Agriculture, or farming, is a primary industry.

Farmers cultivate crops and rear

animals to produce food and other products. Agriculture is affected by many of the
same factors and concerns as other types of industry.
There are a range of agricultural operations from large commercial farms to small
subsistence farms. All of these farms work to supply the constant demand for
agricultural produce.

Farming

Sheep graze on a farm in Devon

Farms can be categorised according to what is being grown or reared, the size of the
operation and the agricultural techniques being used.
Farming can be:

sedentary or nomadic
subsistence or commercial
arable, pastoral or mixed
extensive or intensive

Sedentary or nomadic?

Sedentary farming is when a farm is based in the same location all the time.
Nomadic farming is when a farmer moves from one place to another. This is
common in some LEDCs.

Subsistence or commercial?

Subsistence farming is when crops and animals are produced by a farmer tofeed
their family, rather than to take to market.
Commercial farming is when crops and animals are produced to sell at market for
a profit.

Arable, pastoral or mixed?

Arable farms grow crops. Crops are plants that are harvested from the ground to
be eaten or sold.
Pastoral farms rear animals - either for animal by-products such as milk, eggs or
wool, or for meat.
Mixed farms grow crops and rear animals.

Extensive or intensive?

Extensive farming is where a relatively small amount of produce is generated

from a large area of farmland.

Intensive farming is where a large amount of produce is generated from a

relatively small area of land. Inputs will be high to achieve a high yield per hectare.
Inputs could be either fertilisers, machines or labour.

Arable farming
Arable farming is common in the south east where the summers are warm and the land is
low, flat and fertile. The south east also has good transport links and farms are close to
markets in towns and cities such as London.

Market gardening
Human factors such as finance and proximity to markets are important to market gardening.
It is common in East Anglia where fruit, vegetables and flowers are grown.

Hill sheep farming

Hill sheep farming takes place in the north and west of Britain in highland areas such as
Snowdonia and the Lake District. There are cool summers and high rainfall. The climate and
steep land make these areas unsuitable for growing crops.

Dairy farming
Dairy farming is common in the south west and the west of England where the climate is
warm and wet. There are also good transport links and good access routes to markets in
these areas. The land may be flat or hilly, but not too steep.

Mixed farming
Mixed farming is found in areas where the climate and relief suit both crops and animals. It
needs to be warm, but not too wet, and the soils need to be fertile and flat. Mixed farms need
good transport links and accessibility to markets.

Case study: Cambridgeshire

Cambridgeshire is one of the most agriculturally productive areas in Europe. The area is used
for arable farming because of:

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Physical factors
Low lying land
Well-drained soil
Warm summers (18C in July)
Human factors
Good access to markets
Large areas of farmland so larger machines can be used
Investment by companies - farms are owned by large companies able to
use economies of scale
Changes in MEDCS
The nature of rural areas in MEDCs are changing. This section outlines the key
challenges including rural depopulation and sustainable change.

Social and economic changes in rural areas in MEDCs

Job losses

Several factors have led to a decline in employment in rural areas.

The mechanisation of agriculture means less people are needed to work on the land. Raw
materials which may have been mined are becoming exhausted, so mines are closing.
Imported food and raw materials also decreases the demand from the countryside.

House price increases

Restrictions on new developments in National Parks means housing stock is restricted.
Attractive areas found in National Parks create demand from second home owners pushing
local people out of the price bracket.

New homes
The UK has a shortage of suitable homes. Greenfield sites are cheaper to build on
than brownfield sites. Related problems, such as traffic congestion and increased car journeys
are created.

Competition from abroad

There is now more competition from abroad - for example lamb can be imported at a
competitive price from New Zealand. As agricultural income falls, farms diversify - into
providing tourist accommodation, for instance. This is successful in some areas which attract
tourists, but is limited in many areas. Tourism is also very seasonal in the UK.

Rural depopulation
The less accessible (remote) rural areas have a decreasing population. In these less
accessible rural areas many of the younger population move out. Push factors for the young
people are the shortage of jobs and a lack of social life.
However the rural areas which are accessible to urban areas have an increasing rural
population - one reason is because of counter urbanisation.

Decline in services
The depopulation in remote areas means the local services decline. Independent stores and
post offices become less profitable because of rural depopulation. Bus services may decline
leaving the elderly cut off.
The changes in the less accessible (remote) rural areas leads to a cycle of decline.

Farm diversification
Farming in the UK today is no longer as profitable for everybody as it has been. Reasons for
this are:

Supermarkets buy in bulk and are driving down the price of the food
Imported food is often cheaper
Mechanisation and changes to grants have meant smaller farms and hill farms go
out of business
Farms can diversify to try and keep making money. This means that the farm will start to
create other areas of income, such as creating a tourist attraction, offering bed and breakfast
or selling produce via a farm shop. Some farms may also close and start a different business
on the land.

Organic farming
Organic farming does not use chemical fertilisers or feed additives for livestock. It relies upon
more natural forms of farming such as biological pest control and crop rotation. Using
ladybirds which eat aphids is one example where a natural process replaces a chemical
pesticide.
Organic farming is less efficient and so produce does cost more. The demand for organic
produce is increasing in the UK. However people may go back to non-organic produce if their
income falls.

