New Un Packet

The United Nations:
Challenges and Change
Contents
Introduction: The UN Today
Part I: The UN and the International Community
The League of Nations
The UN Takes Shape
The Structure of the UN
Part II: Debating the UNs Role
10
The Security Council
10
Peacekeeping
14
Human Rights
20
Options in Brief
28
Option 1: Utilize the UN to Protect U.S. Interests
29
Option 2: Recommit the UN to its Founding Principles
31
Option 3: Scale Back the UN
33
Supplementary Documents
35
Charter of the United Nations
35
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
36
UN Member StatesTimeline
40
Supplementary Resources
42
THE CHOICES PROGRAM is a program of the Watson Institute for International Studies at Brown University. CHOICES was established to help citizens think constructively about foreign policy issues, to
improve participatory citizenship skills, and to encourage public judgement on policy issues.
The Watson Institute for International Studies was established at
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to analyzing contemporary global problems and developing initiatives to address them.
Copyright February 2014. Fourth edition. The Choices Program. All rights reserved.
ISBN 1-60123-162-8 / 978-1-60123-162-8.
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WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY
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The United Nations:

Introduction: The UN Today
he United States played an important role

in the founding of the United Nations in
1945. After the terrible destruction of World
War II, people in the United States believed
the United Nations could provide the foundation for maintaining international peace and
security. They were proud of their leadership
and vision and hoped that it would establish
the basis for a more peaceful world. Yet today,
the U.S. commitment to the UN is uncertain.
Within the United States, the role of the
UN is part of a larger debate about U.S. foreign
policy. The role of the UN raises an important
question about how the United States should
address its security concerns. Should the United States protect its security by cooperating
and seeking consensus with other countries
at the UN? Many people in the United States
wonder if the UN helps or hinders U.S. foreign
policy. Many others remain committed to the
organization.
Internationally, much discussion about the
UNs future involves the question of U.S. cooperation with the organization. The debate is
about the role of the UN, its effectiveness, and
its fairness. Some have called the UN a place
for humanity to unite for peace and security,
while others have deemed it nave and idealistic. While upholding faith in the aims of the
UN, some criticize the way the organization
operates. Some critics accuse the UN of serving only the interests of powerful states, while
others regard it as an inefficient and meddling
institution.
Today, the world faces threats that no one
foresaw at the time of the UNs founding in
1945. AIDS, terrorism, the spread of nuclear
weapons, and global climate change were
not international concerns when the UN was
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formed. Some wonder if the UN has the capacity to face the challenges of a changing world.
Others note that the UNs success, above all,
depends on the commitment its members
have to working together to solve problems.
They argue that the UN itself does not fail or
succeed, the countries that make up its membership do.
The United Nations is only as good as

its members, especially its primary
members, want it to be.
Brent Scowcroft, former U.S. national
security advisor
Today, the UN provides a forum where

diplomats can address some of the worlds
immediate and long-term problems. The UN
has programs spanning the globe in numerous
areas: for example, peacekeeping and preventing conflict, caring for refugees, and reducing
poverty, to name a few. It has more than fifty
thousand employees around the world performing a wide variety of tasks.
In the following days, you will have the
opportunity to immerse yourself in the history of the UN and the debates about its role.
Part I will introduce the history and charter
of the UN. Part II will examine the role of the
United Nations in the world. After completing the readings, you will be asked to consider
the U.S. role in the UN and how the organization should be reformed, if at all. These issues
connect to other, more fundamental questions
about international relations. What role should
the UN play in the world? What should be the
role of the United States in world affairs?
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The United Nations:

Part I: The UN and the International Community
uring World War II, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933-1945) led an effort
to create an organization that would bring
countries together in a new system of international cooperation. On June 25, 1945, fifty
countries signed a document known as the
United Nations Charter. According to the charter, the central aim of the United Nations (UN)
is to maintain international peace and security. The Charter discusses human health and
well-being, as well as safety from violence, as
key matters of security.
Roosevelt was not the first U.S. president
to propose a system of international cooperation. Having seen Europe devastated by the
violence of World War I (1914-1918), President
Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921) hoped that it
would be the war to end all wars. In addition to committing troops, Wilson outlined a
proposal for an organization of states he called
the League of Nations. His proposal led leaders
from around the world to give real thought to
the idea of organizing the international community.
What is the international community?
Both President Wilson and President Roosevelts visions for a world organization were
founded on a concept of an international
community. Each foresaw an organization run
by representatives from governments around
the world. By the twentieth century, the
Part I Definitions
Sovereigntythe authority of a state
to govern itself without outside interference.
Territorial Integritythe idea that international boundaries should not forcibly
be changed.
worlds population had come to be organized
under various governments. These governments, also known as states, oversaw distinct
geographic regions. International law gave
states supreme authority, or sovereignty, over
all those living within the boundaries of that
territory.
At times of widespread international conflict, it became clear that the system of state
sovereignty alone could not prevent war. The
world faced the question of who ought to govern the interactions between sovereign states.
The international community established
the League of Nations, and later the United
Nations, as bodies of authority that would
promote international order. In addition, they
hoped that international cooperation could
address hunger, poverty, racism, exploitation,
slavery, disease, and other worldwide problems. Both organizations faced the challenge of
balancing their authority with the participating states sovereignty.
What is the difference between a nation and a state?

The 193 official members of the United Nations are states, not nations. A nation is a group
of people who are united by a common language, religion, history, or homeland. In international
relations, a state is a country with a defined territory and government that is recognized by its
citizens and other countries and has sole control over its military. States may contain one or more
nations within their boundaries, and nations within a state may or may not feel that the state
accurately represents them as a group. Many nations within states rally behind the cause of selfdetermination, claiming that they, and not the states claiming to represent them, should govern
their affairs. For example, Kurds, an ethnic-linguistic minority in the states of Turkey, Iran, Iraq,
Armenia, and Syria, see themselves as a nation and are seeking the establishment of an independent Kurdish state that could represent their political interests.
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The United Nations:

The League of Nations

was the predecessor of
the United Nations. The
League was a far-reaching
effort to prevent war and
maintain international
peace. It lasted for twentysix years, between 1920
and 1946, and its failures
led to the creation of the
United Nations.
How did the League of
The Big FourPrime Minister Lloyd George of Britain, Prime Minister
Nations intend to serve
Orlando of Italy, Premier Clemenceau of France, and U.S. President Wilson
as the conscience
played leading roles in the creation of the League of Nations. May 1919.
of the world?
The United States enMany people in the United States bristled
tered World War I in April
at
the
idea of collective security. Critics of the
1917. Nine months earlier, President Wilson
League
of Nations said signing would oblihad proposed a plan to end the fighting and
gate U.S. troops to fight in conflicts abroad.
prevent future conflict. Wilson suggested the
They worried that joining the League would
creation of a new international organization.
threaten the sovereignty of the United States.
The organization would eliminate the causes
Furthermore, Wilsons conflicts with congresof war by encouraging open diplomacy, secursional leaders hampered any possibilities for
ing freedom of the seas, developing free trade,
compromise. Wilson, a Democrat, did not
and reducing the production and trade in
include Republicans in the drafting of the covarms. He called this permanent global organienant. In response to this snub, his opponents
zation the League of Nations. Wilson believed
in the Senate were skeptical of his ideas before
that if states held one another accountable for
they even reached the table. In 1920, the U.S.
preserving peace, each would behave more
Senate defied Wilson and rejected U.S. particiconscientiously in its international relations.
pation in the League.
In this way, Wilson hoped the League of Nations would serve as the conscience of the
world.
Why did the League of Nations fail?
The organization began to fail after the
In a document known as the League of
League of Nations Covenant took effect in
Nations Covenant, Wilson and other world
January 1920. The League did not have the
leaders outlined the principles of the proposed
power to compel sovereign states to respect
organization. A central feature of the covenant
its authority. Members had little incentive
was the idea of collective security. Collecto honor their pledges of cooperating to stop
tive security was based on a members promise
aggression, protect human rights, and limit
to respect and preserve against external agthe production and spread of armaments. The
gression the territorial integrity and existing
League required unanimous decisions, and difpolitical independence of all Members of the
ferences of opinion prevented it from acting in
League. It urged states to respond to an attack
many cases.
on any League member as though it were an
attack on itself.
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The League struggled to live up to its
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Photo courtesy of National Archives and Records Administration.
The League
of Nations
The United Nations:

promise of being a global organization. Because the covenants authors were enemies of
Germany during World War I, the covenant
reflected anti-German sentiments. Britain and
France saw to it that Germany and a number of
other important countries, such as the Soviet
Union, were excluded from League membership. Their exclusion, along with the fact that
the United States never joined, diminished the
Leagues credibility.
[The] League was considered

a European and not a world
organization.
Lord Edward Grey,
British foreign minister
The UN Takes Shape

