Chapter 1: Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability

Living in an Exponential Age

Living Life Sustainably
exponential growth-increasing at a fixed percentage
environmental science-how the earth works, how we interact on
earth, how to deal with env. problems
environment-sum total of all living/non-living things that affect any
living organism
ecology-study of relationship b/w living organisms and their
environment
Sustainability
sustainability-ability of the earths systems to survive and adapt
to changing environmental conditions
natural capital-natural resources and services that jeeps us and
other species alice and supports the economy
Environmentally Sustainable Society-meets current and future
needs of ppl for basic resources in a just and equitable manner without
compromising the needs of the future generation

Path to Sustainability:
Natural Capital Natural Capital Degradation Solutions Trade Offs Individuals Matter
Population Growth, Economic Growth, and Economic Development
Human Population: Slowing But Still Rapid
Economic Growth-increase in the capacity of a country to
provide people with goods and services measured by change in a countrys
GDP
GDP (Gross Domestic Product)= annual market value of all goods
and services in a country
percapita GDP = GDP divided by total population, also GDP-PPP
economic development - improvement of living standards by
economic growth
wide gap b/w rich and poor, developed vs. developing
rule of 70 - 70 divided by the percentage growth rate equals
doubling the time in years
Resources
resource - anything obtained from env. to meet needs or wants
there are renewable and nonrenewable resources
perpetual resource - resource that wont run out ex: sun
renewable resource - can be replenished fairly rapidly through
natural processes as long as its not used up before its renewed ex: trees, water
sustainable yield - highest rate at which a renewable resource
can be used indefinitely without reducing its available supply
environmental degradation - we exceed a resources natural
replacement rate, supply shrinks

The Tragedy of the Commons

common-property/free access resources=individuals dont own
resources ex:air
tragedy of the commons=degradation of free access resources b/c
people think, If I dont use it someone else will, my pollution doesnt matter
a solution is to use free access resources below sustainable
yields, convert free access resources to private ownership ppl will protect it if
they own it this wont always work b/c ppl put profit over sustainability, you
cant make all the resources privately owned
ecological footprint-amount of land, water needed to supply an
area with resources and absorb waste of such use, estimate env. impact of
individuals in a country
Environmental Problems
Poverty and Environmental Problems
poverty-inability to meet ones basic economic needs
poor ppl deplete the env., have many children
affluenza-addiction to over consumption and materialism by ppl in
U.S. and other developed countries
affluence finances higher environmental quality rich ppl dont
want pollution, transport waste somewhere else
Connections because Environmental Problems and their Causes
environmental impact (I) depends on: # of ppl (P), average
resource use per person (affluence, A), and effects of technologies (T) I=PAT
Environmental worldview-how you view your world and your role
Environmental ethics-beliefs about right and wrong and how we
treat the environment
Planetary Management worldview-we are separated from
nature, it should meet our needs
stewardship worldview-we can manage earth to our benefit, we
are its guardians
Environmental wisdom worldview-totally dependent on nature,
natures for all species
4 Scientific Principles of Sustainability
Reliance on Solar Energy = photosynthesis cycle
Biodiversity = many species adapt to changes
Population Control
Nutrient Recycling = circle of life
Building Social Capital
social capital-many ppl talking about what the world should be,
open minded
individuals can bring change from grassroots up
Chapter 2: Science, Systems, Matter, and Energy
Easter Island

