2003 - Introduction To Continuum Mechanics - Vector and Tensor Calculus - Franz-Joseph Barthold

Technische Universitt
Braunschweig
CSE Computational Sciences in Engineering

An International, Interdisciplinary, and Bilingual Master of Science Programme
Introduction to
Continuum Mechanics
Vector and Tensor Calculus
Winter Semester 2002 / 2003
Franz-Joseph Barthold 1
Jrg Stieghan 2
22nd October 2003
1 Tel.
2 Tel.
++49-(0)531-391-2240, Fax ++49-(0)531-391-2242, email fj.barthold@tu-bs.de

++49-(0)531-391-2247, Fax ++49-(0)531-391-2242, email j.stieghan@tu-bs.de
Herausgeber
Abstract
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Franz-Joseph Barthold, M.Sc.
Zusammenfassung
Organisation und Verwaltung
Dipl.-Ing. Jrg Stieghan, SFI
Technische Universitt Braunschweig
Bltenweg 17, 38 106 Braunschweig
Tel. ++49-(0)531-391-2247
Fax ++49-(0)531-391-2242
email j.stieghan@tu-bs.de
c
2000
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Franz-Joseph Barthold, M.Sc.

und
Dipl.-Ing. Jrg Stieghan, SFI
Technische Universitt Braunschweig
Bltenweg 17, 38 106 Braunschweig
Alle Rechte, insbesondere das der bersetzung in fremde Sprachen, vorbehalten. Ohne Genehmigung der Autoren ist es nicht gestattet, dieses Heft ganz oder teilweise auf fotomechanischem
Wege (Fotokopie, Mikroskopie) zu vervielfltigen oder in elektronische Medien zu speichern.
Preface
Braunschweig, 22nd October 2003
Franz-Joseph Barthold and Jrg Stieghan
Contents
Contents
VII
List of Figures
IX
List of Tables
XI
Introduction
Basics on Linear Algebra

2.1 Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Linear Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 Metric Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6 Normed Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7 Inner Product Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8 Afne Vector Space and the Euclidean Vector Space . . . .
2.9 Linear Mappings and the Vector Space of Linear Mappings
2.10 Linear Forms and Dual Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . .
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3
6
8
10
12
16
18
25
28
32
36
Matrix Calculus
3.1 Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Some Basic Identities of Matrix Calculus .
3.3 Inverse of a Square Matrix . . . . . . . . .
3.4 Linear Mappings of an Afne Vector Spaces
3.5 Quadratic Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6 Matrix Eigenvalue Problem . . . . . . . . .
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37
40
42
48
54
62
65
Vector and Tensor Algebra

4.1 Index Notation and Basis . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Products of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Transformations and Products of Tensors .
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75
78
85
96
101
VII
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Contents
VIII
4.5
4.6
4.7
5
Special Tensors and Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

The Principal Axes of a Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Higher Order Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Vector and Tensor Analysis

5.1 Vector and Tensor Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Derivatives and Operators of Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Integral Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
131
133
143
152
Exercises
6.1 Application of Matrix Calculus on Bars and Plane Trusses
6.2 Calculating a Structure with the Eigenvalue Problem . . .
6.3 Fundamentals of Tensors in Index Notation . . . . . . . .
6.4 Various Products of Second Order Tensors . . . . . . . . .
6.5 Deformation Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6 The Moving Trihedron, Derivatives and Space Curves . . .
6.7 Tensors, Stresses and Cylindrical Coordinates . . . . . . .
159
162
174
182
190
194
198
210
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A Formulary
227
A.1 Formulary Tensor Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
A.2 Formulary Tensor Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
B Nomenclature
237
References
239
Glossary English German
241
Glossary German English
257
Index
273
TU Braunschweig, CSE Vector and Tensor Calculus 22nd October 2003
List of Figures
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
Triangle inequality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hlder sum inequality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vector space R2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Afne vector space R 2af f ine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The scalar product in an 2-dimensional Euclidean vector space.
3.1
3.2
3.3
Matrix multiplication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Matrix multiplication for a composition of matrices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Orthogonal transformation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
Example of co- and contravariant base vectors in E2 . . . . . . .

Special case of a Cartesian basis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Projection of a vector v on the dircetion of the vector u. . . . . .
Resulting stress vector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Resulting stress vector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The polar decomposition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
An example of the physical components of a second order tensor.
Principal axis problem with Cartesian coordinates. . . . . . . .
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81
82
86
96
97
117
119
120
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
The tangent vector in a point P on a space curve. . . . .

The moving trihedron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The covariant base vectors of a curved surface. . . . . .
Curvilinear coordinates in a Cartesian coordinate system.
The natural basis of a curvilinear coordinate system. . . .
The volume element dV with the surface dA. . . . . . .
The Volume, the surface and the subvolumes of a body. .
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136
137
138
140
141
152
154
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
A simple statically determinate plane truss. . . . . .

