposed to the hot sun,

blister.

will

Use only the

best spar varnish, such as

ing the spars of yachts;

fill

the

wood with

is

it;

it

made

more

on

not use

will soften

and

for varnish-

sandpaper

hold well; finish with a coat well flowed on; and leave
is

filler

Do

between coats, just enough so that each succeeding coat

natural gloss, which

and dur-

elastic

conditions, in fact, are so severe that the best

are not good enough.

it

rapidly out of

it

lasting than a rubl)ed surface.

lightly

will take

with

This

its
is

the treatment for hand-rails, outside doors, inside blinds, windowsills

rails

and jambs, and ever}ihing exposed

and outside doors should be

to the direct sun.

Hand-

refinished every year; varnish will

417

PAINTING

20

not last on an outside door more than one-twentieth as long as

Never use

on an inside door.

interior varnish for outside

will

it

work.

ENAMEL PAINTS
Varnishes are

Therefore a coat of
its

some

color to

way

These

To

extent.

varnish, instead of
this

more or less brownjsh yellow or yellowish brown.

varnish applied over a paint obscures and changes

all

overcome

this as

it

if

made with good

varnish, are durable; the

with spar varnish instead of

oil

never has

much

easily applied,

luster,

and

is

pores of the

any dark

flyeing

NEW VARNISH

it,

usually

wood with a

color,

may be

damar

varnish.

never gets very hard,

It is

very white,

is

FINISH

of finishing open-grained interior

addition of a pigment.
of

it

not very durable.

been practiced for a few years, consists

water-stain

of

dries quickly.

A method

and

method

somewhat.

AYhite lead and zinc are sometimes mixed with

This makes the whitest enamel paint, but

color.

necessary to thin them,

If

injures the flowing quality of the paint

it

its

a good interior varnish

In

vehicle.

the pigment comes to the surface and displays

paints,

used, but

as possible, the

mixed with the pigment, as a

oil, is

application has already been described.

do

much

woodwork, which has

in first staining the

and then, when

paste

filler

it is

wood with a

dry, filling the

which has been colored by the

For example, the wood may receive a

and the wood-filler be mixed with white

lead.

stain

This

shows the open or porous part of the grain in white on a dark background. By using artistic combinations of color in the stain and filler,
very beautiful effects can be produced, and this finish has been used in

some of the most handsome and costly public and private buildings.
Thus, if a room is to be decorated in green, the woodwork can be made
An oil stain must not be used
to harmonize with the prevailing color.
on the wood, as it will not work well with the filler. The colored filler
is applied and rubbed off in the same way that any paste filler is used,
and then the varnish

is

applied over

it

in

the usual way.

FLOOR FINISHING
The primary

trouble with floors

is

that people

they did not, there would be no trouble at

418

all.

walk on them.

If

Four coats of varnish,

PAINTING

21

or even paint, having an aggregate thickness of less than one one-

hundredth of an inch,
shod

will not last indefinitely

under the wear of

nail-

heels.

Probably the simplest treatment for

floors is painting

The

them.

paint should contain a large proportion of a hard oleo-resinous

If an oil paint is
varnish; an ordinary oil paint is not hard enough.
used,

for a floor paint should

must be heavily charged with dryer,

it

Good quick-drying

dry in twelve hours.

floor paints are in the

market.
Floors of choice wood, however, arc not usually painted they
;

may

be either-varnished or waxed. If they are of oak or other open-grained

wood, they must be filled with a paste filler; otherwise the varnish is
Floor varnish

applied directly to the wood.

is

quicker in drying, and

harder than interior finishing varnish, but should not be so hard as to

be brittle; rubbing varnish is too hard. If the floor is to be stained,
this

is

done with an

oil

stain before varnishing;

if it is

a floor which

has previously been varnished, so that the stain will not penetrate the
wood, the stain may be mixed with the varnish, although the effect is
not then so good.

Floor

wax is

made

not

of beeswax, but of a harder vegetable wax,

The floor should receive one coat of

sheflac; then the floor wax maybe rubbed on with a stiff brush, and
when it is dry, which wifl be in a few hours, it may be polished by
rubbing with a clean cloth or with a heavy, weighted floor brush made
and

is

sold

by

all

for the purpose.

paint dealers.

It

should receive another coat every week until four

or six coats have been applied; after this a

thinned
to

if

of the floor wax,

necessary with turpentine, should be applied often enough

keep the

floor looking well.

cleaning the floor only a

which the

little

floor is

washed.

