NEURONS

The basic structural unit of the Nervous system is the neuron.

Neurons conduct nerve impulses from one part of the body to another.

NEURON STRUCTURE

A typical neuron has a cell body.

Projecting from the cell body are processes called dendrites and an axon.
The cell body in a neuron is responsible for receiving, integrating, and
sending nerve impulses.
Dendrites tend to be shorter, smaller processes that branch off the cell
body.
Dendrites conduct nerve impulses toward the cell body.
Dendrites receive input and then transfer it to the cell body for processing.
The more dendrites a neuron has, the more nerve impulses that neuron
can receive from other cells.
Neurons have either one axon or no axon at all.
The axon transmits a nerve impulse away from the cell body toward
another cell.
The axon transmits output information to other cells.

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS

Unipolar neurons have a single, short neuron process that emerges from
the cell body and branches like a T.
Bipolar neurons have two neuron processes that extend from the cell
body- one axon and one dendrite.
Multipolar neurons are the most common type of neuron. Multiple neuron
processes- many dendrites and a single axon extend from the cell body.

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS

Sensory neurons transmit nerve impulses from sensory receptors to the

CNS. These neurons are specialized to detect changes in their
environment called stimuli.
Stimuli can be in the form of touch, pressure, heat, light, or chemicals.
Most sensory neurons are unipolar.
Motor neurons transmit nerve impulses from the CNS to muscles or
glands.
The muscle and gland cells that receive nerve impulses from motor
neurons are called effectors, because their stimulation produces a
response or effect.

NEUROGLIA (GLIAL CELLS)

Occur within both the CNS and the PNS.

They differ from neurons in that they are smaller and capable of mitosis.
They do not transmit nerve impulses, but they do assist neurons with their
functions.
They physically protect and help nourish neurons, and provide an
organized, supporting framework for all the nervous tissue.

TYPES OF GLIAL CELLS

Astrocytes large cell with numerous cell processes; in contact with

neurons and capillaries; most common type of glial cell.
Astrocytes helps form the blood-brain barrier, regulates tissue fluid
composition, provides structural support and organization to CNS,
replaces damaged neurons, assists with neuronal development.
Ependymal cells produce cerebrospinal fluid. Lines ventricles of brain
and central canal of spinal cord, and assists in production and circulation
of CSF.
Microglia cell Small cells with slender branches from cell body; least
common type of glial cell.
Microglia cells defend against pathogens, removes debris, and
phagocytizes wastes.
Oligodendrocytes cells Form myelin sheaths in CNS. Myelinates and
insulates CNS axons, and allows faster nerve impulse conduction through
the axon.

THE BRAIN
HINDBRAIN (BRAINSTEM)

Medulla oblongata it is the most inferior part of the brainstem and is

continuous with the spinal cord inferiorly.
All communication between the brain and spinal cord involves tracts that
ascend or descend through the medulla oblongata.
The anterior surface exhibits two longitudinal ridges called the pyramids
which house the motor projection tracts.
Pons is a bulging region on the anterior part of the brainstem.
Housed within the Pons are sensory and motor tracts that connect to the
brain and spinal cord.
Cerebellum - is the second largest part of the brain.
The cerebellum is partitioned internally into 3 regions: an outer gray matter
layer of the cortex, an internal region of white matter, and the deepest gray
matter layer, which is composed of cerebellar nuclei.
Cerebellum coordinates and fine tunes skeletal muscle movements and
ensures that skeletal muscle contraction follows the correct pattern
leading to smooth, coordinated movements.

FOREBRAIN

Thalamus is the principal and final relay point for sensory information
that will be processed and projected to the primary somato-sensory
cortex.
The thalamus clues in the cerebrum about where this sensory
information came from.

URINARY SYSTEM
STRUCTURES

The organs of the urinary system are the kidneys, ureters, urinary
bladder, and the urethra.
The kidneys filter waste products from the bloodstream and convert the
filtrate into urine.
The ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra are collectively known as the
urinary tract because they transport urine out of the body.

KIDNEY

The kidneys are retroperitoneal, since only their anterior surface is

covered with peritoneum and the posterior aspect lies directly against the
posterior abdominal wall.
An afferent arteriole then enters a structure called a renal corpuscle and
forms a capillary network called the glomerulus.
Some blood plasma is filtered across the glomerulus into the capsular
space within the renal corpuscle.
The functional filtration unit in the kidney is the nephron, which consists of
the following components: a renal corpuscle, a proximal convoluted
tubule, a nephron loop, and a distal convoluted tubule.
The proximal convoluted tubule, nephron loop, and distal convoluted
tubule are collectively known as the renal tubule.

URETERS

Ureters are long, fibromuscluar tubes that conduct urine from the kidneys
to the urinary bladder.
The wall of the ureter is composed of 3 concentric tunics: mucosa,
muscularis, and adventitia.

URINARY BLADDER

The urinary bladder is an expandable, muscular container that serves as a

reservoir for urine.

URETHRA

Urethra is a fibromuscular tube that originates at the neck of the urinary

bladder and conducts urine to the exterior of the body.
Bundles of smooth muscle fibers surround the mucosa and help propel
urine to the outside of the body.
Two urethral sphincters restrict the release of urine until the pressure
within the urinary bladder is high enough and voluntary activities needed
to release the urine are activated.
The female and male urethras differ slightly in length and morphology.