Free-body diagram for the node 2. . . . . . . . . . .
Free-body diagrams for the nodes 1 and 3. . . . . . .
A simple statically indeterminate plane truss. . . . .
Free-body diagrams for the nodes 2 and 4. . . . . . .
An arbitrary bar and its local coordinate system x, y.
An arbitrary bar in a global coordinate system. . . . .
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162
162
163
164
165
166
167
IX
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16
21
28
28
30
List of Figures
X
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
6.12
6.13
6.14
6.15
6.16
6.17
The given structure of rigid bars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The free-body diagrams of the subsystems left of node C, and right of node D
after the excursion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The free-body diagram of the complete structure after the excursion. . . . . . .
Matrix multiplication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example of co- and contravariant base vectors in E2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The given spiral staircase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The winding up of the given spiral staircase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
An arbitrary line element with the forces, and moments in its sectional areas. .
The free-body diagram of the loaded spiral staircase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The given cylindrical shell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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175
176
182
184
198
199
204
207
210
List of Tables
2.1
Compatibility of norms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
XI
XII
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 1. Introduction
Chapter 2
Basics on Linear Algebra
For example about vector spaces H ALMOS [6], and A BRAHAM, M ARSDEN, and R ATIU [1].
And in german DE B OER [3], and S TEIN ET AL . [13].
In german about linear algebra JNICH [8], F ISCHER [4], F ISCHER [9], and B EUTELSPACHER
[2].
Chapter 2. Basics on Linear Algebra
Chapter Table of Contents

2.1
Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1
Denotations and Symbols of Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2
Subset, Superset, Union and Intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3
2.2
2.4
2.5
2.2.1
Denition of a Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2
Injective, Surjective and Bijective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3
Denition of an Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.4
Examples of Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Counter-Examples of Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7
2.8
Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3.1
Denition of a Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3.2
Examples of Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3.3
Counter-Examples of Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Linear Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4.1
Denition of a Linear Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4.2
Examples of Linear Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4.3
Linear Subspace and Linear Manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4.4
Linear Combination and Span of a Subspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4.5
Linear Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4.6
A Basis of a Vector Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Metric Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Compatibility of Vector and Matrix Norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.6.7
Vector and Matrix Norms in Eigenvalue Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.6.8
Linear Dependence and Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Inner Product Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.7.1
7
8
2.5.1
2.6
Examples of Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.5
2.3
2.6.6
2.9
Denition of a Scalar Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.7.2
Examples of Scalar Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.7.3
Denition of an Inner Product Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.7.4
Examples of Inner Product Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.7.5
Unitary Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Afne Vector Space and the Euclidean Vector Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

2.8.1
Denition of an Afne Vector Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.8.2
The Euclidean Vector Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.8.3
Linear Independence, and a Basis of the Euclidean Vector Space . . . . 30
Linear Mappings and the Vector Space of Linear Mappings . . . . . . . . . 32

2.9.1
Denition of a Linear Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.9.2
The Vector Space of Linear Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.9.3
The Basis of the Vector Space of Linear Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.9.4
Denition of a Composition of Linear Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.9.5
The Attributes of a Linear Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.9.6
The Representation of a Linear Mapping by a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.9.7
The Isomorphism of Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.10 Linear Forms and Dual Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

2.10.1 Denition of Linear Forms and Dual Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.10.2 A Basis of the Dual Vector Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Denition of a Metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.5.2
Examples of Metrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5.3
Denition of a Metric Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5.4
Examples of a Metric Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Normed Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.6.1
Denition of a Norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.6.2
Denition of a Normed Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.6.3
Examples of Vector Norms and Normed Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . 18
2.6.4
Hlder Sum Inequality and Cauchys Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.6.5
Matrix Norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.1
Sets
2.1. Sets
2.1.2 Subset, Superset, Union and Intersection

A set A is called a subset of B, if and only if 2 , every element of A, is also included in B
2.1.1 Denotations and Symbols of Sets

A set M is a nite or innite collection of objects, so called elements, in which order has no
signicance, and multiplicity is generally also ignored. The set theory was originally founded by
Cantor 1 . In advance the meanings of some often used symbols and denotations are given below
...
m1 M : m1 is an element of the set M.
/ M : m2 is not an element of the M.
m2
A B (a A a B) .
The set B is called the superset of A
{. . . | . . .} : The terms on the left-hand side of the vertical bar are the elements of the
given set and the terms on the right-hand side of the bar describe the characteristics of the
elements include in this set.
(2.1.5)
The union C of two sets A and B is the set of all elements, that at least are an element of one of
the sets A and B
C = A B = {c | (c A) (c B)} .
(2.1.6)
C = A B = {c | (c A) (c B)} .
(2.1.7)
2.1.3 Examples of Sets

Example: The empty set. The empty set contains no elements and is denoted,
: An "OR"-combination of two terms or elements.
= { }.
: An "AND"-combination of two terms or elements.