Alkalies dissolve the wax,

and

in

soap should be used in the water with

wax finish kept polished with a polishing

little

the handsomest surface than can be obtained for a floor; but

It does not discolor
it is so. slippery that it is somewhat dangerous.
Interior trim (but not hand-rails) is sometimes waxthe wood.
This finish requires a good deal of care, as it is likely to
finished.

brush,

is

handsome and durable.

Old floors which require cleaning and revarnishing should have
the old varnish or paint removed by a good varnish-remover, one of the
modern sort, free from alkali. This is painted over the surface, and,

catch dust; otherwise

it is

419

PAINTING

22

after a short time,

remover

last of the

varnish-

taken out with a rag wet with turpentine or benzine, care

is

being taken that there

ing room.

The

removed with a scraper.

is

no

fire

of

any sort

in the

room or any neighbor-

Tliis will not only take off the old varnish, but the old filler

must be treated

new

Any

also;

and the

floor

floor

may be

treated with a hot solution of oxalic acid, one part to ten

of water;

when

remover

floor.

stains

all

on the

well with clear water; let

ready for varnishing again.

it is

removal of old paint or varnish by a liquid

applicable to

is

and

wash

the stains disappear,

the floor dry a day; sandpaper;

This treatment

like

varnish-

The

varnished or painted work.

outside

of a house could have the old paint taken off in this way, but burning
ojf is

These varnish-removers are mixtures of

and other liquids, and the best of them are

cheaper and quicker.

benzole, acetone, alcohol,

patented.

ALUMINUM AND BRONZE

PAINTS

Radiators and pipes are often painted with aluminum or bronze

paints.

These

some varnish

consist of metallic powders, in fine flakes,

usually with a pyroxylin varnish, which

mixed with
a thin solu-

is

tion of a variety of gun-cotton in a suitable solvent, generally acetate of

amyl.

If

one of these paints

becomes thickened

can by evaporation,

in the

with acetate of amyl,

if

which smell somewhat

some

bananas

can usually be thiimed

of the special thinner cannot be had;

brushes can be washed out in the same.

durable, even exposed to the w^eather.

two certainly

it

like

One

good aluminum paint

coat

is

is

usually enough,

so.

GLAZING
House

painters are usually expected to understand the art of

setting window-glass;

it is

sheet or cylinder glass

glass works,

then,

not difficult to learn.

and

plate glass.

by blowing a quantity of

Glass

Sheet glass

glass, first, into

by more blowing and manipulation,

reheating,

is

name

"cylinder glass")

flattened out into a sheet,

after annealing,

it is

cut

up

is

made,

at the

a hollow globe;

five feet long; this

cut open, and, after

whence the name "sheet

glass;"

made

of two

into convenient sizes.

420

is

classified as

this is stretched out into

hollow cylinder perhaps a foot in diameter and

cylinder (whence the

is

It is

PAINTING
thicknesses

and double
and

to this

thick, one-eighth of

is

about one-sixteenth of an inch;

an inch; but

it

does not run perfectly

All sheet glass contains streaks, bubbles,

uniform.
dirt,

which

single thick,

23

is

more or

less irregular

graded as

it is

first,

these grades are usually

poorer than

"B"

is

wavy in

or

its

and specks of

surface;

and

in respect

second, and third quality; in American glass

marked "AA," "A," and "B;" and anything

called stock sheets.

Foreign glass

is

not thus

marked, each maker having his own arbitrary marks. Single-thick

glass is used for sizes not greater than about 28 by 34 inches; doublethick,

up

to

40 by 60.

For larger

sizes, plate glass

only

is

used; but

of course either plate or double-thick can be used for small sizes,

if

desired.

Plate glass

is

cast in plates; the liquid glass

iron table, about 15 feet wide

and 25

feet long,

is

poured out on an

and smoothed down

to

uniform thickness of half or five-eighths of an inch by passing a roller

over it, like rolling pie-crust after this it is ground do^Ti with sand,
;

emery, and polishing powder to a quarter or five-sixteenths of an inch

It is therefore much more costly than sheet glass, but
in thickness.
is

more

also

Crystal

and

is

perfect.
is

a very thin plate glass, about one-eighth of an inch thick,

used where ordinary plate

the finest of

known

all

window

glass.

as glazing (for windows)

being the best.

