Cell Division and the Cell

Cycle
Mitosis and Meiosis
When one cell divides into 2 cells,
and then 4 cells

Mitosis
A stage in the process of cell division
which ensures that two identical nuclei
result from one parent nucleus.
Cell Division has two main stages:
Mitosis divides DNA that has replicated
equally into two identical nuclei in the
same cell.
Cytokinesis then splits the cytoplasm of
the cell which results in two identical cells.

Why do cells divide?

As a cell grows, its surface area to volume ratio
decreases. In order to keep this ratio at a
value that is efficient enough for life, a cell
must divide.
Multicellular organisms divide their cells in
order to grow larger, develop an embryo, and
repair body tissues by replacing damaged cells.
Unicellular organisms divide in order to
reproduce asexually. This process is called
Binary Fission.

The Cell Cycle

Most of a cells life is spent in a phase called
interphase.
Interphase is when the cell is performing
cellular processes like transcription, translation,
excretion, facilitated diffusion, cellular
respiration, etc. These processes may include
contraction for a muscle cell, secreting into and
absorbing materials from the digestive tract,
secreting hormones into the blood, and sensing
changes in the environment.

Interphase
Interphase is also when the cell is growing and
preparing for cell division.
Interphase is broken up into 3 stages.
G1 = Growth (Gap) 1: The cell is growing, storing
energy and nutrients, and producing organelles.
S = Synthesis: When DNA replicates so that
there are two copies of DNA in the nucleus.
G2 = Growth (Gap) 2: More production of
organelles and preparation for division to occur.
The length of Interphase depends on cell type.

The Cell
Cycle

S Phase
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes to
make 46 chromosomes total in every cell
except red blood cells and gametes.
23 chromosomes came from our mother
and 23 chromosomes came from our father.
When the DNA replicates, there are two
copies of DNA in the cell.
So, how many chromosomes are in a G2
human
92 chromosomes.
cell?

S Phase
Since DNA replication is semi-conservative,
the replicated chromosomes are close to
each other.
In Mitosis, the DNA condenses into sister
chromatids.
2 sister chromatids of identical DNA are
joined together by proteins and are closest
at a repetitive sequence of DNA they both
have called a centromere. This entire
complex is called a chromosome.

Mitosis

Eukaryotic Chromosomes
Eukaryotic chromosomes are made
up of DNA and proteins.
We already know about histone
proteins that make up the
nucleosome by coiling DNA around
the histones.
There are also scaffolding proteins in
chromosomes that help them keep
their shape.

The Process of Mitosis

What does a cell have in it at the end of G 2?
2 sets of complete DNA in the form of
loosely packed chromatin fibers.
An elevated number of organelles like
mitochondria and chloroplasts.
2 Centrosomes, with 2 centrioles inside,
which microtubules will extend out from.
Everything else a normal cell has nuclear
membrane, golgi apparatus, cell membrane,
etc.

G2 of Interphase

Mitosis
Mitosis is a continual process but is
divided into stages that are
convenient for describing what is
happening.

The Stages of Mitosis

PMAT
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

Prophase
The DNA chromatin condenses into
chromosomes (made up of 2 sister
chromatids)
The nuclear membrane breaks apart
The centrosomes migrate to opposite
poles in the cell with growing
microtubules in between them.

Metaphase
The centrosomes are now at opposite
poles of the cell.
Spindle microtubules from the
centrosomes attach to the
kinetochore on each chromosome.
The microtubules push and pull the
chromosomes in a line at the middle
of the cell called the metaphase
plate.

Anaphase
Anaphase starts when the
centromeres divide and are pulled
away from each other by the spindle
fibers.
The (now) chromosomes travel to the
opposite poles of the cell.
Anaphase is finished when all of the
chromosomes have reached either
pole of the cell.

Telophase
The opposite of Prophase.
The nuclear envelope reforms.
The chromosomes uncoil into their
form they will have during
interphase.
The spindles dissolve.

Cytokinesis
When the cytoplasm of the cell is
divided.
A cleavage furrow is formed by a
contractile ring that forms around the
center of the cell.
The contractile ring pinches the cell
into two.

The difference between Plant and

Animal cell division
Animal cells have contractile rings
that constrict around the center of
the cell and pinch off the cytoplasm
into two separate cells.
Plant cells grow a cell plate in
between the two nuclei splitting the
cell by building a cell wall between
them and eventually dividing the cell
this way.

Tumors
Tumors are the result of uncontrolled cell division.
This results from mutations that happen within
the cells DNA caused by sunlight, chemicals,
mistakes in DNA replication, etc.
The mutations usually stop cell division
checkpoints from working so the cell divides
continuously using so much energy that the host
can eventually die.
Tumors can occur in any cells or tissues and can
be benign (stationary) or malignant (where they
spread throughout the body in a process called
metastasis).