: The following condition(s) should hold for all mentioned elements.
= This arrow means that the term on the left-hand side implies the term on the right-hand
side.
Sets could be given by . . .
an enumeration of its elements, e.g.
B A.
(2.1.4)
The intersection C of two sets A and B is the set of all elements common to the sets A and B
{. . .} : The term(s) or element(s) included in this type of brackets describe a set.
(2.1.8)
Example: The set of natural numbers. The set of natural numbers, or just the naturals, N,
sometimes also the whole numbers, is dened by
N = {1, 2, 3, . . .} .
(2.1.9)
M1 = {1, 2, 3, } .
(2.1.1)
Unfortunately, zero "0"is sometimes also included in the list of natural numbers, then the set N
is given by
(2.1.10)
N0 = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .} .
N = {1, 2, 3, . . .} .
(2.1.2)
Z = {z | (z = 0) (z N) (z N)} .
The set M1 consists of the elements 1, 2, 3
The set N includes all integers larger or equal to one and it is also called the set of natural
numbers.
the description of the attributes of its elements, e.g.
M2 = {m | (m M1 ) (m M1 )} ,
= {1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3} .
Georg Cantor (1845-1918)
Example: The set of integers. The set of the integers Z is given by
(2.1.11)
Example: The set of rational numbers. The set of rational numbers Q is described by
o
nz
| (z Z) (n N) .
(2.1.12)
Q=
n
Example: The set of real numbers. The set of real numbers is dened by
(2.1.3)
The set M2 includes all elements m with the attribute, that m is an element of the set M 1 , or
that m is an element of the set M1 . And in this example these elements are just 1, 2, 3 and
1, 2, 3.
1
R = {. . .} .
Example: The set of complex numbers. The set of complex numbers is given by

C = + i | (, R) i = 1 .
2
The expression "if and only if" is often abbreviated with "iff".
(2.1.13)
(2.1.14)
2.2
Mappings
The mappings idV : V V and idW : W W are the identity mappings in V, and W, i.e.
idV (x) = x x V
2.2.1 Denition of a Mapping

Let A and B be sets. Then a mapping, or just a map, of A on B is a function f , that assigns every
a A one unique f (a) B,
(
A B
f:
.
(2.2.1)
a 7 f (a)
The set A is called the domain of the function f and the set B the range of the function f .
2.2.2 Injective, Surjective and Bijective

Let V and W be non empty sets. A mapping f between the two vector spaces V and W assigns
to every x V a unique y W, which is also mentioned by f (x) and it is called the range of x
(under f ). The set V is the domain and W is the range also called the image set of f . The usual
notation of a mapping (represented by the three parts, the rule of assignment f , the domain V
and the range W) is given by
(
V W
f : V W or f :
.
(2.2.2)
x 7 f (x)
For every mapping f : V W with the subsets A V, and B W the following denitions
hold
f (A) := {f (x) W : x A} the range of A, and
f 1 (B) := {x V : f (x) B} the range of B.
(2.2.3)
(2.2.4)
With this the following identities hold

f
f
f
2.2. Mappings
idW (y) = y
y W .
(2.2.10)
Furthermore f must be surjective, in order to expand the existence of this mapping f 1 from
f (V) W to the whole set W. Then f : V W is bijective, if and only if the mapping
g : W V with g f = idV and f g = idW exists. In this case is g = f 1 the inverse.
2.2.3 Denition of an Operation

An operation or a combination, symbolized by , over a set M is a mapping, that maps two
arbitrary elements of M onto one element of M.
(
M M M
:
(2.2.11)
(m, n) 7 m n
2.2.4 Examples of Operations

Example: The addition of natural numbers. The addition over the natural numbers N is an
operation, because for every m N and every n N the sum (m + n) N is again a natural
number.
Example: The subtraction of integers. The subtraction over the integers Z is an operation,
because for every a Z and every b Z the difference (a b) Z is again an integer.
Example: The addition of continuous functions. Let Ck be the set of the k-times continuously
differentiable functions. The addition over Ck is an operation, because for every function f (x)
Ck and every function g(x) Ck the sum (f + g) (x) = (f (x) + g(x)) is again a ktimes
continuously differentiable function.
2.2.5 Counter-Examples of Operations
is called surjective, if and only if f (V) = W ,

is called injective, iff every f (x) = f (y) implies to
is called bijective, iff f is surjective and injective.
x=y
, and
For every injective mapping f : V W there exists an inverse

(
f (V) V
f 1 :
,
f (x) 7 x
(2.2.5)
(2.2.6)
(2.2.7)
(2.2.8)
and the compositions of f and its inverse are dened by

f 1 f = idV
; f f 1 = idW .
Counter-Example: The subtraction of natural numbers. The subtraction over the natural
numbers N is not an operation, because there exist numbers a N and b N with a difference
(a b) 6 N. E.g. the difference 3 7 = 4 6 N.
Counter-Example: The scalar multiplication of a n-tuple. The scalar multiplication of a ntuple of real numbers in Rn with a scalar quantity a R is not an operation, because it does not
map two elements of Rn onto another element of the same space, but one element of R and one
element of Rn .
Counter-Example: The scalar product of two n-tuples. The scalar product of two n-tuples
in Rn is not an operation, because it does not map an element of Rn onto an element Rn , but
onto an element of R.
(2.2.9)
10
2.3
Fields
2.3. Fields
2.3.2 Examples of Fields
2.3.1 Denition of a Field