people on Easter Island overused resources, died

Easter Island-model for earth because of its isolation

The Nature of Science

scientists ask and answer questions about natural world,
observation, questions, hypothesis, theory
theory - well-tested and widely accepted hypothesis
Scientific Theories and Laws
scientific/natural law - something happening over and over again
in nature
scientists set up controlled experiments to isolate variables,
theres an experimental group and a control group
Scientific Reasoning
inductive reasoning-specific observations and measurements
deductive reasoning-using logic
paradigm shift-new discoveries overthrow old accepted ideas
Types of Science
frontier science-early results, not tested by others
sound science-data, theories, and laws widely accepted by
others
junk science-results/hypothesis being presented as true before
peer review
Limitations of Environmental Science
some limitations are that theories need high probability, scientists
are biased, no accurate way of measuring huge amounts, environmental science
involves many variables
system-set of components that interact, has inputs from
environment
feedback loop-output of matter/energy/info is fed back into a
system, leads to changes
positive feedback loop-causes system to change in the same
direction
negative feedback loop-system changes in the opposite
direction
Synergy
synergy-when two or more processes interact and the combined
effect is greater that the sum of separate effects EXAMPLE: when two people
work together to lift something, they can lift more together than they can apart
Energy Laws
Law of Conservation of Energy-energy is neither created nor
destroyed
2nd Law of Thermodynamics-when energy changes form, some
useful energy is always degraded to lower quality energy we can never reuse
high quality energy to perform useful work
Sustainability and Matter and Energy Laws
high thorough put economies-attempt to boost economy by
increasing one way flow matter and energy resources through economic systems

 matter recycling and reuse economy-mimics nature by reusing

matter; similar to the natural cycles)
Chapter 3: Ecosystems: What are They and How Do They Work?
Ecosystem Components
Biomes

organisms live on lands systems called biomes and ocean aquatic

life zones
2 components make up biosphere biotic=biological components
and abiotic =non living components
range of tolerance= individuals have different tolerance for its
environment
Factors that Limit Population Growth
limiting factor- more important in regulating population
Limiting Factor Principle-too much or too little of any abiotic
factor can limit or prevent growth of population
Producers and Consumers
Producers/Autotrophs-make their own food from compounds
from the environment, produce carbon through photosynthesis, some produce
compounds without sunlight through chemosynthesis
Consumers/Heterotrophs-get energy by consuming other
organisms and their remains
primary consumers eat producers, secondary consumers eat
herbivores, and 3rd or higher consumers eat other carnivores
decomposers-recycle nutrients in ecosystem
Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration
Aerobic Respiration-cells use air to convert nutrients to CO2 and H2O,
Anaerobic Respiration- getting energy from glucose
Biodiversity
biodiversity is a vital renewable resource, it is the variety of genes,
species, ecosystems
HIPPO-5 major causes of premature extinction
H: Habitat Destruction, I: invasive species, P: pollution, P: human
population growth, O: overexploitation of resources
biodiversity provides us with natural resources, air and water
purification
Energy Flow in Ecosystem
food chain=sequence of organisms where each one is food for the
next, trophic level=feeding level, food web=network of interconnected food
chains
theres a decrease in energy as it goes through the food chain,
biomass=weight of organic matter in organisms, ecological efficiency=% of
usable energy transferred as biomass from trophic levels
Gross Primary Product (GDP)-rate that producers convert sun
into chem. energy

 Net Primary Productivity (NPP)-rate producers use

photosynthesis to store energy minus rate of use of stored energy
Soil

soil-slowly renewed resource that provides nutrients for plant

growth
soil horizons-horizontal layers of soil, soil profile=sectional view
of soil. infiltration=downward movement of H2O, humus=decomposed plants
Nutrient Cycles
Water cycle-transpiration condensation precipitation
Carbon cycle-cycles through the air, water, soil, and organisms and depends on
photosynthesis and respiration
Nitrogen cycle-N2 fixation convert to NH3 and NH4+ ions nitrification --.
ammonification denitrification
Phosphorous cycle-phosphate in rock formations and ocean sediment water
erodes it, exposes phosphate plants absorb it
Sulfur cycle-sulfur in rocks enters atmosphere as gas absorbed by
organisms
Chapter 4: Evolution and Biodiversity
Origins of Life
life-result of one billion years of chemical change, followed by 3.7 billion years of
biological change
natural selection-when traits become more prevalent in a population because
they help organisms survive
coevolution-evolution when 2 or more species interact and pressure each other
to develop adaptations
a populations ability to adapt is limited by its gene pool
Ecological Niches and Adaptation
each species in an ecosystem has a specific role
fundamental niche-full potential range of physical, chemical, and biological
conditions
realized niche-part of a fundamental niche that a species occupies
generalist species=broad niches
specialist species-narrow niches
speciation-two species arise from one
geographic isolation-different groups of the same population become physically
separated
reproductive isolation-change operated in gene pool of geographic isolation
a species becomes extinct when its population cant adapt to changing
environmental condition
Future of Evolution
artificial selection-human influence on evolution
genetic engineering-scientists produce desirable traits or eliminate negative
ones
recombinant DNA-altered DNA that contains genes or portions of genes of
different species