In the

first

is

too heavy, as in movable sash. It

There are two grades

and

is

of plate glass,

silvering (for mirrors), the latter

place, the sash

is

prepared for the

glass.

be painted, it is primed with

white lead.and boiled linseed oil, the mixture having very little or no
oil
turpentine added; if it is to be varnished, it is primed with boiled
It

must receive a priming

alone.

the

oil

coat;

if it is

to

not primed, the putty will not stick; the wood will draw
out of the putty and leave it crumbly. Next, the glass is fitted
or with a
It is cut either with a glass-cutter's diamond
If

it is

to the sash.

wheel cutter, the

latter

being a

little

sharp-edged

steel

wheel

set in

made, the wheels may be bought separate and are

on sheet glass; but
replaceable. The wheel cutters are generally used
makes a deeper cut.
plate glass is cut only with a diamond, which

handle.

If well

bottle
wheels are kept wet with kerosene; the workman has a little
wheel in it.
or cup of kerosene on the bench, and dips the
The glass being cut to the right size, a layer of putty is spread,
in the sash where the glass is to
^ith the putty-knife, along the recess

The

421

-^1

PAINTING

24

This

rest.

and should always be done.

called bedding the glass,

is

uncommonly omitted with pine sash; but it absolutely must be

done with all hardwood sash, metal or metal-lined sash, and for all
plate and crystal glass; and it ought to be done in all cases. Then the
It is

not

glass

is

gently pressed into place, after which

which are triangular

points,

and No.

single-thick,

1,

No. 2 points are used on

bits of metal.

which are

fastened with glaziers'

it is

used on double-thick

larger, are

They

glass; they are put in 9 to 12 inches apart.

a hammer, but with the thin side of a two-inch

which

lies

on the

position of the pane;

when
rest

the sash

with

monly

is

The chisel

it.

if it is

which bends

there

it is

in its natural upright position the

easily;

pane of

The

on one side a space between

chisel

held over this crack, and with

is

so placed that

its

glass will

points are

and when the pane

if

made

also useful for adjusting the

smaller than the sash,

placed,

is

is

lower edge bearing on the wood.

its

of zinc,

is

chisel, the flat side of

edge of the chisel away from the surface

glass, the

so as to avoid scratching

are driven, not w^ith

is

com-

properly

and the wood, the

it

edge an indentation or crimp

in the little triangular zinc point

which has already been

driven; this crimp prevents the glass from sliding back against the

This

wood.

the reason zinc

is

is

used for the points;

it

will

bend.

Steel points are sometimes used for plate glass, because of their greater

To

strength, the glass being heavy.

drive through the sheet metal of

metal-covered sash, steel slugs are used these are about

;

about

I inch long,

and

-^^

-^f,

inch thick,

inch wide at the wide end, triangular, and

sharp-pointed.

There is a machine for driving points, but

except on small glass set in soft-wood sash.
The glass being properly secured by points,
ing.

To do

position

this,

the professionals set the sash

on an easel; the glass

is

across the bottom; then the sash

operation

is

repeated.

The most

This

it

is

it is

up

in

not

much used

ready for putty-

a nearly vertical

puttied on the right-hand side

is

and

turned the other edge up, and the

finishes the

work.

important things about glazing are to use a sufficient

number of points and to use good putty. Ordinary (pure) putty is

made of whiting, which is pulverized chalk, mixed with enough linseed
The workman can make it
oil to give it the consistence of stiff dough.
from these materials with his hands; everyone can make his own putty.
As a matter of fact, however, the putty of commerce is made by ma-

422

PAINTIXG
chincry; aiul also, as a matter of fact,

25

it

in general

is

abominably

would seem as though whiting and linseed oil were

materials cheap enough; and in reality putty can be sold for about
adnlterated.

It

three cents a pound, or sixty dollars a ton; and a dollar's worth will

putty

the glass in an ordinary house.

all

almost impossible to

get.

Marble dust

and a mixture of rosin and mineral

Pure putty, however,

is

substituted for whiting,

is

and the cost reduced

about half. It is the use of this miserable stuff which causes ninetenths of the troubles with windows.
If the glazier cannot be sure of
his putty otherwise,

The

he should make

best putty for glazing

one-tenth white lead putty.

and

it

becomes harder.

difficult to

remove

If the glass

it'in

it

is

the

oil,

himself.

it

a mixture of pure whiting putty with

This makes

it

set a little

more quickly,

Pure white lead putty gets too hard

it is

too

case of breakage of glass.

has not been bedded

around the indoors side of the

crack between

oils for

and the sash.

glass,

This

in putty,

it is

customary

and crowd some putty

is

to

go

into the

called hacking the glass.

Large

plates of plate glass are not puttied, but are held in place with strips

of moulding nailed on the sash, in which case the crack between the
glass

and the moulding

is

backed with putty.

423

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