A eld F is dened as a set with an operation addition a + b and an operation multiplication ab
for all a, b F. To every pair, a and b, of scalars there corresponds a scalar a + b, called the sum
c, in such a way that:
1 . Axiom of Fields. The addition is associative ,
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
a, b, c F .
2.3.3 Counter-Examples of Fields
a + b = b + a a, b F .
(F2)
a + 0 = a = 0 + a a F .
(F3)
3 . Axiom of Fields. There exists a unique scalar 0 F, called zero or the identity element with
respect to3 the addition of the eld F, such that the additive identity is given by
4 . Axiom of Fields. To every scalar a F there corresponds a unique scalar a, called the
inverse w.r.t. the addition or additive inverse, such that
a + (a) = 0
a F .
Example: The rational numbers. The set Q of the rational numbers together with the operations addition "+"and multiplication ""describe a eld.
Example: The real numbers. The set R of the real numbers together with the operations addition "+"and multiplication ""describe a eld.
Example: The complex numbers. The set C of the complex numbers together with the operations addition "+"and multiplication ""describe a eld.
(F1)
2 . Axiom of Fields. The addition is commutative ,
Counter-Example: The natural numbers. The set N of the natural numbers together with the
operations addition "+"and multiplication ""do not describe a eld! One reason for this is that
there exists no inverse w.r.t. the addition in N.
Counter-Example: The integers. The set Z of the integers together with the operations addition "+"and multiplication ""do not describe a eld! For example there exists no inverse w.r.t.
the multiplication in Z, except for the elements 1 and 1.
(F4)
To every pair, a and b, of scalars there corresponds a scalar ab, called the product of a and b, in
such way that:
5 . Axiom of Fields. The multiplication is associative ,
a (bc) = (ab) c a, b, c F .
(F5)
6 . Axiom of Fields. The multiplication is commutative ,

ab = ba a, b F .
(F6)
7 . Axiom of Fields. There exists a unique non-zero scalar 1 F, called one or the identity
element w.r.t. the multiplication of the eld F, such that the scalar multiplication identity is given
by
a1 = a = 1a a F .
(F7)
8 . Axiom of Fields. To every non-zero scalar a F there corresponds a unique scalar a 1 or

1
, called the inverse w.r.t. the multiplication or the multiplicative inverse, such that
a

1
a a1 = 1 = a
a F .
(F8)
a
9 . Axiom of Fields. The muliplication is distributive w.r.t. the addition, such that the distributive law is given by
(a + b) c = ac + bc a, b, c F .
(F9)
3
11
The expression "with respect to" is often abbreviated with "w.r.t.".
12
2.4
Linear Spaces
2.4. Linear Spaces
13
7 . Axiom of Linear Spaces. The scalar muliplication is distributive w.r.t. the vector addition,
such that the distributive law is given by
2.4.1 Denition of a Linear Space

Let F be a eld. A linear space, vector space or linear vector space V over the eld F is a set,
with an addition dened by
(
V V V
+:
x, y V ,
(2.4.1)
(x, y) 7 x + y
a scalar multiplication given by
(
F V V
:
(, x) 7 x
(x + y) = x + y
F ;
x, y V .
(S7)
8 . Axiom of Linear Spaces. The muliplication by a vector is distributive w.r.t. the scalar
addition, such that the distributive law is given by
( + ) x = x + x , F
; x V .
(S8)
Some simple conclusions are given by

F ; x V ,
(2.4.2)
and satises the following axioms. The elements x, y etc. of the V are called vectors. To every
pair, x and y of vectors in the space V there corresponds a vector x + y, called the sum of x and
y, in such a way that:
1 . Axiom of Linear Spaces. The addition is associative ,
x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z x, y, z V .
0 x = 0 x V ; 0 F,
(1) x = x x V ; 1 F,
0 = 0 F,
(2.4.3)
(2.4.4)
(2.4.5)
and if
(S1)
x = 0
, then
=0
, or
x = 0.
(2.4.6)
2 . Axiom of Linear Spaces. The addition is commutative ,

x + y = y + x x, y V .
(S2)
3 . Axiom of Linear Spaces. There exists a unique vector 0 V, called zero vector or the
origin of the space V, such that
x + 0 = x = 0 + x x V .
(S3)
4 . Axiom of Linear Spaces. To every vector x V there corresponds a unique vector x,