 genetic engineering has many ethical problems

Community Structures and Species Diversity
biological communities differ in their structure, physical appearance, and # of
species and economic roles
indicator species-alerts humans to harmful environmental conditions
keystone species-determine types of and numbers of species
foundation species-create and enhance habitats
species diversity=measure of diversity that involves species richness and species
evenness
species richness-number of different species
species evenness-proportion of different species
native species-normally live in communities
Species Interactions
interspecific competition-competition between species for the same resources
predation-predators feed on prey
parasitism-parasite feeds on host, usually by living on host
mutualism-species act in a way that benefits all involved
commensalism-interaction that benefits one species with little effect on the
other
Chapter 5: Climate and Terrestrial Biodiversity
Biomes: Climate and Life on Land
differences in average temperature and precipitation caused by global air
circulation precipitation caused by global air circulation causes differences in average
temperature
biomes-large terrestrial regions characterized by similar climate, soil, plants and
animals
climates changed because of changes in solar output, volcanic eruptions, and
continents moving
precipitation, temperature and soil type are factors in producing tropical,
temperate and polar deserts, grasslands, and forests
biomes arent uniform. They have mosaic of patches with different biological
communities but with similarities unique to the biome
climate and vegetation vary with latitude and elevation
Desert Biomes
desert-area where evaporation exceeds precipitation
cover 30% of Earths land
desert soils have little moisture and vegetation
succulent plants have no leaves, stores water, and opens pores to reduce water
loss
Grasslands and Chaparral Biomes
grasslands-occur in interiors of continents, in areas too moist for deserts and too
dry for forests
grasslands persist because of a combination of drought, herbivore grazing, and
fires
3 types: polar, tropical, and temperate

 savanna-grassland with scattered clumps of trees. Usually warm and alternating

dry and wet seasons
herbivores evolved specialized eating habits that lessen competition between
species for vegetation
savanna plants have deep roots for groundwater
herbivores evolved specialized eating habits that lessen competition between
species for vegetation
savanna plants have deep roots for groundwater
temperate grasslands covered plains and rolling hills in countries interiors
winters are very cold, summers very hot and dry
aboveground parts of most grasses die and decompose, so organic matter
accumulates to make fertile soil
these biomes used to cover a lot of Earth, but many crops and cities were made
on them because of their fertile soils
usually cold; precipitation comes and as snow
permafrost-underground soil where captured water stays frozen for 2 years
global warming making permafrosts melt and release methane gas from soil
temperate shrublands (chaparral) have dense growths of evergreen shrubs
soil thin and not fertile
adapted to and maintained by frequent wildfires
Forest Biomes
undisturbed areas with moderate to high annual precipitation are covered with
forest
tropical rain forests-found near the equator, where hot, damp, moisture air
dumps its moisture
warm temps, heavy rain, high humidity
have broadleaf evergreen plants, which keep most their leaves
many plants on ground have big leaves to filter sunlight
high net primary productivity
most animals live in sunny canopy layer
half the Earths terrestrial species live there
little wind, so harder to spread pollen
decomposers recycle soil quickly
soils low and acidic
temperate deciduous forests grow in areas with moderate average temperatures
that change with the seasons
broadleaf deciduous trees, like oak, maple, beech, etc.
rich diversity plant life at ground level
evergreen coniferous forests (boreal forests, taiga) have sunlight available 6-8
hours a day
long, cold winters
trees with narrow needles
decomposition of soil is slow
temperate rain forests found in coastal areas with ample rainfall
winters mild, summers cool
little light reaches the floor
mountains cover of Earths surface
contain most of our forests
regulate climate; mountains with snow reflect solar radiation back into space

