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The Civil War left the nation busy with internal improvements, making us
unconscious of the world outside of America. But soon after during the early 20th
century, the drastic change in foreign policy in the dawning “age of empire” made
the U.S a conqueror, departing from its traditions of anti-colonization, and leaving
many problems yet to be solved.
• Old World pathogens had cut down Hawaiian native population down to 1/6 its
size. Hawaiian population was largely dominated by imported Chinese and
Japanese laborers of the American sugar lords.
⇒ The U.S worried that Tokyo might try to interfere on behalf of its often-
abused nationals
• The McKinley tariff caused sugar markets to sour, which in turn caused white
American planters to renew their efforts to secure the annexation of Hawaii
⇒ Queen Liliuokalani was strong-willed in insisting that Hawaii belonged to the
natives
⇒ In response, desperate whites, which were only a tiny minority, made a
successful revolt openly aided by the American troops under the
unauthorized orders of the expansionist American minister in Honolulu
• A treaty of annexation was rushed to Washington D.C. before it got to the
Senate. After Harrison’s term expired, President Cleveland suspected that the
nation had wronged the deposed Queen Liliuokalani. With more investigation
done to determine that Hawaiian natives opposed annexation, Cleveland
withdrew the treaty
• The annexation weren’t picked up until 1898
III) Cubans Rise in Revolt
• Cubans revolted once again against their Spanish oppressors in 1895, partly
because of economic reasons, since sugar production was crippled by the
American tariff of 1894
• The rebellions adopted a scorched-earth policy when driving out the Spaniards,
as the insurrectos left a burning path of destruction over cane fields, sugar mills,
and passenger trains. These events also menaced American interest on the
island
• Stimulations of American interference:
⇒ Large trading stake are on the line in this revolutionary upheaval
⇒ According to Senator Lodge, Cuba lay “right athwart the line” that led to the
much anticipated Panama Canal. Furthermore, Cuba is the key to controlling
the Carribean
⇒ Spanish general Valeriano “Butcher” Weyler made a program to herd civilians
into barbed-wired concentration camps, which he called the reconcentrados
movement, so that they wouldn’t help the armed rebellious insurrectos.
(a) With the dearth of proper sanitation, these enclosures were bottomless
pits of death
⇒ The battleship Maine was sent to Cuba early in 1898 for a “friendly visit”
when its true intentions was to protect and evacuate Americans if danger
occurs. It was also sent to demonstrate Washington’s concern for the island’s
stability
(a) Tragedy struck as it was mysteriously blew up and sank bringing down
260 sailors with it in Havana harbor
(b) American investigations concluded that the blast was caused by a
submarine mine while the Spaniards thought that the explosion was
internal and accidental, which was the truth. Not until 1976 did U.S Navy
admiral H.G. Rickover confirm the original Spanish findings and found
evidence that the explosion was caused by spontaneous combustion in a
coal bunker
(c) The war hawks of American people in 1898, with the aid of the yellow
press, obviously believed that the Maine was sank by a submarine
⇒ Yellow journalism
(a) Weyler and his reconcentrados movement were red meat for yellow
journalism. Yellow journalist William Randolph Hearst sent gifted artist
Frederick Remington to Cuba so he could “furnish the pictures” while
Hearst “furnish the war”
(b) Hearst publicized a private letter from the Spanish minister in Washington,
Dupuy de Lôme. The De Lôme letter depicted President McKinley in
unflattering terms. From the letter, Americans were depicted as jingoes
and “scoundrels by nature”
(c) Sink of the Maine was depicted as the result of a treacherous Spanish
attack
• The national war fever was burning higher than ever despite American diplomats
already reached agreement in Madrid to Washington’s two basic demands:
⇒ End reconcentration camps
⇒ Armistice with Cuban rebels
• McKinley, unsure of what to do, since he preferred neither hostilities with Spain,
Spanish control of Cuba, or a fully independent Cuba, recognized the inevitable.