When World War II (1939-1945) erupted,
the League of Nations goal of preventing
another world conflict had clearly failed. Not
only did the death toll of World War II surpass
that of World War I, but the fighting caused
unparalleled destruction. The war also alerted
the international community to the human
capability for mass execution of civilians on
an unprecedented scale, known as genocide.
The search for a lasting solution to conflict had
never been more urgent.
What conditions made
a new international
organization possible?
Japans attack on Pearl
Harbor and U.S. involvement in World War II made
people in the United States
aware of how connected
countries and their conflicts could be. As a result,
the U.S. public became
more open to international
cooperation regarding matters of peace and security.
Other governments saw
new value in international
organizations as well. While
governments resolved to
abandon the League of
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Nations, they focused on creating an international organization that could serve as the
Leagues replacement.
If it [the League] were to disappear

today, nearly every treaty of a
political character which has been
concluded during these thirteen years
would vanish with it. A state of
chaos would result. [T]he first task
which would confront the statesmen
on the Leagues disappearance would
be to reinvent the League.
League Secretary-General Eric Drummon
President Franklin R. Roosevelt, who had

denounced the creation of the League in 1932,
took the lead in creating a new international
institution, the United Nations. Recalling
President Wilsons inability to get the League
of Nations Covenant passed in Congress, Roosevelt did not bring the United Nations Charter
to Congress for approval until he knew he had
the votes to guarantee ratification.
How was the UN established?
President Roosevelt died before the
United Nations could be officially established.
However, his successor, Harry S. Truman
(1945-1953), was determined to carry out
United Nations photo library.
Egypt signs the UN Charter, June 6, 1945, San Francisco.

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The United Nations:

Roosevelts vision for the UN. On June

25, 1945, just weeks before the end of
World War II, fifty countries gathered
in San Francisco to approve the United Nations Charter. Of the fifty states
to sign the United Nations founding
document, only a handful played a
role in its drafting: Britain, China, the
Soviet Union, and the United States.
The League of Nations ceased to exist and transferred its powers to the
United Nations.
UN Photo/MB.
In early 1946, the United Nations

set up its headquarters in New York
City. The decision to house the UN
headquarters in New York marked
a new phase in the history of the
international community. Prior to the
two world wars, Europe was seen as
the center of international politics,
UN headquarters in New York City.
but World War I and World War II had
called European stability into quesWhat are the core values of the UN Charter?
tion, and the United States emerged as
Sovereignty: The first underlying principle
a strong and stable player in the international
of
the
United Nations Charter is the soverarena.
eignty of all member states. Sovereignty means
Many in the world believed that placthe authority of a state to govern itself without
ing the headquarters of the United Nations in
outside interference. Governments support the
the United States would help engage the U.S.
UN on the condition that their right to govern
public in world politics. The technological
themselves will be respected. At the same
capabilities, democratic media, and available
time, the charter gives the permanent members
facilities in the United States made it a practiof the Security Council authoritative power
cal choice as well. People in the United States
over others.
saw hosting the UN headquarters as a step toSelf-determination: Self-determination
ward spreading U.S. values and pursuing U.S.
is
the
right of a people to choose their own
interests abroad.
Choosing a Headquarters
In a vote of 30 to 14, the UN decided to place its headquarters in the United States. Switzerland, though it had housed the League of Nations, had concerns about hosting the United
Nations. Its priority after World War II was to maintain neutrality. (In fact, Switzerland did not
join the UN until 2002.) Indeed, the failure of the League of Nations had tainted all of Europe as a
site for the new international organization.
Cities like Boston, San Francisco, Philadelphia and New York vied for the honor. New York
City was chosen as the temporary site. U.S. oil businessman John D. Rockefeller offered the UN
$8.5 million in order to purchase a specific piece of property in New York City. The deal was
settled, and the United Nations set up headquarters in New York City in early 1946. The UN
headquarters remains in New York City today.
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The United Nations:

government. Examples of
self-determination include
the right to establish a
constitution, run for office, and vote for local and
national officials. The cause
of self-determination has
inspired nations to challenge empires and states
that rule them. Throughout
history, some world leaders
have viewed self-determination struggles as a threat
to international peace and
stability. With thousands of
ethnic groups in the world,
fully honoring the principle
of self-determination could
lead to the creation of thousands of states.
Kirk Anderson. Reprinted with permission from Artizans.com.
Territorial Integrity: Territorial integrity is

the idea that international boundaries should
not forcibly be changed. The United Nations is
committed to respecting boundaries.
What controversies surrounded the
creation of the UN Charter?
In the nearly seventy years of its existence,
the UN Charter has undergone few changes.
As the first international treaty of its scale, the
charter is one of the most important documents in international relations. Still, there are
a number of provisions in the charter that have
been subject to multiple interpretations and
disagreement over the years.
In 1945, some delegates insisted that the
charter promote self-determination and racial
equality. But this line of thinking ran contrary to the practices of member states that
maintained colonies overseas, such as France,
Britain, Belgium, and the Netherlands. Colonial systems were often characterized by
violence, racial oppression, and segregation. In
the case of the United States, racial discrimination was part of many states laws.
Though the perspectives of numerous
peoples who lived under colonial rule and
systems of racial oppression were not included
in the creation of the United Nations Charter,
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some delegates present echoed concerns about

discrepancies between the values the UNs
founders claimed to uphold and the ongoing
injustice that prevailed around the world.
[T]he peoples of the world are on the

move. They have been given a new
courage by the hope of freedom for
which we fought in this war. Those of
us who have come from the murk and
mire of the battlefields, know that
we fought for freedom, not of one
country, but for all peoples and for
all the world.
Carlos Romulo, delegate from the
Philippines at the San Francisco
Conference, 1945
Ultimately, the UN Charter prioritized the

principle of sovereignty over these emerging
concerns. In this way, colonial powers and,
later, other world leaders could defend their
actions by claiming sovereignty protected
them from outside interference.
The Structure of the UN

The United Nations is a vast organization
spanning the globe that employs more than
fifty thousand people. UN employees perform
a wide variety of tasks and include scien-
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The United Nations:

tists, doctors, diplomats, refugee and disaster

specialists, security personnel, and administrators.
and Other states. (The UN uses Other to

refer to Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Turkey, and Israel.)
The organization is divided into sections

known as organs. There are six principal
organs of the UN: the Security Council, the
General Assembly, the Secretariat, the International Court of Justice, the Economic and
Social Council, and the Trusteeship Council
(see box).
The five remaining seats belong to the

permanent membersthe United States,
Britain, France, China, and Russia. Each of the
five permanent members has the right to veto
Security Council decisions. (To veto means
to prevent a resolution from being enacted.)
In order for a resolution to pass, nine of the
fifteen members on the Security Council must
vote in its favor, and no permanent member
can use the veto. All UN members are legally
required to abide by resolutions of the Security
Council.
Who sits on the Security Council?