Chapter 6 - Aquatic Biodiversity

Aquatic Environment
salinity-amounts of various salts dissolved in H2O
plankton-weakly swimming, free-floating groups of organisms
zooplankton-herbivores that feed on phytoplankton
temperature, access to sunlight, dissolved oxygen and availability of nutrients
determine organisms in these layers
photosynthesis in euphotic zone
nutrients in shallow waters
Saltwater Life Zones
coastal zone contains 90% of marine species
coastal zone has high NPP
estuary-rivers meet the ocean
estuaries most productive ecosystems because of high nutrients input
intertidal zone-between high and low tides
barrier islands-low, narrow, sandy islands that form offshore a coastline
Freshwater Life Zones
lakes-large natural bodies of standing freshwater formed when precipitation,
runoff and groundwater seepage fill depressions in the earths surface
causes of depressions: glaciation, crustal displacement, volcanic activity, etc.
top zone of lake: littoral; near shore and has shallow, sunlit waters
limnetic zone-open, sunlit water surface layer away from the sore that extends
to depth. Main photosynthetic body of lake
profundal zone-deep, ocean waters too dark for photosynthesis
benthic zone-decomposers, detritus feeders, and fish from one zone to another
overturns-waters at layers of lakes mix, which equalizes the temperatures of
lakes
oligotrophic lake-newly formed lake with small supply of plant nutrients; often
deep; low NPP
eutrophic lake-has large/excessive supply of nutrients needed by producers;
murky water
cultural eutrophications-human inputs of nutrients accelerating lakes
eutrophication
mesotrophic lake-fall between 22 extremes of nutrient enrichment
watershed-land area that delivers runoff, sediment, and dissolved substances to
streams
source zone-headwaters usually shallow, cold, clear, swiftly flowing; lack
phytoplankton and nutrients
transition zone-headwater streams merge to form wider, deeper and warmer
streams; cloudy, slow, less O2
floodplain zone-streams join into wider, deeper rivers across broad, flat valleys;
producers; muddy
deltas/wetlands absorb and slow velocity of floodwaters

Chapter 7 - Community Ecology

Community Structure and Species Diversity
physical structure in type of community of ecosystem can vary
species diversity- number of different species it contains (species richness)
combined with the abundance of individuals within each of those species (species
evenness)
niche structure- how many potential ecological niches occur, how they resemble
or differ, and how the species occupying different niches interact
most species-rich environments are tropical rain forests, coral reefs, the deep
sea, and large tropical lakes
Types of Species
native species- those species that normally live in a particular community
most introduced species are beneficial to humans
we should care about amphibians because: 1) environmental health is
deteriorating because amphibians are sensitive biological indicators of changes in
environmental conditions, 2) adult amphibians play ecological roles in biological
communities, 3) amphibians are a genetic storehouse of pharmaceutical products
keystone species- have larger effect on the types and abundances of other
species in a community
foundation species- play a major role in shaping communities by creating their
habitats in ways that benefit other species
Species Interactions: Competition and Predation
interspecific competition-competition between species for shared or limited
resources
resource partitioning-species competing for similar scarce resources evolve
more specialized traits that allow them to use shared resources at different times, ways,
etc.
predation-members of one species feed direction on a living organism of
another species
theres over 10,000 defensive chemicals made by plants
Species Interactions: Parasitism, Mutualism, and Commensalism
parasitism-when one species feeds on part of another organism
mutualism-two species or a network of species interact in a way that benefits
both
commensalism-an interaction that benefits one species but has little effect on
the other species
ecological succession-gradual change in species composition of a given area
primary succession involves gradual establishment of various biotic communties
in lifeless areas whereas secondary succession is a series of communities with different
species
primary succession takes a long time because there is no fertile soil
early successional species attach themselves to patches of bare rock and start
the soil formation process
secondary succession begins in areas where natural communities of organisms
have been disturbed, removed, or destroyed