The combined efforts of popular demand and the fight-hungry Theodore
Roosevelt influenced McKinley to send a message of war to the Congress on
April 11, 1898, urging armed intervention to free the Cubans
⇒ The Congress interpreted this as a declaration of war
⇒ The Teller Amendment was adopted guaranteeing Cubans freedom when the
U.S overthrow Spanish ruling
• McKinley had little faith in Spain’s promises and he was also afraid to be viewed
as indecisive in the upcoming Election of 1900. He also acknowledged Cuba’s
economic and political benefits to the U.S
IV) Dewey’s May Day Victory at Manila
• Theodore Roosevelt as the assistant secretary saw the opportunity to take
situations in his own hands when Navy Secretary John D. Long was away from
office
⇒ Roosevelt cabled Commodore George Dewey, commanding the American
Asiatic Squadron at Hong Kong, to attack the Spanish Philippines, and
President McKinley confirmed Roosevelt’s instructions
⇒ On May 1, 1898, Dewey carried out his orders magnificently as he quickly
completely destroyed the warships of Spain at Manila harbor. He became a
national hero overnight
• Despite the naval success, Dewey was could not storm the forts of Manila with
his sailors. He was forced to wait for reinforcements while German warships in
Manila harbor appeared deepening the tension
• On August 13, 1898, the long-awaited American reinforcements combined with
Filipino insurgents commanded by their leader Emilio Aguinaldo captured Manila
⇒ Aguinaldo was a shrewd and magnetic revolutionary in exile in Asia. Dewey
brought him from exile to hopefully weaken the Spaniards, but he will regret
this choice as time goes on
⇒ Hawaii seemed beneficial as an annexation
(a) Coaling and provisioning, a stopping station for reinforcements to
Philippines
(b) Fear of Japanese takeover of the islands while the U.S is distracted
(c) A joint resolution of annexation of Hawaii was rushed to Congress and
approved by McKinley on July 7, 1898. Granted Hawaiian residents U.S
citizenship. Hawaii became a territory in 1900
V) The Confused Invasion of Cuba
• The Spanish “armada” was easily blockaded by the more powerful American
fleet when it went into the Santiago Harbor
• The strategy was to sent the American army in from the rear to drive out the
Spanish ships
⇒ General William R. Shafter led the invading force
⇒ The troops were unequipped considering fighting in a tropical region. They
were amply provided with heavy woolen underwear and uniforms designed
for Indian fighting
⇒ The “Rough Riders” were a part of the invading army. They were a colorful
regiment of volunteers ,commanded by Colonel Leonard Wood and organized
principally by Theodore Roosevelt, consisted largely of western cowboys and
other hardy characters
• In the middle of June, the bewildered American army under Shafter’s command
embarked at Tampa, Florida. Because of the help from the Cuban insurrectos,
the American army met little opposition.
⇒ The American army won battles in El Caney and Kettle Hill on July 1 with
heavy casualties
⇒ The colorful Colonel Leonard wood, shot a Spaniard with his revolver, wrote a
book on his exploits which famed satirist Finley Peter Dunne’s character “Mr.
Dooley” remarked to must be titled Alone in Cubia[sic]
• On July 3, the Spanish fleet was badly outgunned. They met their destruction
when they steamed out of the Santiago harbor onto the American naval
blockade. Santiago surrendered shortly
• The American army met even less resistance at Pueto Rico. Spain had enough
of the war
• On August 12, 1898 Spain signed an armistice
• If the Spanish army held out a few month longer, the American army could have
been severely weakened by diseases
(ii) Speaker of the House Thomas “Czar” Reed resigned in protest against
imperialism
(b) The Filipinos thirsted for Freedom
(c) Violation of the “consent of the governed” philosophy of the Declaration of
Independence and the Constitution
(d) Despotism abroad might well beget despotism at home
(e) The cost of imperialism would most likely to exceed the profits made by it
(f) Annexation would propel the U.S into political and military cauldron of
East Asia; in another words, getting involved with Eastern Asian politics
⇒ The Anti-Imperialist League fought the expansionist movement of the
McKinley administration. Among the members of the league were Mark
Twain, Samuel Gompers, and Andrew Carnegie
⇒ The Senate approved the Treaty of Paris by 1 vote on February 6, 1899
VII)Perplexities in Puerto Rico and Cuba
• Puerto Rico was neither a state nor a territory
• The Foraker Act of 1900 granted U.S citizenship to their people in 1917 and
allowed a limited degree of popular government
• The Americans improved their education, sanitation, and transportation,
although they still sought independence
• A newly imposed question during American imperialism was did they
Constitution follow the flag?
⇒ In Insular Cases which began in 1901, the Supreme Court, over its badly
divided decision, basically judged that the flag did outrun the Constitution.
Puerto Ricans (and Filipinos) were under American rule but did not enjoy full
American rights.
⇒ American law, including the tariff laws and the Bill of Rights, did not apply
with full force to the newly acquired possessions
• Under the American military government in Cuba, set up under the
administration of General Lenard Wood of the Rough Riders, achieved miracles
in government, finance, education, agriculture, and public health
• The combined efforts of General wood and Colonel William C. Gorgas made an
effective attack on yellow fever
⇒ Special experiments were performed by Dr. Walter Reed and others on
volunteered American soldiers
• The U.S withdrew from Cuba in 1902 honoring its self-denying Teller Amendment
of 1898, but only when they were forced under the conditions of the Platt
Amendment
⇒ Cubans were forced to write their own constitution in 1901, which included
that they were forced to agree not to sign treaties compromising their
independence, and to not take on debt.
⇒ They further agreed that the U.S have the right of intervention to restore
order when it saw fit
⇒ Cubans also had to agree to sell or lease coaling or naval stations to their
powerful “benefactor” Uncle Sam
⇒ The amendment was finally abrogated by the U.S, although it still occupies a
28,000 acre beachhead at Guantanamo under an agreement that could only
be revoked by the consent of both parties
VIII)New Horizons in Two Hemispheres
• The Spanish-American war was short and a mere advertisement and preamble
for America as an imperial power
⇒ Strong European nations greeted the U.S with more respect and better
diplomatic relations
• The war did not start due to imperialistic purposes, but after the imperial idea
overwhelmed the nation, it began to build an empire
• The victory contributed to a great war spirit
⇒ Newly popular military marching-band music was composed by John Philip
Sousa
⇒ Captain Mahan’s stress for a big navy gained popular support for more and
better battleships
⇒ Secretary of War Elihu Root established a general staff for the army and
founded the War College in Washington
• The war lessened the tension of the “bloody chasm” between the North and
South
⇒ Confederate cavalry hero General Joseph Wheeler was given a command in
Cuba. So used to the anti Northerners spirit, he cried in the heat of battle,
“To hell with the Yankees! Dammit, I mean the Spaniards.”