The UNs executive body, the Security
Council, holds the primary responsibility for
maintaining international peace and security.
The Charter gives only the Security Council
the legal authority to enforce its decisions
through diplomatic or military action.
The Security Council has fifteen seats: five
permanent and ten nonpermanent. Elections
are held every year for half of the nonpermanent seats. Their terms are for two years.
Current practice allocates five elected seats to
African and Asian states, two to Latin American and Caribbean states, one to an Eastern
European state, and two to Western European
Why has the veto power of

permanent members of the Security
Council been criticized?
The five major victors of World War II
granted themselves the exclusive power to
veto resolutions. The veto power gave the
permanent members a final say in UN Security
Council resolutions.
Other founding members of the UN
expressed concerns over the fairness of the
The Six Organs of the United Nations

The Security Council: The Security Council is the UN body responsible for peace and security. It is the most powerful of the six organs. The Charter gave the five major victors of World
War IIBritain, China, the Soviet Union (now, Russia), the United States, and Francepermanent positions on the UN Security Council.
The General Assembly: The General Assembly is composed of representatives from every
UN member state. Votes in the General Assembly carry moral weight, but are not binding.
The International Court of Justice (ICJ): The ICJ is the judicial organ of the United Nations.
Cases come before the ICJ only when all parties (states, not individuals) involved agree to appear
in court.
The Secretariat: The Secretariat carries out the decisions of the organs of the United Nations
and is the administrative section of the UN. The secretary-general is the head of the Secretariat.
The Economic and Social Council: The Economic and Social Council coordinates the work
of the UNs specialized agencies, functional committees, and regional commissions, which do
much of the UNs work.
The Trusteeship Council: The Trusteeship Council oversaw the transition of colonies to selfgovernment or independence. This organ ceased regular operations on November 1, 1994, and
now only convenes as needed.
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The United Nations:

veto power. They worried that disagreements

among the permanent members of the Security
Council could create deadlocks that would
hinder the UNs ability to maintain peace and
security. Although permanent members vowed
not to obstruct operations of the council with
their veto power, many states were skeptical
of this promise. At the same time, they conceded that the full participation of the five
permanent members was essential for the UN
to succeed where the League of Nations had
failed.
While the status of the five permanent
members of the Security Council has not
changed since 1945, it has not gone unchallenged. Two important historical periodsthe
Cold War and the era of decolonizationhad
dramatic consequences for international
politics and highlight some of the issues surrounding representation and power in the UN.
The Cold War

Many of the original UN members concerns over the veto power quickly proved
valid. Following World War II, the United
States and the Soviet Union became involved
in a long, drawn-out conflict that caused more

than forty years of hostility between these two
states and their allies. This conflict, known
as the Cold War, lasted roughly between 1947
and 1989 and limited the Security Councils
ability to respond to global issues.
What was the role of the UN
during the Cold War?
While the UN Charter enshrined international cooperation, the United States and the
Soviet Uniontwo permanent members of the
Security Councilwere locked in an ideological battle during the Cold War. The Security
Council could not act without their joint
permission. The Security Council passed an
average of fifteen resolutions a year during the
Cold War. Today, the Security Council typically passes one resolution per week.
Nevertheless, three important developments took place during this period. First, the
UN established a peacekeeping program and
began its first operation in 1948. During the
Cold War, there were eighteen peacekeeping
operations around the world. Second, the UN
became an international leader on issues of
development, human rights, and the environ-
UN Photo #116280.
In July 1967, the UN hosted the Seminar on Apartheid, Racial Discrimination, and Colonialism in Southern
Africa. The photograph above depicts the opening ceremony in Kitwe, Zambia.
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The United Nations:

ment. Finally, less powerful countries of the

world discovered that the UN was a forum
to voice their concerns. The UN became an
important tool for many African and Southeast
Asian countries that were striving for independence from colonialism.
underrepresented countries from Latin America, Africa, and Asia. In 1965, the UN General
Assembly added four nonpermanent (elected)
seats to the council, bringing the total to the
current number of ten. The Assembly also established quotas for the number of seats filled
by different regions of the world.
Decolonization
Overall, decolonization rapidly expanded

UN membership from 51 in 1945 to 159 countries in 1990.
At the same time the Cold War was taking

place, decolonization movements were growing in strength across the world. Colonies in
Africa and Asia became independent states
and gained UN membership. The UN played
a significant role encouraging independence
for colonies. In 1960, the General Assembly
adopted the Declaration on the Granting
of Independence to Colonial Countries and
Peoples. The declaration reinforced the UNs
commitment to self-determination.
The subjection of peoples to alien

subjugation, domination and
exploitation constitutes a denial
of fundamental human rights, is
contrary to the charter of the United
Nations and is an impediment to
the promotion of world peace and
cooperation.
Declaration on the Granting of
Independence to Colonial Countries and
Peoples, December 14, 1960
With increased membership, criticism

of the distribution of power on the Security
Council grew louder. Newly independent
countries argued that the Security Council
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How did the end of the Cold War

affect the United Nations?
Improving relations between the United
States and the Soviet Union brought the Cold
War to an end in the late 1980s. When the Soviet Union dissolved, former Soviet republics
became independent countries and UN membership grew even more.
The end of the Cold War was a rebirth for
the UN. Cooperation among the permanent
members grew, while demands on the UN
were greater than ever. One of the pressing
concerns was how to appropriately address the
fact that membership had nearly quadrupled
since the UN Charter had first been signed.
In addition, the changing nature of global
concerns required the Security Council to consider the reach of its authority.
___________
The next section will discuss the leading
concerns of the UN todayrepresentation
in the Security Council, peacekeeping, and
human rightsand consider several of the
debates surrounding these topics.
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10
The United Nations:

Part II: Debating the UNs Role
s you read in Part I, the victorious powers of World War II established the UN to
maintain international peace and security.
The importance of this primary aim has not
decreased since the UNs founding in 1945,
but the world has changed dramatically since
then.
Security Council decide all matters of war and

peace?
Maintaining security in 1945 meant

protecting states from war. Today, security is
no longer solely a matter of war and peace
between states. In addition to safeguarding
countries from the attacks of aggressive states,
defending human rights has become a leading
concern for the United Nations. Terrorism, climate change, the HIV/AIDS pandemic, and the
spread of nuclear weapons are also important
issues that were not on the agenda in 1945. By
all accounts, the UN faces big challenges.
The Security Council
Today we face events of such

magnitude and complexity.
Diplomats of this generation now
have the obligation to envision a
second phase, a new chapter on
collective action so as to eradicate
these modern threats.
Mexican Foreign Secretary Luis Derbez,
September 24, 2004
Part II of the reading focuses on three

major components of UN work that are highly
debated: the Security Council, peacekeeping, and human rights. Each section discusses
real cases that demonstrate the successes and
shortcomings of the UN. In addition, each
helps address key questions about the UN in
three areas: representation, mandate, and effectiveness.
Representation: Who should hold power
within the UN? This is among the most lively
and heated controversies today. Some countries express frustration that decision-making
power is not shared equally among states.
Mandate: What is the scope of the UNs
responsibilities? For example, should the
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Effectiveness: How should the UN be organized and run? Can the UN be more effective?
Some critics contend that the UN is inefficient
and ineffective.
The UN has many critics who argue that a

few powerful states control the organization.
In particular, they accuse the Security Council
of placing great power in the hands of only a
few. The Security Council holds the primary
responsibility for maintaining international
peace and security. Only the Security Council
has the legal authority to enforce its decisions
through diplomatic or military action.
Since the UNs formation after World War
II, the United States, the United Kingdom,
France, Russia, and China have led the Security Council. Each of these countries has
a permanent seat on the council. Any one of
these five states can stop a resolution from
passing by vetoing it. Many other members
find the makeup of the council unfair. Some
desire a Security Council that accurately
reflects the political situation in the world
todaynot 1945.
The time has come for world views to

prevail at the UN, rather than those
of the West.
Cameron Duodo,
Ghanaian journalist
Recent proposals for reforming the UN

call for expanding the permanent membership
of the Security Council. Member states are
divided about which states should be added or
whether the current system needs changing at
all.
In addition to more democratic representation, debates about reform revolve around
the question of the Security Councils reach
and effectiveness. In reviewing the history
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The United Nations:

of the UN, some critics point to conflicts in

together a military coalition of twenty-eight
which the Security Council did not intervene
nations under the UN banner to end the Iraqi
but should have, like the 1994 genocide in
occupation of Kuwait. As part of the ceasefire
Rwanda. Other critics cite instances of conflict
agreement, UN monitors conducted regular
in which the Security Council did authorize
inspections of Iraq to prevent the production
intervention, as in Timor-Leste in 1999. They
of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons,
claim that the UN
and destroyed any
overstepped the boundstockpiles of chemical
aries of its power. This
or biological weapons
difference of opinion
that they found.
In order to ensure prompt
highlights a disagreeand effective action by the
Many believed
ment about how much
United Nations, its Members
that this military
say the Security Counconfer on the Security Council
intervention, made
cil should have on
shortly after the end of
primary responsibility for the
decisions to authorize
the Cold War, was the
maintenance of international
the use of force.
beginning of an era of
peace and security, and agree

that in carrying out its duties
under this responsibility the
Security Council acts on their
behalf.
international cooperation and increased

importance for the
UN.
What was the role of

the Security Council in
the two wars in Iraq?
The role of the
Thirteen years
UN Charter, Article 24:1
Security Council came
later, Iraq and the UN
under scrutiny in 2003
were in the headlines
when the permanent
again, but this time
members were divided over the question of
the Security Council could not agree.
authorizing military action against Iraq. This
The United States and Britain argued that
was not the first time the Security Council had
the
weapons
inspections were not working in
addressed conflict in Iraq. Thirteen years earIraq. They contended that Iraq had weapons
lier, the Security Council met under different
of mass destruction (WMDs), and that twelve
circumstances to debate taking military action
against Iraq.
In the 1991 Iraq War,
the Security Council, led
by the United States (who
was joined by its former
foe, the Soviet Union),
authorized an intervention
that succeeded in ending
an act of aggression by Iraq
against Kuwait.
WWW.CHOICES.EDU
UN Photo #76180.
Under the leadership

of Saddam Hussein, a
repressive dictator, Iraqi
forces invaded the neighboring oil-rich kingdom
of Kuwait in 1990. U.S.
President George H. W.
Bush (1989-1993) put
A UN inspector in 1992 uses a chemical air monitor to help confirm whether

Iraq was complying with orders to destroy its chemical weapons program.
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11
The United Nations:

years of UN sanctions had

failed to persuade Hussein
to comply with the 1991
ceasefire agreement. U.S.
President George W. Bush
(2001-2009) and British
Prime Minister Tony Blair
advocated military action
to remove the WMDs, and
topple the government of
Saddam Hussein.
The five permanent
members of the council
disagreed on whether to
continue the weapons
inspections or take military
action. France and Russia threatened to veto any
Security Council resolution that called for military
action against Iraq.
In this photo from 2006, an Iraqi family waits outside while a U.S. soldier
searches their home.
In March 2003, the United States invaded

Iraq, arguing incorrectly that Iraq possessed
WMDs. The U.S. decision to go to war without
Security Council authorization raised questions about the commitment of the United
States to the UN and the rule of law.
Three weeks after the U.S.-led ground
offensive began, the Iraqi government fell.
Months later, Saddam Hussein was captured.
An unsuccessful search for biological, nuclear,
and chemical weapons in Iraq began.
What are the current debates
about the Security Council?
The Security Councils role in the two
Iraq wars raised questions about the authority the UN has in decisions to go to war, and
about who leads this decision-making process.
Within the U.S. public, some dislike the idea
of the UN Security Council claiming authority
over matters of war and peace. On the other
hand, some suggest that with a commitment
from its members, the Security Council can
work effectively against aggression as it did in
Iraq in 1991.
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What is the U.S. governments position

toward the Security Council?
Under President George W. Bush, the U.S.
government took military action without the
authorization of the Security Council. President Barack Obama, who assumed office in
2009, has stepped away from this approach.
He instead has emphasized international
cooperation and the importance of countries
working together to solve the worlds problems.
This approach has led to some frustration both in the United States and abroad. For
example, U.S. efforts have failed to push the
Security Council to authorize action to stop
the use of force by the Syrian government
against its own people. Russia and China have
refused to consider a council resolution. As of
January 2014, this civil war had killed more
than 100,000 Syrians and forced 8.5 million
from their homes.
We live in a world of imperfect

choices. Different nations will not
agree on the need for action in
every instance, and the principle of
sovereignty is at the center of our
international order. But sovereignty
cannot be a shield for tyrants to
commit wanton murder, or an excuse
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Jeremy Wood. U.S. Navy.
12
The United Nations:

for the international community to

turn a blind eye.
President Barack Obama,
September 24, 2013
What proposals are being considered

to reform the Security Council?
Following the 2003 disagreement over
Iraq, the UN appointed a panel of high-level
officials to consider reform of the Security
Council. Some believe that permanent membership should be granted to a handful of other
states. Some proposals go so far as to grant

veto power to new states. Regional powers
like Brazil and India and major UN financial
contributors such as Germany and Japan are
vying for seats.
Opinions about giving more countries
permanent seats on the UN Security Council
are split in the United States. Some see it as a
natural and necessary reform, citing the historical example of the councils expansion in
its early years from eleven to fifteen members.
The UN and International Treaties

Treaties are used to solve problems ranging from eliminating terrorism and reducing the
spread of nuclear weapons, to protecting the environment and regulating international trade. One
of the original purposes of the UN was to strengthen international order through greater respect
for treaties and other multilateral agreements.
The United States enters into treaties after considering its options and interests. As the most
powerful member of the UN, the United States plays a leading role in the drafting of international
agreements. The United States also promotes its own interpretations of existing international
treaties, which may or may not be the same as the interpretations of other member states. The
U.S. president or a representative can sign a treaty, but the U.S. Senate must ratify the treaty for it
to become law. Below are three significant international treaties.
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty: The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) is one of the
most important international treaties. The United States played a leadership role in drafting the
NPT. For over four decades, the NPT, which regulates the production, trade, and dismantling of
nuclear weapons, has been a centerpiece of U.S. foreign policy. 189 countries have joined the
treaty. The NPT is the most widely-adhered-to arms control treaty and has slowed the proliferation (spread) of nuclear weapons.
Genocide Convention: After the genocide of Jews and others by the Nazis during World War
II, leaders worldwide pledged that such an event would never happen again. On December 9,
1948, the UN unanimously passed the Genocide Convention. This treaty made genocide a crime
and obligated its signers to prevent, suppress, and punish genocide. The treaty held violators responsible whether they attacked another state or acted inside their own borders. The U.S. Senate
did not ratify the treaty until February 11, 1986. Some senators objected to the treaty because it
was seen as infringing on U.S. sovereignty and would allow foreign countries and organizations
to examine the internal affairs of the United States. Tragically, there have been numerous genocides since 1948. These repeated genocides illustrate the limits of the international community
when it comes to preventing massive violations of basic human rights.
Convention on Rights of the Child: The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC),
which the UN General Assembly passed in 1989, was the first binding international treaty
dedicated exclusively to protecting and promoting the rights of children. The CRC was put into
effect within seven months and was ratified by all but two UN member states (the United States
and Somalia) within a decade. Although participants from the United States played a major role
in drafting this treaty, U.S. public opinion is split, with groups vigorously arguing both for and
against the CRCs adoption.
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The United Nations:

United Nations photo library.
14
UN peacekeepers fulfill a range of duties, from monitoring elections to using troops to enforce borders.
Others contest this, arguing that U.S. leadership in the UN would be diluted and that an
enlarged council would make reaching agreement more difficult.
Other critics propose adding nonpermanent seats for those geographic regions
currently underrepresented on the Security
Council. Proposals calling for additional nonpermanent seats often also ask for restrictions
to be placed on the veto power and express
interest in its eventual elimination.
[C]ontemporary world realities, in

particular the substantial increase in
membership of developing countries
since 1963, requires an expansion
of the Security Council, in the
nonpermanent category, in order to
ensure fairer opportunities for all
Member States.
A draft resolution put forth by Argentina,
Canada, Colombia, Korea, Mexico, Spain,
Turkey, and other states, July 21, 2005
Peacekeeping
UN peacekeeping forces are primarily
military forces of UN members who have been
assigned to work with the UN. Peacekeeping
forces have a range of duties that can include:
monitoring a border, making a ceasefire hold,
and protecting civilians.
The UN deployed the first peacekeepers to
secure peace in 1956 during the Suez Crisis.
The Suez Crisis was a conflict that began when
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Israel, supported by France and Great Britain,

invaded Egypt. At that time, the international
community was primarily concerned with
preventing war between countries. Today, civil
war and other types of local conflict take far
more lives than do wars between countries.
What is the difference between
peacekeeping and peace enforcement?
Early peacekeepers were unarmed and
were impartial in conflicts. Due to the changing nature of conflict, peacekeepers today
are usually well armed. The challenges they
face are often complex civil conflicts, commonly involving governments waging war
All Members of the United

Nations, in order to
contribute to the maintenance
of international peace and
security, undertake to make
available to the Security
Council, on its call and in
accordance with a special
agreement or agreements,
armed forces, assistance and
facilities, including rights
of passage, necessary for
the purpose of maintaining
international peace and
security.
UN Charter, Article 43:1
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The United Nations:

Why is there a debate about peacekeeping?