Chapter 8: Population Ecology

Population Dynamics and Carrying Capacity
most populations live in clumps
theres clumping because: 1) the resources a species needs vary greatly in
availability, 2) living in herds, flocks, etc. provide animals with better protection from
predators, 3) living in packs gives some predator species a better chance of getting a
meal, 4) some animal species form temporary groups for mating and caring for their
young
births, deaths, immigrations, and emigrations are the variables that govern
changes in population size
age structure-proportions of individuals at various ages
biotic potential-populations varying in their capacity for growth
intrinsic rate of increase (r)-rate at which population would grow w/ unlimited
resources
no population can grow indefinitely
carrying capacity (k)-maximum population of a given species that a habitat can
sustain without degrading their habitat
logistic growth-rapid exponential population growth followed by a steady
decrease in population growth with time until the population size levels off
technological, social, and other cultural changes extended the earths carrying
capacity for humans
higher population densities can help individuals find mates, but also increases
the competition among them, food, space, sunlight, water, etc.
infectious diseases are a type of density-dependent population control
four general patterns of variations in population size are: stable, irruptive, cyclic,
and irregular
Reproductive Patterns
asexual reproduction-offspring are exact genetic copies of a single parent
sexual reproduction-mixes the genetic material of two individuals and produces
offspring with combinations of genetic traits from each parent
disadvantages of sexual reproduction: males cant give birth, there is an
increased chance of genetic errors, and courtship rituals consume time and energy
97% of species use sexual reproduction because it has two important
advantages: greater chance of reproducing as environment changes and males can
gather food for the female and their young
r-selected species-species with a capacity for a high rate of population
increase; they have many small offspring
k-selected species-they reproduce later in life, small number of offsprings, long
life spans
Chapter 9: The Human Population and its Impact

Human Population Growth: A Brief History

Population Growth In The Past
population increases because: 1) humans developed the ability to expand into
new habitats, 2) emergence of early agriculture, and 3) we developed sanitation systems
no population can grow indefinitely
population change=(Births + Immigration) - (Deaths + Emigration)
crude birth rate - number of births per 1,000 people in a population in a year
fertility - number of children born to a woman during her lifetime
replacement-level fertility is the number of children a couple must bear to replace
themselves
total fertility rate (TFR)-average number of children a woman typically has
during her reproductive years
two indicators of overall health of people in a country or region are: 1) life
expectancy and 2) infant mortality rate
life expectancy - average number of years a newborn infant can expect to live
infant mortality rate - number of babies out of every 1000 born who die before
they turn 1
immigration plays a big role in the growth and cultural diversity of the people in
the U.S
migration- the movement of people into and out of a specific geographic area
the number of people in young, middle, and older age groups determines how
fast populations grow or decline
Population Age Structure
Age Structure Diagrams
age structure-the distribution of males and females in each age group in the
worlds population
we live in a demographically divided world
youthful age structure of most developing countries contributes to an
unemplyement crisis
the number of people under the age of 15 is important in determining a countrys
future population growth
13% of the worlds population live in countries with stabilized or declining
populations
death from AIDS can disrupt a countrys social and economic structure by
removing significant numbers of young adults
between 2000 - 2050 AIDS is estimated to kill 278 million people in 53 countries
(38 of these countries are in Africa)
as countries become economically developed, their birth and death rates tend to
decline
Solutions: Influencing Population Size
The Demographic Transition
demographic transition - hypothesis for population change in which as
countries become more industrialized; death rates decline and then their birth rates
decline
in most developing countries, death rates have fallen much more than birth rates
some think that the rapid population growth of developing countries will outstrip
economic growth and overwhelm life-support systems