• By taking on the Philippines, the U.S gave itself a difficult task of East Asia, and
assumed burdensome commitments that they will prove unwilling to defend with
the appropriate military power
IX) “Little Brown Brothers” in the Philippines
• The Filipinos under Emilio Aguinaldo on February 4, 1899 erupted into open
insurrection because it did not get its assumed freedom from the U.S when the
U.S decided to stay there indefinitely
⇒ America was basically fighting against the Filipinos who had asked for
nothing but freedom, in the traditional American way to ask for it
• They waged guerrilla warfare against the U.S
• The U.S adapted cruel strategies against the Filipinos
⇒ “water cure” was a method forcing water down the victims’ throats until they
are willing to give out information
⇒ Similar to Butcher Weyler’s reconcentration camps in Cuba, the U.S army had
them in the Philippines
• The backbone of the Philippines was broken when Aguinaldo was captured in a
guerrilla camp in 1901, marking an end of the insurrection
• Future President William H. Taft became the civil governor of the Philippines in
1901
• McKinley’s “benevolent assimilation” of the Philippines proceeded with painful
slowness and restraint
⇒ His western-style cowboy hat made him stand out at the Republican
convention
• William Jennings Bryan was nominated by the Democrats, again. Meeting at
Kansas City, their platform proclaimed Republican overseas imperialism to be
the paramount issue
• As Lincoln abolished slavery for 3.5 million Africans, McKinley reestablished it for
7 million Filipinos. McKinley won the Election of 1900 by a much wider margin
than in 1896. He won majorly not because of standing on a side with
imperialism; it was for prosperity and protectionism
XII)TR: Brandisher of the Big Stick
• After William McKinley got murdered by an anarchist in September 1901, barely
6 month after his reelection. TR became the youngest president by far in
American history at the age of 42
• Roosevelt was born into a wealthy family in New York. With a Self-imposed
routine of exercise, he was physically healthy. With partial education in Europe,
he graduated from Harvard with Phi Beta Kappa honors
• Filled with energy, TR was very egotistical and he expressed a personality that
portrayed individualism
⇒ His pet proverb: “Speak softly and carry a big stick, [and] you will go far.”
• TR believed that the president should be the sole leader of the nation with
restrictions only by the Constitution. He had no respect for checks and balances
and separation of power
XIII)Building the Panama Canal
• Roosevelt soon applied his energy to foreign affairs
• Learning a lesson when the battleship Oregon sailed all the way around South
America to join the U.S fleet in Cuba, the U.S needed an isthmian canal for
mobility of the navy, facilitating the operations of the U.S merchant marine, and
the defense of Caribbean acquisitions
• Initial oppositions were legal rather than financial
⇒ Under the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty concluded with Britain in 1850, the U.S
could not secure exclusive control over an isthmian route
⇒ Busy dealing with an unfriendly Europe and a Boer War in South Africa,
Britain gave consent to the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty in 1901 which gave U.S
the right to build and fortify the canal
• Many American experts favored a route across Nicaragua while agents of the
French Canal Company were seeking a route in Panama
⇒ Represented by Philippe Bunau-Varilla, the New Panama Canal Company
dropped the price of ts holdings form $109 million to $40 million
⇒ Congress decided on the Panama route in June 1902
• Panama was still a part of Colombia. Colombia rejected the offer from the U.S of
$10 million plus an annual payment of $250K for a 6-mile-wide zone across
Panama
⇒ Roosevelt was not happy for California to stir the U.S into potential warfare.
He therefore invited the entire San Francisco Board of Education to come to
the White House
⇒ Under the “Gentlemen’s Agreement”, the Californians were induced to repeal
the segregation order and Tokyo agreed to stop Japanese immigration by
withholding passports
• TR also worried that Japan will interpret his decision as a desperate result out of
fear. Therefore, brandishing his big stick, decided to send the entire battleship
fleet on a highly visible voyage around the world
⇒ Starting the voyage in late 1907, 16 battleships started sailing from Virginia
waters
⇒ They were ready for “a feast, a frolic, or a fight” declared their commander
⇒ The fleet received tumultuous welcomes in Latin America, Hawaii, New
Zealand, and Australia, although it ended up borrowing British coal to
complete the voyage
⇒ Out of surprise, Japan also gave an effusive welcome to the U.S fleet. As a
result of this warm diplomatic atmosphere, the U.S signed the Root-Takahira
agreement with Japan in 1908, which pledged both powers to respect each
other’s possessions in the Pacific and maintain the Open Door to China
⇒ For the moment, the 2 rising powers remained in peace