Positive aspects of organic farming

The environment benefits because natural habitats are less threatened.

The soil can be in better condition because of the manure used.
It can provide healthier food for people.
Biodiversity increases with fewer chemicals which harm bees and other insects.
The industry is worth over 1 billion a year.

Negative aspects of organic farming

More produce is damaged by pests.

Weed control is time consuming as weeds are often removed mechanically.

Some organic pesticides, such as copper can remain in the soil and be harmful.
Organic dairy farms produce more methane per animal than non organic. This is
because of the diet of the cattle.
Some organic farming methods use more water than non-organic methods.
The crop yield is lower on organic farms (about 20% less compared to nonorganic farming).
Most of the organic food bought is actually imported.

Sustainable rural changes in MEDCs

To make rural changes sustainable means to protect the resources, maintain the economy
and not let the standard of life suffer for the present residents or those that follow. It is
difficult to make sure every aspect of rural change is sustainable. There are some approaches
which help towards achieving more sustainability:

Local people can form co-operatives to provide services. Berrynarbor, Ilfracombe,

has a community shop that is a good example. Nearly half of the villagers invested in the
shop. There is space for locals to stop for coffee and use a computer. There are around
250 community shops in Britain.
The government can give money to promote sustainability. The Environmental
Stewardship Scheme (ESS) is one example, run by DEFRA. This pays the farmer to
improve the landscape, promote public access and conserve wildlife.
The EU can fund more deprived rural regions through funds such as the European
Regional Development Fund. The government has to match the money put in by the EU.
National parks in the UK are managed with sustainability in mind. Conflicts
between recreation and conservation happen. These conflicts can be managed by clear
signage for tourists, restrictions on developing land, and restrictions on traffic and park
and ride schemes in some areas.

When people migrate from rural areas in LEDCs to urban centres in search of work,
there are some positive but often negative impacts on rural communities.
Sustainable development is a key way to enable rural communities to thrive.

Changes in rural areas - LEDCs

Key changes

The changes which are happening in rural areas in LEDCs are very important. This is because
the majority of the population live in rural areas. The countries which have the highest
percentage of rural population are those which are the poorest. The land is used to feed the
people both in towns and rural areas - LEDCs import less food from other countries
than MEDCs. This means that changes in rural areas in LEDCs are important.

Rural to urban migration

Rural push factors (such as low wages) and urban pull factors (such as better jobs) cause
rural to urban migration.

Positive results

The migrants are able to send money home.

With more money from the urban workers, school fees may be paid or livestock
bought.

Negative results

It is often the young males who move - the remaining family may be less
physically able to carry out heavy tasks.
With the absence of the young males, children may have to work on the farm,
rather than going to school.

Subsistence farming to cash crops

Slash and burning of tropical rainforest, Amazon Basin, Brazil

Land which was growing subsistence crops is turned into commercial agricultural land
for cash crops.
This can have positive impacts which include:

The country has a greater source of income.

There are jobs generated for workers.

Negative impacts

Less land is available to grow food to feed the local population.

Water supplies may be used up on cash crops.
Fertiliser may enter the local water supply.
Rates of soil erosion increase.
Local ecosystems may be damaged

Population increase
The rate of natural increase is high in many areas. This puts pressure on the food supply. This
leads to malnutrition and starvation. It also encourages rural to urban migration.

Hazards and diseases

AIDS and other epidemics raise the death rate. Wars also raise the death rate. This means
that there are fewer older people to work on the fields to produce food.

Environmental degradation
As people seek to gain food and income from the land, more vulnerable land is used. The
processes of desertification and deforestation mean the environment degrades. Clearing
forests, such as in the Amazon Rainforest, causes many problems such as soil erosion and
loss of the ecosystem.

Globalisation of tourism
Some rural areas attract tourists. The Maasai Mara in Kenya is one area which attracts
tourists on safari. This brings money into the area and may help improve localinfrastructure.
However the money spent by tourists does not always go back to the local economy.
These changes can make rural areas more vulnerable and trigger a cycle of decline.

Diagram showing the LEDC cycle of decline

Sustainable rural change in LEDCs

Four key ways of helping rural areas become more sustainable

By improving the rural economy. This includes encouraging income generation

in the area. This may result in less rural - urban migration.
By increasing rural food production. This will need to be done in an
environmentally sensitive way, so the way the land is farmed is more sustainable.

By improving the rural standard of living. Ensuring there is clean water and
safe sewerage disposal. Giving everybody access to education and health care.
Improvements in communication help rural people to keep in touch with
developments. Better access and links to towns allows exchange of information, goods
and products.

Charities working in rural LEDCs

There are many charities and non profit organisations working in rural LEDCs to help them
become more sustainable.
They may do this by:

Working alongside communities, teaching natural (organic) farming methods to

boost crops and increase yields.
Having a 'pass on' system, which means any benefit an individual is given, will be
passed on when they are able. For instance when seeds are given, after the following
harvest some of the seeds produced are passed on to others in need.
Training people to help reduce soil erosion and improve water holding capacity of
the soil. This can be through contour ploughing or applying manure from the animals
given to the communities.
Helping people to help themselves - boosting confidence and developing a strong
community spirit.
Developing self sufficiency over time - when the support from the organisation
goes, the community will still be able to carry on.