 family planning reduces number of births and abortions throughout most of the
world
family planning provides educational and clinical services that help couples
choose how many children to have and when to have them
Human Impacts on Natural Systems
Effects of Humans on Natural Ecosystems
to survive and provide resources for our growing number of people, humans
modify, cultivate, build on, and degrade increasing areas of the earths number systems
we face two major challenges in understanding that modifying parts of nature has
multiple effects: 1) we need to main a balance between simplified communities and the
more complex natural ones, and 2) we need to slow down on the rates at which we are
simplifying and degrading nature for our own purposes
we cannot save the earth because it can get along without us, just as it has done
for 2.7 billion years
Chapter 11: Sustaining Biodiversity: The Species Approach
Species Extinction
Three Types of Species Extinction
three types of extinction are local, ecological, or global
an endangered species could soon become extinct, and a threatened species is
likely to become extinct
endangered species-so few individual survivors that the species could soon
become extinct over all or most of its natural range
threatened species- abundant in its natural range but due to declining numbers
it can potentially become endangered
why trying to catalog extinctions is difficult: 1) extinction of a species takes too
long to document, 2) scientists have only identified 1.4 million species, and 3) scientists
know little about most of the species identified
Importance of Wild Species
Why Should We Preserve Wild Species?
biologists estimate that the current rate of extinction is 100 to 10,000 times the
rate before humans arrived on this planet
species provide economic and ecological services and humans should not cause
them to become extinct
the greatest threat to a species is the loss, degradation, and fragmentation of the
place where it lives
Habitat Loss, Degradation, And Fragmentation
Habitat Destruction, Degradation, and Fragmentation
HIPPO: Habitat destruction, degradation, and fragmentation, Invasive
(nonnative) species, Population growth (too many people consuming too many
resources), Pollution, and Over-harvesting
humans are causing drastic declines in the population of many bird species
about 50,000 nonnative species currently live in the United States and about one
in seven of them are harmful invasive species

 extinction of birds that play key and specialized roles in pollination and seed
dispersal may lead to extinctions of plants dependent on those ecological services
greatest new threat to birds is climate change
birds are good environmental indicators because they live in every climate and
biome
Invasive Species
Deliberately Introduced Species
biotic pollution - species can reduce or wipe out populations of many native
species and cause ecological disruptions
prevention is the best solution to the threats of invasive species because if they
arrive in a certain location it is almost impossible to slow their spread
population growth, affluenza, and pollution have promoted the premature
extinction of some species
legal and illegal trade in wildlife species used as pets or for decorative purposes
threatens some species with extinction
one of the worlds most far-reaching and controversial environmental laws is the
U.S. Endangered Species Act (1973)
congress has amended the Endangered Species Act to help landowners protect
endangered species in their property
the United States has set aside 544 federal refuges for wildlife, but many
refugees are suffering from environmental degradation
reconciliation ecology involves finding ways to share the places humans
dominate with other species
reconciliation ecology-new form of conservation biology. It focuses on
establishing and maintaining new habitats in order to conserve species diversity in
places where people live, work, or play
Chapter 20: Climate Change and Ozone Depletion
Past Climate Change and the Greenhouse Gas Effect
Global Warming and Global Cooling Arent New
Earths climate changes are not new or unusual
in past 900,000 years, the troposphere has experiences long periods of global
cooling and global warming
last ice age was about 13,000 years ago
in past 1,000 years, temperatures have remained stable, but began rising during
last century
How Do We Know What Temperatures Were In The Past?
past temperature changes estimated by radioisotopes
changes in troposphere levels of CO2 correlate closely with variables in average
global temperature near the earths surface during the past 160,000 years
The sun and the presence of certain greenhouse gases warm the troposphere
and the earths surface
three major factors that shape the earths climate: 1) sun, 2) natural process
called greenhouse effect, 3) oceans that cover most of the planet and influence climate
by storing CO2 and head