called the additive inverse, such that
x + (x) = 0
x V .
(S4)
To every pair, and x, where is a scalar quantity and x a vector in V, there corresponds a
vector x, called the product of and x, in such way that:
5 . Axiom of Linear Spaces. The multiplication by scalar quantities is associative
(x) = () x , F ; x V .
(S5)
6 . Axiom of Linear Spaces. There exists a unique non-zero scalar 1 F, called identity or the
identity element w.r.t. the scalar multiplication on the space V, such that the scalar multplicative
identity is given by
x1 = x = 1x x V .
(S6)
2.4.1.0.1
Remarks:
Starting with the usual 3-dimensional vector space these axioms describe a generalized
denition of a vector space as a set of arbitrary elements x V. The classic example is
the usual 3-dimensional Euclidean vector space E3 with the vectors x, y.
The denition says nothing about the character of the elements x V of the vector space.
The denition implies only the existence of an addition of two elements of the V and the
existence of a scalar multiplication, which both do not lead to results out of the vector
space V and that the axioms of vector space (S1)-(S8) hold.
The denition only implies that the vector space V is a non empty set, but nothing about
"how large"it is.
F = R, i.e. only vector spaces over the eld of real numbers R are examined, no look at
vector spaces over the eld of complex numbers C.
The dimension dim V of the vector space V should be nite, i.e. dim V = n for an arbitrary
n N, the set of natural number.
14
2.4.2 Examples of Linear Spaces

Example: The space of n-tuples. The space R of the dimension n with the usual addition
x + y = [x1 + y1 , . . . , xn + yn ] ,
and the usual scalar multiplication
is a linear space over the eld R, denoted by

n
o
Rn = x | x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )T , x1 , x2 , . . . , xn R ,
(2.4.7)
(2.4.11)
Furthermore let M = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xm } be a set of vectors. Than the set of all linear combinations
of the vectors x1 , x2 , . . . , xm is called the span span (M) of the subspace M and is dened by
span (M) = a1 x1 + a2 x2 + . . . + am xm | a1 , a2 , . . . am F .
(2.4.12)
x1 , x2 , . . . , xn R.
is complex-valued and continuous in
Let V be a linear space over the eld F with the vectors x 1 , x2 , . . . , xm V. Every vector v V
could be represented by a so called linear combination of the x 1 , x2 , . . . , xm and some scalar
quantities a1 , a2 , . . . , am F
v = a 1 x1 + a2 x2 + . . . + a m xm .
Example: The space of n n-matrices. The space of square matrices Rnn over the eld R
with the usual matrix addition and the usual multiplication of a matrix with a scalar quantity is a
linear space over the eld R, denoted by
a11 a12
a1n
a21 a22
a2n
A = ..
; aij R , 1 i m, 1 j n , and i, j N.
..
.
.
. . ..
.
.
am1 am2 amn
(2.4.8)
Example: The eld. Every eld F with the deniton of an addition of scalar quantities in the
eld and a multiplication of the scalar quantities, i.e. a scalar product, in the eld is a linear
space over the eld itself.
Example: The space of continous functions. The space of continuous functions C (a, b) is
given by the open intervall (a, b) or the closed intervall [a, b] and the complex-valued function
f (x) dened in this intervall,
C (a, b) = {f (x) | f
Let V be a linear space over the eld F. A subset W V is called a linear subspace or a linear
manifold of V, if the set is not empty, W 6= , and the linear combination is again a vector of the
linear subspace,
ax + by W x, y W ; a, b F .
(2.4.10)
2.4.4 Linear Combination and Span of a Subspace
x = [x1 , . . . , xn ] ,
15
2.4.3 Linear Subspace and Linear Manifold

n
and with the elements x given by

x1
x2

x = ..
.
xn
2.4. Linear Spaces
[a, b]} ,
with the addition and scalar multiplication given by
(2.4.9)
2.4.5 Linear Independence
Let V be a linear space over the eld F. The vectors x 1 , x2 , . . . , xn V are called linearly
independent, if and only if
n
X
ai xi = 0 = a1 = a2 = . . . = an = 0.
In every other case the vectors are called linearly dependent.
2.4.6 A Basis of a Vector Space

A subset M = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xm } of a linear space or a vector space V over the eld F is called a
basis of the vector space V, if the vectors x1 , x2 , . . . , xm are linearly independent and the span
equals the vector space
span (M) = V .
(2.4.14)
x=
n
X
v i ei ,
i=1
(f + g) = f (x) + g (x) ,
(f ) = f (x) .
(2.4.13)
i=1
(2.4.15)
16
2.5
Metric Spaces
2.5. Metric Spaces
17
2.5.2 Examples of Metrices
2.5.1 Denition of a Metric

A metric in a linear space V over the eld F is a mapping describing a "distance"between two
neighbouring points for a given set,
:
V V F
(x, y) 7 (x, y)
(2.5.1)
The metric satises the following relations for all vectors x, y, z V:
1 . Axiom of Metrices. The metric is positive,
x, y V .
(x, y) 0
(M1)
Example: The distance in the Euclidean space. For two vectors x = (x 1 , x2 )T and y =
(y1 , y2 )T in the 2-dimensional Euclidean space E2 the distance between this two vectors, given
by
q
(x, y) =
(x1 y1 )2 + (x2 y2 )2
is a metric.
Example: Discrete metric. The mapping, called the discrete metric,
(
0, if x = y
(x, y) =
,
1, else
Example: The metric tensor.