The debate surrounding peacekeepers
is fueled by the history of previous peacekeeping operations. One of the most terrible
events of the twentieth century sparked calls
for change. For one hundred consecutive
days in 1994, thousands of Rwandan men,
women and children were killed by machine
gun fire, machetes, and hand grenades. Within
four months, nearly one million people were
murdered simply because of their ethnic
origin. Escalating tensions between Rwandas
Hutu and Tutsi ethnic groups overwhelmed
the UNs tiny peacekeeping force.
In the wake of the UNs failure to prevent
genocide in Rwanda and other tragedies of
the twentieth century, some member states
proposed the creation of a standby UN military force. (Currently, member states volunteer
troops only when peacekeeping and security
needs arise.) This idea has sparked intense debate. Some states are unwilling to give control
of their troops to the international organization. Other objections include the financial
cost of maintaining a standing UN force.
Two peacekeeping operations, one in the
former Yugoslavian republic of Bosnia and the
other in the Asia-Pacific island of Timor-Leste
illustrate the debates about peacekeeping missions.
Bosnia
The former state of Yugoslavia slowly
began to disintegrate after the death of its
longtime leader, Marshal Tito in 1980. The
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HUNGARY
SLOVENIA
ROMANIA
CROATIA
BOSNIAHERZEGOVINA
Ad
r
iat
ic
Se
SERBIA
MONTENEGRO
KOSOVO
BULGARIA
on their own people, rather than conventional wars between states. Peacekeeping
missions frequently involve military engagement, sometimes referred to as peace
enforcement, that places these soldiers on
a particular side of the conflict. In addition,
peacekeeping troops fulfill an increasingly
wide range of nonmilitary tasks. Since the
UN does not have a standing army of its own,
the Department of Peacekeeping Operations
(DPKO) relies entirely on member states to
contribute troops and resources for its operations.
MACEDONIA
ALBANIA
ITALY
GREECE
The republics of the Yugoslav Federation, 1991.
republics that had been united under the state

of Yugoslavia came apart. Several, including
Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, and Macedonia,
sought independence. Nationalists in many of
the republics exploited this chaos. An extremist, Slobodan Milosevic, rose to power in the
republic of Serbia. His nationalist message
reached ethnic Serbs across the former Yugoslavia.
In the early 1990s, ethnic Serbs in Bosnia
grew nervous when they heard rumblings of
aspirations for an independent Bosnian state.
While Bosnias Muslims and Croats supported
the creation of an independent state, Bosnian
Serbs feared they would be subject to persecution. The conflict in Bosnia quickly erupted
into violence. Supported by armies from
neighboring republics, all sides were guilty
of atrocities. But Serb forces were responsible
for most of the brutality against civilians. The
Serbs sought to expel or kill Muslims and Croats from the region by targeting civilians. This
process of ethnic cleansing utilized torture,
gang rape, concentration camps, and massacre.
How did UN peacekeepers
try to end the violence?
Because neither Europe or the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) wished to
be involved, the UN sent a peacekeeping force
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15
The United Nations:

and NATO planes then

targeted Serbian bases with
two airstrikes. The delay
highlighted the difficulties
of sending a peacekeeping force into a full-scale
war without a mandate for
military action.
Serb forces responded
to the air strikes by threatening to kill the hostages
they had taken. As the
situation worsened and
no additional support
came for peacekeepers
to defend their position,
the peacekeeping mission
In this photo from May 1994, UN soldiers monitor the movement of Bosnians
left Srebrenica altogether.
at a UN checkpoint.
Meanwhile Serb forces lay
siege to the city, deported
more than twenty thouto Bosnia. (NATO is a political and military
sand women and children, and killed some
alliance of countries from Europe and North
eight thousand males between the ages of
America.) The mission mandated peacekeeptwelve and seventy-seven.
ers to enforce trade sanctions and a no-fly
zone against Serbia, but gave the peacekeepers no authority for military action. In 1993,
What was the effect of NATO intervention?
the UN Security Council designated several
Serbian massacres of Bosnian Muslim
safe areas throughout Bosnia, where disvillagers and artillery attacks against the city
placed Muslims and Croats could take
refuge and have the protection of a small
HUNGARY
peacekeeping mission. In the midst of
SLOVENIA
V
ROMANIA
a war zone, peacekeepers were still not
Zagreb CROATIA
given authority to take military action to
Belgrade
protect civilians. Neither were the 35,000
BOSNIA and
SERBIA
extra troops the UN secretary-general
HERZEGOVINA
and
requested from member states for the
MONTENEGRO
Sarajevo
Ad
peacekeeping in the region.
ria
tic
In July 1995, Serb forces invaded
Se
a
Kosovo
one safe area in the city of Srebrenica.
As fighting worsened, Serb forces took
Dayton agreement line
MACEDONIA
thirty peacekeepers hostage. The comMuslim-Croat sector
mander of the peacekeeping forces filed
Serb sector
a request with the UN for air support
ITALY
from NATO to suppress Serbian attacks.
No air support came. Peacekeepers later
GREECE
learned from UN headquarters that the
support had not come because the reThis map shows the peace agreement that was reached in
quest had been filed on the wrong form.
1995, dividing Bosnia into two republicsone for Muslims
The request was resubmitted correctly,
and Croats, and one for Serbs.
BULGARIA
UN Photo #907/John Isaac.
16
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The United Nations:

KAMPUCHEA
VIETNAM
THAILAND
t
ou
Ch
na
Se
Provincial
border
PHILIPPINES
Dili
Manatuto
TE
LES
OR
TIM
Viqueque
Suai
BRUNEI
A
SI
AY
AL
of Sarajevo stirred international

anger. NATO launched a hardhitting bombing campaign against
the Bosnian Serb army. NATOs
air war, led by U.S. pilots, allowed
Bosnian Croat and Muslim fighters
to take the initiative on the ground.
In an example of ethnic cleansing,
the Croatian army drove more than
200,000 Serbs out of eastern Croatia,
a region in which their people had
lived for three centuries. The Croats,
along with the Bosnian Muslims,
quickly followed up their advance
by attacking the Bosnian Serbs in
western Bosnia.
Kupang
MALAYSIA
Pacific Ocean
SINGAPORE
Jakarta
The combatants reached a ceasefire in

October 1995 and signed a formal peace agreement in Dayton, Ohio, in December 1995. The
Dayton Accords set forth ambitious goals.
The agreement was meant not only to end the
war, but to build a democratic, multiethnic
society. Several thousand peacekeepers under
European Union leadership remain in place
to enforce the accords. Hundreds of millions
of dollars in economic aid have been spent to
restore the economies in the region. In addition, officials and soldiers from both sides of
the conflict have been tried for war crimes at a
UN-sponsored tribunal in the Netherlands.
PAPUA
NEW
GUINEA
IN D O N E S IA
TIMOR LESTE
(see inset)
Timor-Leste
For more than four hundred years, Portugal ruled the eastern half of the Pacific island
of Timor. (In English, Timor-Leste means East
Timor.) The Dutch ruled the western half of
the island, along with the islands that today
make up Indonesia. The Indonesians gained
independence from the Netherlands in 1949,
and for the next sixteen years grappled with
mounting political instability. The turmoil
erupted into civil war in 1965. The Portuguese
colony of Timor-Leste was shielded from the
violence in Indonesia. But in 1974, Portuguese
colonial rule over Timor-Leste suddenly ended
after Portugals dictatorial government fell
from power. The people of Timor-Leste hoped
that the collapse of the Portuguese empire
UN Peacekeeping Operations Statistics
Peacekeeping Operations (December 2013)