 natural cooling process takes place at the earths surface

the major greenhouse gases in the lower atmosphere are water vapor, carbon
dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide
Climate Change and Human Activities
Signs The Troposphere Is Warming
considerable evidence that Earths troposphere is warming, mostly because of
human actions
findings showing that troposphere is warming: 1) the IPCC said it was very likely
that the earth is the hottest it has been in 200 years, 2) since 1900 the average blobal
temperature of the troposphere is near the earths surface has risen about 0.6 degrees
celcius, 3) the 10 warmest years since 1861 have occurred since 1990, 4) over past 50
years Arctic temperatures have risen almost twice as fast
shown that human activities will play a major role in changing the earths climate
during this century
global warming-temperature increases in the troposphere, which in turn can
cause climate change
natural changes, human activities, or both can cause such warming
global climate change-changes in any aspects of the earths climate, including
temperature, precipitation, and storm intensity and patterns
uncertainty about how much CO2 and heat the oceans can remove from the
troposphere and how long the heat and CO2 might remain there
warmer temperatures create more clouds that could warm or cool the
troposphere
warmer air can release methane gas stored in bogs, wetlands, and tundra soils
and accelerate global warming
Factors Affecting The Earths Temperature
Harmful and Corrective Feedbacks in the Global Climate System
some of the worlds floating ice and land-based glaciers are slowly melting and
are helping warm the troposphere by reflecting less sunlight back into space
during this century rising sea levels are projected to flood low-lying urban areas,
coastal estuaries, wetlands, coral reefs, and barrier islands and beaches
global warming could also alter ocean currents and lead to excessive warming in
certain parts of the world and severe cooling in other places
warmer troposphere can decrease the ability of the ocean to remove and store
carbon dioxide by decreasing the nutrient supply for phytoplankton and increasing the
acidity of ocean water
global warming will lead to prolonged heat waves and droughts in certain places
and prolonged heavy rains and increased flooding in other areas
global warming will increase deaths from heat and disruption of food and
supplies in some areas, spread some tropical diseases to temperate areas, and greatly
increase the number of environmental refugees from drought and flooding
Solutions: improve energy efficiency, rely more on carbon-free renewable
resources, and find ways to keep much of the CO2 we produce out of the troposphere,
governments can tax greenhouse gas emissions and energy use, increase subsidies
and tax breaks for saving energy and using renewable energy, and decrease subsidies
and tax breaks for fossil fuels, Countries could work together to develop a new

international approach to slowing global warming, stop producing all ozone-depleting

chemicals

Chapter 24: Economics, Environment, and Sustainability

Economic Systems and Sustainability
Economic Resources: The Big Three
Economic system - the social institution through which goods and services are
produced, distributed, and consumed to satisfy peoples wants in the most efficient way
possible
three types major types of resources: natural capital, human capital, and
manufactured capital
pure-free market economy-the government is not involved, but the government
does intervene in a capitalistic economy
marginal cost-how much it will cost a supplier to produce one more unit of a
product, while marginal benefit is the increased benefit a buyer gets from the seller
producing one more unit of a product.
pure free-market economies do not exist in todays capitalist market systems.
governments intervene in market systems to provide public services that markets
cannot, such as national security, education, crime protection, and environmental
protection.
while neoclassical economists view natural resources as an important part of the
economy, ecological economists want to switch to a more environmentally sustainable
economic system.
Valuing Ecological Services And Monitoring Environmental Progress
Assigning Monetary Values to Resources
nonuse values-not represented in marked transactions
existence value-knowing that an old-growth forest or endangered species exist
aesthetic value-putting monetary value on forest, species, etc.
discount rate - An estimate of a resources future economic value compared to
its present value.
market prices do not include the environmental cost of producing a product.
optimum levels of pollution control and resource use are a balance between the
demand for cleanup, and the cost of cleanup.
to improve environmental quality, we should include environmental cost in market
prices, place taxes on pollution, and place regulations on markets.
poverty - inability to meet ones basic economic needs.
to reduce poverty, we can forgetting the debts of the poorest countries, and
sending aid in the form of small individual loans.
goals of the UN Millenium Summit: cut poverty in half, reduce infant mortality
rates by , reduce deaths from birth by , attain universal primary education, fight
infectious diseases, gender equality, cut the amount of people with no access to clean
water in half, and work together on a global level to combat environmental problems

 shifting to an environmentally economy will create more jobs, because there will
be a huge industry for improving environmental quality