Mitosis Self Quiz

Do it all except Questions 10 & 11.
http://www.phschool.com/science/biol
ogy_place/biocoach/mitosisisg/quiz.h
tml

Mitosis Review
Describe the process of mitosis. (8)
Start from the BEGINNING.
What must happen in order for
mitosis to occur?
What are the first things that occur in
mitosis?
Then explain mitosis.

 DNA replication;
each chromosome consists of two sister / identical
chromatids;
chromosomes condense / supercoiling;
nuclear membrane breaks down;
chromosomes align (at equatorial plate);
spindle fibres / microtubules attach to centromeres of
chromosomes on opposite sides;
centromeres split;
chromatids become chromosomes;
sister / identical chromosomes pulled to opposite
poles;
nuclear membranes reform;
events correctly assigned to interphase, prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase;

Observing Mitosis in Whitefish

embryos.
Using a microscope, draw cells in
separate drawings that are in
Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase,
Anaphase, and Telophase.
Remember to include a descriptive
title, the total magnification, labels,
and any observations you think are
important.
Use immersion oil if/when you go to
1000x magnification.

Meiosis and the beginnings of

genetics
Meiosis is the process of cell division
that results in the production of sex
cells used for reproduction (gametes).
Meiosis only occurs in the sexual
organs/regions of a multicellular
organism.

Keeping track of chromosomes in

meiosis
Meiosis occurs in diploid cells.
Diploid cells (2n) have two sets of homologous
chromosomes (usually one set from the mother and
the other set from the father).
In meiosis, as in mitosis, when DNA replication
occurs, the cell becomes tetraploid (4n).
In mitosis, the cell then divides into a 2n cell.
In meiosis, two divisions happen to produce 4
individual haploid (n) cells.
These cells that result from each division are called
haploid because they have half the number/set of
chromosomes.

Meiosis
The chromosomes replicate once, and do two
successive divisions (no DNA replication after
the first division) to create four haploid cells.
Meiosis only occurs in organisms that do
sexual reproduction so that two haploid cells
(gametes) can fuse and create a new
organism that does mitosis in order to grow
into a new organism.
Meiosis consists of 2 cellular divisions:
Meiosis I and Meiosis II

MEIOSIS I

MEIOSIS II

Homologous pairs
Things that are homologous are similar
in structure or function to one another.
Homologous chromosomes are
chromosomes in the nucleus that are
very similar to each other.
Each human somatic cell contains 22
pairs of homologous chromosomes one
from the mother and one from the father
to make each pair.

Mal
e

Fema

Meiosis I: Premeiotic
Interphase

DNA and centrosomes are replicated

Meiosis I: Prophase I
Chromatin condenses into
chromosomes
Homologous chromosomes pair
together
Crossing over occurs

Meiosis I: Prophase I

Crossing over creates

Chiasmata
In Prophase I, homologous chromosomes
can undergo a process called crossing over.
Crossing over is when the DNA of
homologous chromosomes is pressed so
close together in the nucleus that similar
sequences of one strand of DNA can break
and reconnect with similar sequences of
the other strand.
This cross bridge is called a chiasma (plural
= chiasmata).

(It can happen two times and

many more!)

Crossing over allows for genetic

variation
This exchange of genetic material
happens within an organism that is
making gametes.
Genetic material is exchanged
between DNA from the mother and
DNA from the father.
In this way, we can get recombinants
offspring which have characteristics
that neither of their parents express.

Mothers Fathers
chromoso chromoso
me
me
XYZ, XYZ xyz, xyz

Crossin
g Over

Recombin
antsxYz
Xyz
XyZ

xYZ

Meiosis I: Metaphase I
After crossing over has occurred all of
the chromosomes line up randomly on
either side of the metaphase plate.
Independent Assortment is the process
where chromosomes line up randomly
so that different homologous
chromosomes will be on one side or
another of the metaphase plate.

Meiosis I: Metaphase I
A spindle fiber from one
pole attaches to one
homologous chromosome
from the mother or father
(two sister chromatids
together).
A different spindle fiber
from the opposite pole
attaches to the other
homologous chromosome.

Meiosis I: Anaphase I
Homologous chromosomes are split apart towards
opposite poles while sister chromatids stay
together. For each chromosome, one pole gets
DNA that is mostly from the father and the other
pole gets DNA that is mostly from the mother.

Meiosis I: Telophase I
Chromosomes arrive at opposite
poles.
Each chromosome contains two
sister chromatids, both either from
the mother or father, except for any
DNA that might result from crossing
over.
Nuclear membranes reform.
Some organisms de-condense their
DNA, some do not depending on the

Meiosis I: Telophase I

After Telophase I, there is normal

cytokinesis.

Meiosis II: Prophase II

Doing it all again! This time, without DNA
replication before the division. Meiosis II
is very similar to Mitosis.
Centrosomes duplicate and move to
opposite poles.
Nuclear envelope breaks down. Spindle
apparatus forms.

Meiosis II: Metaphase II

Single chromosomes align along the
Metaphase plate unlike in Metaphase
I when homologous chromosomes
aligned along the metaphase plate.