x, y V .
(x, y) = 0 x = y
(M2)
2.5.3 Denition of a Metric Space
3 . Axiom of Metrices. The metric is symmetric,

(x, y) = (y, x)
A vector space V with a metric is called a metric space.

x, y V .
(M3)
2.5.4 Examples of a Metric Space
4 . Axiom of Metrices. The metric satises the triangle inequality,

(x, z) (x, y) + (y, z)
x, y, z V .
(M4)
Example: The eld. The eld of the complex numbers C is a metric space.
Example: The vector space. The vector space Rn is a metric space, too.
y
(x, y)
(y, z)
x
(x, z)
z
Figure 2.1: Triangle inequality.
(2.5.3)
is a metric in every linear space.

Example: The metric.
(x, y) = xT Ay.
2 . Axiom of Metrices. The metric is denite,
(2.5.2)
(2.5.4)
18
2.6
Normed Spaces
2.6. Normed Spaces
19
and nally the triangle inequality,
2.6.1 Denition of a Norm

A norm kk in a linear sapce V over the eld F is a mapping
(
V F
kk :
.
x 7 kxk
kx + yk kxk + kyk .
(2.6.1)
x V .
A vector norm is given in the most general case by

v
u n
uX
p
kxkp = t
|xi |p .
Example: The normed vector space. For the linear vector space Rn , with the zero vector 0,
there exists a large variety of norms, e.g. the l-innity-norm, maximum-norm,
(N1)
kxk = max |xi |
2 . Axiom of Norms. The norm is denite,

kxk = 0 x = 0
x V .
(N2)
F ;
x V .
x, y V .
kxk1 =
(N3)
(N4)
kxk =
Some simple conclusions are given by

(2.6.2)
(2.6.3)
n
X
|xi | ,
(2.6.9)
|x| d,
(2.6.10)
i=1
the l2-norm, Euclidian norm,

v
u n
uX
|xi |2 ,
kxk2 = t
2.6.2 Denition of a Normed Space
(2.6.11)
i=1
A linear space V with a norm kk is called a normed space.
the L2-norm,
2.6.3 Examples of Vector Norms and Normed Vector Spaces
vZ
u
u
kxk = t |x|2 d,
The norm of a vector x is written like kxk and is called the vector norm. For a vector norm the
following conditions hold, see also (N1)-(N4),
x 6= 0,
(2.6.4)
, and R ,
(2.6.5)
(2.6.12)
and the p-norm,
with a scalar quantity ,

kxk = || kxk
(2.6.8)
kxk = kxk ,
kxk kyk kx yk .
kxk > 0 , with
1 i n,
the L1-norm,
4 . Axiom of Norms. The norm satises the triangle inequality,

kx + yk kxk + kyk
, with
the l1-norm,
3 . Axiom of Norms. The norm is homogeneous,

kxk = || kxk
(2.6.7)
i=1
The norm satises the following relations for all vectors x, y, z V and every F:
1 . Axiom of Norms. The norm is positive,
kxk 0
(2.6.6)
kxk =
n
X
i=1
|xi |
! p1
, with
1 p < .
(2.6.13)
20
2.6. Normed Spaces
21
y 6
The maximum-norm is developed by determining the limit,

z := max |xi | , with
n
X
|xi |p nz p ,
zp
i = 1, . . . , n,
i=1
and nally the maximum-norm is dened by
n
X
i=1
|xi |p
! p1
p
nz.
(2.6.14)
Figure 2.2: Hlder sum inequality.
Example: Simple Example with Numbers. The varoius norms of a vector x differ in most
general cases. For example with the vector xT = [1, 3, 4]:
kxk1 = 8,
kxk2 = 26 5, 1,
kxk = 4.
(2.6.15)
(2.6.16)
For the real or complex quantities xj , and yj , which are not all equal to zero, the , and could
be described by
|yj |
|xj |
(2.6.17)
=
p1 , and = P
1 .
P
p
q q
j |xj |
j |yj |
Inserting the relations of equations (2.6.17) in (2.6.16), and summing the terms with the index j,
implies
P
P
P
p
q
j |xj | |yj |
j |xj |
j |yj |
= 1.
+
(2.6.18)
P
p1 P
1q
P
P
p
p
q
p
|xj |
q
|yj |q
j
j
|x
|
|y
|
j
j
j
j
X
j
In the rst quadrant of a coordinate system the graph y = x p1 and the straight lines x = , and
y = with > 0, and > 0 are displayed. The area enclosed by this two straight lines, the
curve and the axis of the coordinate system is at least the area of the rectangle given by ,
p q
+ .