Chapter 25: Politics, Environment, and Sustainability

Environmental Policy
Environmental policy consists of laws, rules, and regulation related to an
environmental problem
Politicians go through a policy life cycle to develop environmental policy that
consists of recognition, formulation, implementation, and control
Dealing With Environmental Problems in Democracies: Some Difficulties
Democracies generally struggle to deal with environmental problems because it
is difficult to please everyone
Humility principle - Our understanding of nature and of the consequences of
our actions is quite limited
Reversibility Principle - We should not do anything that cannot be reversed in
the future
Precautionary Principle - Take precautionary measures to prevent or reduce
substantial environmental problems
Polluter Pays Principle - There should be taxes and regulations to ensure that
polluters suffer the consequences of harming the environment
Integrative Principle - Make decisions that involve integrated solutions to
environmental and other problems
Public Participation Principle - Citizens should be able to contribute to and
voice their opinions on solutions to environmental problems
Environmental Justice Principle - Environmental policy should assure that no
group is more affected by environmental issues than another group
Individuals matter and play a major role in changing environmental policy
Environmental Policy in The United States
There is a large controversy surrounding how public lands should be used and
managed
Environmental Law - A body of statements defining what is reasonable
environmental behavior for individuals and groups, according to the larger community,
and attempting to balance competing social and private interests.
Statutory Laws - Developed and passed by legislative bodies
Administrative Laws - Administrative rules and regulations, executive orders,
and enforcement decisions
Common Law - A body of unwritten rules and principles derived from thousands
of past legal practices within a society
United States environmental laws set pollution standards, screen for toxic
substances, evaluate environmental impacts, encourage resource conservation, and
protect various ecosystems and species from harm
Environmental Groups and Their Opponents
There are major environmental groups that work on local, state, and global levels
to strengthen environmental law and find solutions to environmental policy

 Grassroots Environmental Groups are made up of citizens that work together to

improve environmental quality on a local level
Students can also work together to improve environmental quality in schools
Global Environmental Policy
International environmental organizations work on a global level to develop
treats, gather and evaluate data, and provide funds and loans
Earth summits and international environmental treaties bring awareness to global
environmental problems, but are usually not well enforced

Chapter 26: Environmental Worldviews, Ethics, and Sustainability

Environmental Worldviews and Values
Your environmental worldview is basically how you think the world works, what
you think a humans role in the environment is, and what you consider ethical when it
comes to the environment
Human-Centered and Life-Centered Environmental Worldviews
Planetary Management Worldview - The belief that humans are the worlds most
important species and should control the earth for our own benefit
Stewardship Worldview - The belief that humans should be responsible for taking
care of and preserving the earth
Some criticisms of human centered worldviews are that they will only work for the
short term because they we will run out of capital, and that humans do not possess
enough knowledge and information to effectively take care of the earth
Environmental Wisdom Worldview - The belief that humans should work in
connection with the earth instead of trying to control it
The Deep Ecology Worldview is basically that humans and nonhuman life should
coexist, and humans have no right to control nonhuman life forms in order to make
humans dominant
Ecofeminism - calls for gender equality in the quest for a more sustainable
society
Living More Sustainably
Literacy will help build more environmentally sustainable societies because
people will become more aware of serious problems
In order to create a more sustainable society, we must become more in tune with
nature; we cannot learn everything about the environment from book or in a classroom
The key to environmental change is living more simply
Environmental Traps to avoid, because they will make us feel less hopeful about
our environmental situation are: Gloom-and-Doom pessimism, blind technological
optimism is the belief that technology will save us, fatalism is the belief that we cannot
control the future, so there is nothing we can do, extrapolation to Infinity is small
changes will not make a difference, paralysis by analysis is creating the perfect solution
before actually implementing anything/making any changes, and faith in simple, easy
answers
ways to be more sustainable: eat less meat, buy locally grown and organic food,
refrain from using pesticides, drive energy efficient cars, reduce car use by taking mass
transit/walking/biking, and use solar energy