Peacekeeping operations since 1948
68
Current peacekeeping operations
16
Personnel (December 2013)

Military and police personnel
97,904
Countries contributing military and police
122
Top ten troop contributors
Pakistan, Bangladesh, India, Ethiopia, Nigeria,

Rwanda, Nepal, Jordan, Ghana, Senegal
Total UN peacekeeper fatalities since 1948
3,186
Financial
Approved resources (July 2013-June 2014)
$7.83 billion
Estimated total costs from 1948-June 2010
$69 billion
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The United Nations:

would allow them to

achieve independence.
Indonesias President
Suharto had other plans
for Timor-Leste. In December 1975, he ordered
his army to invade the
island. Indonesian forces
massacred thousands of
unarmed civilians. In the
months and years that
followed, air attacks destroyed entire villages.
Indonesias actions
met with little opposition
from the international
community. The UN GenStudents in Timor-Leste on the first day of school in 2000. The school
eral Assembly passed a
building was burned during the violence after the 1999 vote to make Timorresolution condemning the
Leste independent. UN peacekeepers built desks and chairs for students in
invasion. But because Inthis school and later repaired the roof.
donesia was a key trading
partner of many powerful
countries, a number of
Despite Habibies promises, violence erupted,
member statesincluding the United States,
apparently with the backing of Indonesias
Britain, Germany, France, and Australiaabmilitary. The Indonesian military forcibly
stained from voting, while Japan opposed the
transported one quarter of the population
resolution. The UN Security Council passed a
across the border out of Timor-Leste. The UN
resolution calling on all states to respect the
authorized a military peace enforcement interterritorial integrity of Timor-Leste.
vention, led by Australia, to stop the violence.
Suharto ignored the UN resolutions and
tightened Indonesias occupation of TimorLeste. But the people of Timor-Leste did not
give up their struggle. In 1998, a severe economic downturn forced Suharto to resign,
which suddenly opened up new opportunities
for change. Suhartos successor, B.J. Habibie,
promised to transform Indonesia into a democracy. As part of his reform program, he
declared his support for a plan to allow the
Timorese people to decide their own political
future.
How did UN peacekeepers aid TimorLestes transition to independence?
In 1999, the UN deployed a mission to assist Timor-Lestes transition to independence.
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Soon after, Indonesia pulled out of the region.

After Indonesias retreat, UN peacekeepers
resumed efforts to establish law and order and
distribute humanitarian aid. The UN gave the
peacekeepers the task of creating a government
for Timor-Leste from scratch. It was the first
time in history that the UN stepped in to play
the role of government and build a state from
the bottom up.
In May 2002, the UN transferred full sovereignty to Timor-Leste. By 2003, most refugees
had returned to their homes. But violence in
2006 and the near-assassination of the countrys president in 2007 highlighted the fragility
of the peace. UN peacekeepers remained in
the country until December 31, 2012 to ensure
security, enforce the law, and train police and
civil servants. Today, the political situation remains stable, and the economy shows growth,
WWW.CHOICES.EDU
UN Photo/Eskinder Debebe.
18
The United Nations:

What are the current

debates about UN
peacekeeping?
The history of UN
peacekeeping missions in
conflict areas such as Bosnia and Timor-Leste frame
the debate about peacekeeping. These missions
Ceremony marking the transfer of police authority from the UN Mission in
evoke questions about
Timor-Leste to the government of Timor-Leste. March 27, 2011.
whether the UNs mandate
should include intervening
in conflicts within states at
that the UNs failure in places like Bosnia sugall, whether the UN is capable of properly supgests that it should not continue to intervene
plying and supporting its missions, and who
in tricky and costly conflicts, at least until
should have responsibility for peacekeeping.
there is a ceasefire. The peacekeeping mission
The reasons for the UN missions failure in
in Timor-Leste was unprecedented in its scope
Bosnia and the resulting tragedy of Srebrenica
and scale. Some object to peacekeepers takare contested. Some argue that the missions
ing such a far-reaching role in building a state
mandate was unclear and insufficient or that
from the ground up.
it was not effectively carried out. Many argue
Scandal in the UN
While the UN focuses its efforts on maintaining peace and security worldwide, it must also
confront corruption and crime within the organization itself. One of the most well-known UN
scandals relates to the Oil-for-Food Programme. In 1995, the United Nations made an agreement
with the Iraqi government under Saddam Hussein. The government of Iraq could sell oil to a
handful of buyers, and then the money from those sales would go toward food and humanitarian
goods for the country. (At the time, there were economic sanctions against oil companies in Iraq
that prevented them from selling oil on the world market.) In 2005, an investigation into the program found that the Iraqi government had placed a series of unauthorized fees on oil, food, and
humanitarian contracts. In doing so, the government of Iraq made over 1.5 billion dollars. The
UN was blamed for failing to monitor the bank accounts and personnel involved in the program.
The UNs credibility has also been questioned due to cases of UN peacekeepers committing
crimes while in the field. There have been multiple reports of sexual assault and human trafficking by UN personnel. The UN has a zero tolerance policy for crime, but perpetrators have not
always been held accountable. Laws in some countries prevent UN personnel from being brought
to court because the crime was committed abroad. These judicial gaps are a challenge for the UN
as it seeks to address misconduct within the peacekeeping force.
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UN Photo #468496.
helped in large part by

the development of oil
and natural gas resources
offshore. Nevertheless,
more than 40 percent of
the population lives below
the poverty line.
19
The United Nations:

Many look to the list of failed peacekeeping missions as an indication that

peacekeeping requires more attention and
resources. Peacekeeping is consistently underfunded. In addition, the system of enlisting
national armies for all UN missions is identified as a root problem. Member states are not
always eager to contribute troops to end conflicts in which they are not involved.
One proposal to fix the problemthe
creation of a standby military forceis highly
controversial. Supporters argue that the proposal would allow the UN to respond to crises
more quickly and effectively. Critics worry
that an independent standing UN force could
make it more likely that the UN would use
military action to deal with conflicts. Many are
concerned that this could lead to violations of
state sovereignty.
What is the Peacebuilding Commission?
In September 2005, the UN agreed to form
a Peacebuilding Commission. UN members
agreed to devote resources to identify states
in danger of collapse, to provide assistance to
prevent state collapse and conflict, and to help
rebuild states after there has been a conflict.
In addition, remembering the tragedies in
Rwanda and Srebrenica, states agreed that they
were prepared to take prompt collective action

through the UN Security Council to prevent
genocide and other crimes against humanity.
What is the U.S. position on
UN peacekeeping?
The United States has been active in
leading enforcement operations and has
also played a critical role in operations led
by regional organizations like NATO. The
United States often provides transportation for
peacekeeping operations to reach their destination, but does not contribute a significant
number of troops to peacekeeping operations
for several reasons. The UN directly controls
peacekeeping operations and the United States
traditionally has avoided giving command of
its soldiers to the UN or any non-U.S. leaders.
Many in the United States oppose the idea of
creating a standby UN military force because
they fear giving too much power to the UN.
Human Rights
The denial of human rights is a leading
cause of violent conflict. Among the UNs
greatest achievements have been its successes
at defining international human rights standards.
United Nations photo library. Reprinted with permission.
20
Eleanor Roosevelt displays a poster of the Declaration of Human Rights.