p
q
|xj yj |
X
j
|xj |
! p1
X
j
|yj |
! 1q
(2.6.19)
For the special case with p = q = 2 the Hlder sum inequality, see equation (2.6.19) transforms
into the Cauchys inequality,
Let p and q be two scalar quantities, and the relationship between them is dened by
p > 1, q > 1.
The result is the so called Hlder sum inequality,

X
2.6.4 Hlder Sum Inequality and Cauchys Inequality

1 1
+ = 1 , with
p q
|xj yj |
X
j
|xj |
! 12
X
j
|yj |
! 12
(2.6.20)
2.6.5 Matrix Norms

In the same way like the vector norm the norm of a matrix A is introduced. This matrix norm
is written kAk. The characterictics of the matrix norm are given below, and start with the zero
matrix 0, and the condition A 6= 0,
kAk > 0,
(2.6.21)
and with an arbitrary scalar quantity ,

kAk = || kAk ,
kA + Bk kAk kBk ,
kA Bk kAk kBk .
(2.6.22)
(2.6.23)
(2.6.24)
In addition for the matrix norms and in opposite to vector norms the last axiom hold. If this
condition holds, then the norm is called to be multiplicative. Some usual norms, which satisfy
22
2.6. Normed Spaces
the conditions (2.6.21)-(2.6.22) are given below. With n being the number of rows of the matrix
A, the absolute norm is given by
kAkM = M (A) = n max |aik | .
kAkR = R (A) = max

i
n
X
k=1
|aik | .
(2.6.26)
The maximum absolute column sum norm is given by

kAkC = C (A) = max
k
n
X
i=1
|aik | .
kAkN = N (A) =
The spectral norm is given by
kAkH = H (A) =
tr A A .
T
largest eigenvalue of AT A .
Description
absolute norm
maximum absolute row sum norm
kxk =
kAkM = M (A)
kAkC = C (A) = sup (A)
absolute norm
maximum absolute column sum norm
kxk =
qP
kAkM = M (A)
kAkN = N (A)
kAkH = H (A) = sup (A)
absolute norm
Euclidean norm
spectral norm
|xi |
|xi |2
Table 2.1: Compatibility of norms.
(2.6.28)
Denition 2.2. The supremum sup (x) of a matrix A associated to the vector norm kxk is dened
by the scalar quantity , in such a way that,
(2.6.29)
kAxk kxk ,
(2.6.32)
sup (A) = mini ,
(2.6.33)
for all vectors x,

x
2.6.6 Compatibility of Vector and Matrix Norms
Denition 2.1. A matrix norm kAk is called to be compatible to an unique vector norm kxk, iff
for all matrices A and all vectors x the following inequality holds,
kA xk kAk kxk .
Compatible matrix norm

kAkM = M (A)
kAkR = R (A) = sup (A)
(2.6.27)
The Euclidean norm is given by

q
Vector norms
kxk = max |xi |
(2.6.25)
The maximum absolute row sum norm is given by
23
(2.6.30)
or
sup (A) = max
kA xk
.
kxk
(2.6.34)
In table (2.1) above, all associated supremums are denoted.

The norm of the transformed vector y = A x should be separated by the matrix norm associated
to the vector norm from the vector norm kxk of the starting vector x. In table (2.1) the most
common vector norms are compared with their compatible matrix norms.
2.6.7 Vector and Matrix Norms in Eigenvalue Problems

The eigenvalue problem A x = x could be rewritten with the compatbility condition, kA xk
kAk kxk, like this
(2.6.31)
kA xk = || kxk kAk kxk .
2.6.8 Linear Dependence and Independence

The vectors a1 , a2 , . . . , ai , . . . , an Rn are called to be linearly independent, iff there exists
scalar quantites 1 , 2 , . . . , i , . . . , n R, which are not all equal to zero, such that
n
X
i ai = 0.
(2.6.35)
i=1
This equations implies immediately, that the matrix norm is an estimation of the eigenvalues.
Then with this condition a compatible matrix norm associated to a vector norm is most valuable,
if in the inequality kA xk kAk kxk, see also (2.6.31), both sides are equal. In this case there
can not exist a value of the left-hand side, which is less than the value of the right-hand side.
This upper limit is called the supremum and is written like sup (A).
In every other case the vectors are called to be linearly dependent. For example three linearly
independent vectors are given by

1
0
0
1
2
3
0 + 1 + 0 6= 0 , with i =
6 0.
(2.6.36)
0
0
1
24
The n linearly independent vectors ai with i = 1, . . . , n span a n-dimensional vector space. This
set of n linearly independent vectors could be used as a basis of this vector space, in order to
describe another vector an+1 in this space,
an+1 =
n
X
k=1
k ak
, and
an+1 Rn .
(2.6.37)
2.7. Inner Product Spaces
2.7
25
Inner Product Spaces
2.7.1 Denition of a Scalar Product