Meiosis II: Anaphase II

The centromeres separate, and the
two chromatids of each
chromosome move to opposite poles
on the spindle. The separated
chromatids are now called
chromosomes.

Meiosis II: Telophase II

The nuclear envelope reforms and
the spindles break down.

Meiosis II: Cytokinesis

Cytokinesis results in the splitting of
the cytoplasm into four different and
separate haploid cells (gametes).

Review
http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sit
es/0072495855/student_view0/chapter
28/animation__how_meiosis_works.htm
l

After Meiosis,
Gameteogenesis
Meiosis results in the production of 4
haploid cells that need to differentiate
in order to become mature gametes
(sex cells).
In males, all 4 gametes will become
sperm cells in the gonads of the male
(testes in humans).
This process is called
Spermatogenesis.

Oogenesis
In females, meiosis creates only one
oocyte (egg) that will mature and 3
much smaller cells called polar
bodies.
Polar bodies are created because the
first and second divisions of meiosis
were unequal.
This allows a large oocyte to be
created to support the very first
stages of embryo development.

Fertilization!

Non-disjunction
Non-disjunction occurs rarely during Anaphase I or
Anaphase II.
Non-disjunction is when the homologous
chromosomes or sister chromatids do not separate
so one cell receives twice as much DNA as it
should and the other cell receives no DNA for that
specific chromosome.
Thus, when a gamete that exhibits aneuploidy (an
additional chromosome or lacking a chromosome)
undergoes fertilization with another gamete there
will be an abnormal number of chromosomes in
the resulting embryo.

What would you expect if

normal (no non-disjunction)
meiosis occurred?

Non-disjunction is responsible for a

variety of genetic defects
Non-disjunctions leads to a change in
chromosome number of a cell.
Non-disjunction can be determined
by creating a karyotype.

How is karyotyping done?

Karyotyping can be done with any cells of an
organism, but usually, with white blood
cells.
Cells are isolated, then stopped in
Metaphase, lysed, and the chromosomes are
arranged according to size.
Before birth, there are two possibilities to
test for chromosomal abnormalities.
1. Chorionic villus sampling
2. Amniocentesis

Chorionic Villus Sampling

A sample of the placenta is taken
either through the abdominal wall or
through the cervix.

Chorionic Villus Sampling

Amniocentesis
A small amount of fluid is taken from
the amniotic sac that surrounds the
developing fetus. This fluid has cells
in it, from the fetus, that can be
analyzed via karyotyping.

Trisomy 21, a.k.a. Downs Syndrome

3 chromosomes present of
chromosome 21.
Occurs in approximately 1 in every
800-1000 births.I
Short stature and stocky arms and
legsI
Distinct facial features low, small
ears, irregular mouth shape and
teeth, flat facedI
Cognitive disabilitiesI

KlineFelters Syndrome
An XXY genotype is present meaning
that a male has twice as much X
chromosome as is usual.
Occurs in approximately 1:500 male
births.
Reduced fertility due to small testes
Lanky, rounded body type
Enlarged breast tissue

Turners Syndrome
An XO genotype is present where
there is only one X chromosome
present in each cell.
Occurs 1:2000 1:5000 births.
Cognitive deficits
Short stature and webbed neck
Sterility
Autoimmune diseases

Homework review
Go through the link below that
compares Mitosis and Meiosis. It is
very clear and comprehensive.
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/baby/di
vi_flash.html
Watch animation about Meiosis
http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sit
es/0072495855/student_view0/chapter
28/animation__stages_of_meiosis.htm
l

Compare and contrast the processes

of Mitosis and Meiosis
Similarities:

Mitosis

Meiosis

Similarities: DNA replication occurs during

interphase before mitosis or meiosis begins

Mitosis

Haploid/
diploid
End
product?
# of
cells,
similar
to
parents?
Crossing
over?

Purpose
of
process?

Leads to the creation

of diploid somatic
cells.
One cell division
creates 2 daughter
cells identical to the
parent cell.
No crossing over
Used for growth,
repair, and asexual
reproduction.

Meiosis
Leads to the creation of
haploid gametes.
Two cell divisions creates
4 gametes genetically.
different from the
parent.
Crossing over during
Prophase I.
Produces gametes and
introduces genetic
variation

Determining the Mitotic Index (MI) in

Onion Root cells
Mitotic Index: A measure of how actively a cell
population is undergoing mitosis.
The Mitotic Index = The ratio of cells in mitosis
compared with the total number of cells in the
field of view.
MI = (Number of cells in mitosis / total number of
cells in the field of view) X 100%
Sample MI = (3/16) X 100% = 0.1875
How many significant figures?
0.2
Only 1 significant figure so our calculated MI is
No,
because
its
a
Are units needed?

ratio.

Powerpoint created by Kris Wilson, UWC-USA. Comments can be

directed to kristofer.a.wilson@gmail.com