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Led by Eleanor Roosevelt, the UN developed

the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights in 1948.
This document and two
later treatiesthe International Covenant on Civil
and Political Rights and
the International Covenant
on Economic, Social, and
Cultural Rightsmake up
the foundation for current
international human rights
standards. Together these
documents are known as
the International Bill of
Human Rights.
The International
Bill of Human Rights
broke new ground. Never
before had the world
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The United Nations:

Major Elements of the

Universal Declaration of
Human Rights
Everyone is entitled to:
life
liberty
security
a nationality
freedom from slavery, discrimination, or torture
equal protection under the law
presumption of innocence until
proven guilty
freedom from arbitrary interference
with privacy
freedom of movement
freedom to marry and start a family
ownership of property
freedom of thought, opinion, expression, association, and religion
suffrage (the right to vote)
social security
work and membership in trade
unions
equal pay for equal work and just
remuneration
rest and periodic holidays with
pay
an adequate standard of living
free fundamental education
come together to agree on universal expectations of individual rights and freedoms. These
documents have become guidelines for states
domestic laws, as well as for the conduct of
business among states. Three examples of areas
in which the Bill of Human Rights has had significant impact are in securing womens rights,
labor standards, and voting rights as international standards. On the other hand, the UN
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has not successfully enforced the ambitious

agenda set by the International Bill of Human
Rights.
What was the Commission on Human Rights?
In 1946, the UN Economic and Social
Council recognized the link between ensuring
human rights and maintaining international
peace and security. It created the Commission
on Human Rights and charged it with examining, monitoring, and reporting on human
rights situations.
For the first twenty years of its existence,
the commission focused solely on promoting
human rights and helping develop international treaties on human rights issues. Beginning
in the late 1960s, the Commission also began
investigating and monitoring human rights
abuse, publicly reporting on these abuses, and
condemning the perpetrators.
Since the end of the Cold War, the growing
prominence of nongovernmental organizations
(NGOs) and the globalization of communication have made human rights abuses
increasingly visible. This has led to demands
for better enforcement of the human rights
standards put forth over a half-century ago.
Increasing concern about human rights
led the UN to create the position of the High
Commissioner for Human Rights in 1993. The
commissioner, who reports directly to the
secretary-general, leads and coordinates all UN
efforts related to human rights issues.
The era of declaration is now giving

way, as it should, to an era of
implementation.
Secretary-General Kofi Annan, April 7,
2005
Why did the UN reform its system for

dealing with human rights issues?
Critics had long denounced the Commission on Human Rights for its membership. The
Commission, with fifty-three members elected
to three-year terms, often had representatives
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21
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The United Nations:

from countries with questionable human rights

records. When Sudan was re-elected to the UN
Commission on Human Rights in 2004 despite
its government being responsible for massive
human rights abuses, the U.S. representative
walked out of the session. The U.S. gesture
of disapproval reflected a concern about the
membership and effectiveness of the Commission on Human Rights. In his April 2005
address to the commission, UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan declared that the commission
was failing.
We have reached a point at which the

commissions declining credibility
has cast a shadow on the reputation
of the United Nations system as a
whole, and where piecemeal reforms
will not be enough.
Secretary-General Kofi Annan,
April 7, 2005
To prove the UNs commitment to human

rights, Annan proposed that the UN replace
the Commission with a new bodya Human
Rights Council. In May 2006, the General
Assembly elected forty-seven countries as
Humanitarian Aid and Development

The UNs role in humanitarian aid and development work may be the organizations most
visible presence around the world. UN aid and development takes a variety of forms. Sometimes
UN agencies administer projects independently, sometimes the UN channels aid to specific governments, and sometimes UN agencies work alongside or provide funding to nongovernmental
organizations (NGOs). UN agencies and affiliated NGOs must navigate political complexities and
extensive bureaucracies.
The United Nations Development Program
(UNDP) is one of many organizations within
the UN working on development. Others
include the United Nations Childrens Fund
(UNICEF), the World Health Organization
(WHO), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and the World Food Programme
(WFP). The UNs vast network of organizations is involved in addressing long-term
problems and immediate crises like natural
disasters and refugee situations.
[T]he United Nations shall

promote:
a. higher standards of
living, full employment,
and conditions of economic
and social progress and
development;
b. solutions of international
economic, social, health,
and related problems; and
international cultural and
educational cooperation....
In 2001, members of the United Nations

General Assembly, including the United
States, agreed on eight development goals for
UN Charter, Article 55
the year 2015. The Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs) include the elimination of hunger, increasing childrens access to primary
education, reducing gender inequality, and promoting global partnerships, among others. Major
gains have been made toward reducing poverty, child mortality, and the spread of HIV/AIDS, but
many MDGs still remain out of reach. In December 2013, the UN announced a post-2015 development agenda, which will be used to recommit member states to existing and new MDGs.
Some see these goals as necessary and achievable, while others think they are idealistic and
go beyond the UNs mandate or capabilities. The commitment involved in humanitarian and
development projects have caused some to question how highly the UN should prioritize aid
within its wider agenda of peace and security, and whether there is a better method of administering aid.
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members of the Human Rights Council and the

Commission on Human Rights ceased to exist. It was an important reform of the way the
UN dealt with human rights issues. The new
Human Rights Council is accountable to the
General Assembly and meets for nearly twice
as long each year.
Still, the UN continues to struggle to define its role in addressing human rights. The
case of Darfur, Sudan highlights the difficult
balance the UN must strike between the interests of its member states and its mandate to
effectively protect the human rights of people
around the world.
Humanitarian Crisis in Darfur, Sudan

Sudan is the third largest country in
Africa, and is made up of hundreds of diverse
ethnic, religious, and linguistic communities.
Since it gained independence from Britain in
1956, Sudan has been embroiled in civil war.

Different ethnic groups have fought for control of the government and access to natural
resources.
Decades of conflict between the Arab,
Muslim elite in the north and other groups in
the south culminated in the separation of the
country into Sudan and South Sudan in 2011.
Issues between Sudan and the newlyindependent South Sudan continue to this
day, but the United Nations remains focused
on another conflict in the region, the ongoing
violence and displacement in Darfur, a region
in western Sudan.
In 2003, tensions over land and grazing
rights in Darfur, Sudan escalated between ethnic groups. Non-Arab groups, who are mainly
farmers, claimed that the central government
gave special privileges to the Arab population
of nomadic herders. This was not a new griev-
Egypt
Libya
Saudi Arabia
Da
rfu
r
Chad
Sudan
Eritrea
Yemen
Ethiopia
South Sudan
Central African
Republic
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Somalia
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The United Nations:

ance; non-Arabs in Darfur have long argued

that the Sudanese government favored Arab
populations and neglected Africans during
periods of prolonged drought and famine.
When non-Arab opposition groups organized to protest their treatment in 2003, the
Sudanese government and pro-government
militias (known as the Janjaweed) responded
brutally. Entire villages were burned, and
militants carried out systemic campaigns of
rape and murder. Many international observers accused the government of supporting
the violent militia and of dropping bombs on
villages in Darfur. In 2004, U.S. Secretary of
State Colin Powell labeled the violence an act
of genocide.
Both sides in the conflict perpetrated great
violence against the regions civilian population. It is estimated that since 2003, up to
400,000 people in Darfur have died due to
violence, starvation, and disease.
The nature of the conflict in Darfur has
shifted in recent years. When South Sudan
gained independence in 2011, Sudan lost
access to profitable oil fields and saw a sharp
decline in the countrys GDP (gross domestic
product). An already impoverished country,
Sudan came under increasing pressure to find
new sources of revenue. Competition over gold
mines in Darfur renewed conflict between the
government and local groups.
The range of conflicts in Darfur that began
in 2003 have left over 1.5 million people
displaced from their homes. (This does not
include the over one million people who were
displaced and have since returned.) In 2013,
the United Nations recorded 460,000 new
internally displaced persons (IDPs) in Darfur,
more than the previous two years combined.
Many Sudanese have fled to other parts of
Sudan and to neighboring countries, where
refugee camps and services are overcrowded.
Violence has spilled over Sudans borders into
neighboring Chad, the Central African Republic, and South Sudan.
How has the UN responded

to the crisis in Darfur?
Early on in the conflict, international
observers called for the creation of a UN
peacekeeping force for Darfur. But Sudans
government was hostile to this suggestion,
claiming that it would view the presence of
international troops as an occupation. So the
UN instead supported a regional organization,
the African Union (AU), in its efforts to reduce
violence in Darfur. The AU force, deployed
to Darfur in late 2004, was small and underfunded and had little effect in stemming the
violence.
Ban Ki-moon, who was elected UN
secretary-general in October 2006, renewed
the UNs commitment to the crisis in Darfur.
After months of negotiations led by Ki-moon,
Sudans government agreed to the deployment
of UN peacekeeping troops. In July 2007, the
Security Council unanimously approved a
resolution to create a combined UN-AU force
of troops and police in Darfur. The council
also approved the use of force by these troops
for self-defense as well as for the protection of
civilians.
The UN-AU Hybrid Mission in Darfur,
UNAMID (often pronounced yoon-ah-mid),
is the second largest peacekeeping force in
the world. While the protection of civilians is
UNAMIDs core mandate, the force also works
to make sure aid groups are able to get services
to the people that need them.
In recent years, the UN has shifted the
conversation toward finding durable solutions
to the issues in Darfur. The UN has worked
United Nations Mission in Darfur

(UNAMID)December 2013
Uniformed troops, military
observers, and police
International civilian personnel
$1,335,248,000
Budget FY 2013
1,061
411
United Nations volunteers
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19,271
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UN Photo/Albert Gonzalez Farran, Photo # 562006.
The United Nations:

Sudans Boy Scout and Girl Guide association marches in a UNAMID parade on September 23, 2013, the
International Day of Peace. The banner reads, We Need Peace Now.
with Darfurs opposition groups and with

the Sudanese government to help negotiate
a peace settlement. In addition, UN workers
have conducted a series of community meetings to incorporate people from Darfur into the
ongoing discussion about rebuilding efforts
and urban planning.
[E]fforts to further stabilise Darfur

and initiatives to promote early
recovery and development of Darfur
are ongoing. We strongly believe
that giving the people of Darfur the
security to return to their homes and
opportunities to build livelihoods
is the best guarantee of enduring
peace.
Joint Special Representative Ibrahim
Gambari of UNAMID, September 14, 2011
Reintegrating the 1.8 million IDPs back

into their communities in Darfur is a top priority for the UN High Commission of Refugees.
The UN provides return packages for IDPs
which may include kitchen items, blankets,
soap, and other nonperishable materials.
Through partnerships with the World Food
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Programme, IDPs also receive food vouchers

for use in local markets.
What has been the U.S. role in Darfur?
The United States is a main financial
backer of UNAMID. In the 2012 fiscal year, the
United States government spent close to $200
million on humanitarian aid and peacekeeping
operations in Darfur. While President Obama
has given diplomatic priority to resolving the
ongoing conflict between Sudan and South
Sudan, his administration pushes for peaceful,
nonmilitary interventions to stop the fighting
in Darfur.
We are...deeply concerned about the

situation in Darfur where continuing
violence has displaced an estimated
320,000 people this year alone. We
call on all parties in these conflicts
to ensure the safety of the civilian
population and allow unhindered
humanitarian access.
U.S. Department of State,

September 27, 2013
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The United Nations:

UN Photo/Albert Gonzalez Farran, Photo # 571730.
26
UN peacekeepers from Nigeria register people at a UNAMID medical clinic in Labado, East Darfur. Fighting
between the government of Sudan and armed groups forced many humanitarian workers to leave the region.
In April 2013, the UNAMID clinic became the sole provider of health care for IDPs in East Darfur.
The U.S. government also maintains economic sanctions against companies controlled
by the government of Sudan. Still, critics argue
that the United States has not done enough to
end the violence in the region.
What challenges does the UN face in Darfur?
The UNs presence in Darfur is not without
challenges. On a number of occasions, Sudans
government has threatened to withdraw its
support if UNAMID tries to expand its role in
the country.
In 2013, tensions rose between Sudans

government and UN officials due to an increase in attacks against UN personnel. Out of
fifty-eight UN casualties worldwide, sixteen
occurred in Darfur. The UN has called for the
Sudanese government to take a stronger stand
on the matter, but the perpetrators have not
been brought to court.
In addition, the Sudanese government has
been slow to renew permits for aid workers in
Sudan. In August 2013, twenty out of thirtyseven permits were not renewed for high-level
UN staff. The UN argues that these delays
International Criminal Court

In the late twentieth century, questions arose about how to ensure that individuals guilty of
committing genocide, war crimes, or crimes against humanity were punished. Only states, not individuals, can be tried before the International Court of Justice (ICJ). In 1998, a separate criminal
court was created for the purpose of trying individuals. This court is known as the International
Criminal Court (ICC) and is not part of the United Nations. The United States opposes an international court that can judge and sentence U.S. citizens. Supporters of the court argue that there are
enough safeguards in place to ensure U.S. citizens would receive due process.
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critically affect its ability to carry out humanitarian operations in Darfur.

Other challenges in Darfur relate to the
relationships between the UN and other international organizations involved in the region.
In March 2005, the UN Security Council
passed a resolution allowing the International
Criminal Court (ICC) jurisdiction over the
criminals responsible for human rights abuses
in Darfur. Four statesthe United States, Brazil, Algeria, and Chinaabstained from voting.
The resolution was the first time the Security
Council referred a case to the ICC.
Nevertheless, Sudans government has
rejected the ICCs involvement and has thus far
been unwilling to surrender any of its citizens
to the court. The ICC issued two arrest warrants for Sudans president, Omar al-Bashir,
as well as warrants for a high-ranking govern-
ment official and a pro-government militia

leader. (Three rebel leaders were also charged;
they have already appeared before the court.)
The inability of the ICC to try President
Bashirand the unwillingness of several
African member states to comply with his arresthas led to disagreement on how to best
achieve justice for the atrocities committed in
Darfur. The ICC has asked the Security Council
to help enforce the decisions of the court.
The [Security] Councils silence, even

when notified of failures by States to
comply with their obligations, only
added insult to Darfurs victims.
ICC Chief Prosecutor Fatou Bensouda,
December 11, 2013
he case studies you have read highlight some of the debates

surrounding the UN. In the coming days, you will consider
a range of options for U.S. policy on these issues. Each of the
three options that you will explore is based in a distinct set of
values or beliefs. Each takes a different perspective on the U.S.
role in the world and its relationship with the UN. You should
use the options to help understand the contrasting strategies from
which people in the United States must craft future policy.
Ultimately, you will be asked to make your own choices
about where U.S. policy should be heading. In doing so, you
may borrow heavily from one option, combine ideas from
several, or take a new approach altogether. You will need to
weigh the risks and trade-offs of whatever you decide.
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The United Nations:

Challenges and Change

Part I: The UN and the International Community

The League of Nations

The UN Takes Shape

The Structure of the UN

Part II: Debating the UNs Role

The Security Council

Option 1: Utilize the UN to Protect U.S. Interests

Option 2: Recommit the UN to its Founding Principles

Option 3: Scale Back the UN

Charter of the United Nations

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

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The United Nations:

Introduction: The UN Today

he United States played an important role

The United Nations is only as good as

Today, the UN provides a forum where

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The United Nations:

Part I: The UN and the International Community

What is the difference between a nation and a state?

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WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY

The United Nations:

The League of Nations

The League struggled to live up to its

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Photo courtesy of National Archives and Records Administration.

The United Nations:

[The] League was considered

The UN Takes Shape

If it [the League] were to disappear

President Franklin R. Roosevelt, who had

United Nations photo library.

Egypt signs the UN Charter, June 6, 1945, San Francisco.

The United Nations:

Roosevelts vision for the UN. On June

In early 1946, the United Nations

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The United Nations:

Kirk Anderson. Reprinted with permission from Artizans.com.

Territorial Integrity: Territorial integrity is

some delegates present echoed concerns about

[T]he peoples of the world are on the

Ultimately, the UN Charter prioritized the

The Structure of the UN

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The United Nations:

tists, doctors, diplomats, refugee and disaster

and Other states. (The UN uses Other to

The organization is divided into sections

The five remaining seats belong to the

Who sits on the Security Council?

Why has the veto power of

The Six Organs of the United Nations

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