Let V be a linear space over the eld of real numbers R. A scalar product 4 or inner product is a
mapping
(
V V R
h, i:
.
(2.7.1)
(x, y) 7 hx, yi
The scalar product satises the following relations for all vectors x, y, z V and all scalar
quantities , R:
1 . Axiom of Inner Products. The scalar product is bilinear,
hx + y, zi = hx, zi + hy, zi , R
x, y V .
(I1)
2 . Axiom of Inner Products. The scalar product is symmetric,

hx, yi = hy, xi x, y V .
(I2)
3 . Axiom of Inner Products. The scalar product is positive denite,

hx, xi 0 x V , and
hx, xi = 0 x = 0 x V ,
(I3)
(I4)
and for two varying vectors,
x = 0 , and an arbitrary vector y V ,

hx, yi = 0 y = 0 , and an arbitrary vector x V ,
xy , i.e. the vectors x and y V are orthogonal.
(2.7.2)
Theorem 2.1. The inner product induces a norm and with this a metric, too. The scalar product
1
kxk = hx, xi 2 denes a scalar-valued function, which satises the axioms of a norm!
2.7.2 Examples of Scalar Products

Example: The usual scalar product in R2 . Let x = (x1 , x2 )T R2 and y = (y1 , y2 )T R2
be two vectors, then the mapping
hx, yi = x1 y1 + x2 y2
(2.7.3)
is called the usual scalar product.

4
It is important to notice, that the scalar product and the scalar multiplication are complete different mappings!
26
2.7. Inner Product Spaces
27
2.7.3 Denition of an Inner Product Space
2.7.5 Unitary Space
A vector space V with a scalar product h , i is called an inner product space or Euclidean vector
space 5 . The axioms (N1), (N2), and (N3) hold, too, only the axiom (N4) has to be proved. The
axiom (N4) also called the Schwarz inequality is given by
A vector space V over the eld of real numbers R, with a scalar product h , i is called an inner
product space, and sometimes its complex analogue is called an unitary space over the eld of
complex numbers C.
hx, yi kxk kyk ,

this implies the triangel inequality,
kx + yk2 = hx + y, x + yi = hx + y, xi + hx + y, yi kx + yk kxk + kx + yk kyk ,
and nally results, the unitary space is a normed space,
kx + yk kxk + kyk .
And nally the relations between the different subspaces of a linear vector space are described
by the following scheme,
Vinner product space

8 Vnormed space 8 Vmetric space ,
where the arrow describes the necessary conditions, and the arrow 8 describes the not necessary, but possible conditions. Every true proposition in a metric space will be true in a normed
space or in an inner product space, too. And a true proposition in a normed space is also true in
an inner product space, but not necessary vice versa!
2.7.4 Examples of Inner Product Spaces

Example: The scalar product in a linear vector space. The 3-dimensional linear vector space
R3 with the ususal scalar product denes a inner product by
hu, vi = u v = = |u| |v| cos (]u, v) ,
(2.7.4)
is an inner product space.

Example: The inner product in a linear vector space. The Rn with an inner product and the
bilinear form
hu, vi = uT Av,
(2.7.5)
hu, ui = uT Au,
(2.7.6)
and with the quadratic form
and in the special case A = 1 with the scalar product

hu, ui = uT u,
(2.7.7)
is an inner product space.

5
In mathematic literature often the restriction is mentioned, that the Euclidean vector space should be of nite
dimension. Here no more attention is paid to this restriction, because in most cases nite dimensional spaces are
used.
28
2.8
2.8.1 Denition of an Afne Vector Space
For every constant P the assignment
In matrix calculus an n-tuple a Rn over the eld of real numbers R is studied, i.e.
, and i = 1, . . . , n.
V R2
~ P~ )
(R

P Q + QR = P R,
(2.8.5)
P Q = P Q
, and Q W.
(2.8.6)
For all P , Q and R W Rnafne the axioms of a linear space (S1)-(S4) for the addition hold
~ P~ )
(Q
~a = P Q
~b =
QR
Every P , Q and R W satisfy
P : W V , with
~c = P R
(2.8.4)
is a bijective mapping, i.e. the inverse 1

P exists.
and
P : Q P Q,
(2.8.1)
One of this n-tuple, represented by a column matrix, or also called a column vector or just vector,
could describe an afne vector, if an point of origin in a geometric sense and a displacement of
origin are established. A set W is called an afne vector space over the vector space V R n , if
6
29
assigns to every pair of points P and Q W Rnafne a vector P Q V. And the mapping also
satises the following conditions:
Afne Vector Space and the Euclidean Vector Space
ai R
2.8. Afne Vector Space and the Euclidean Vector Space
a + b = c ai + bi = ci
, with
i = 1, . . . , n,
(2.8.7)
and (S5)-(S8) for the scalar multiplication
P~
a = a ai = ai .
Figure 2.3: Vector space R .

2
(2.8.8)
And a vector space is a normed space, like shown in section (2.6).

R
6
2.8.2 The Euclidean Vector Space
W R2afne
An Euclidean vector space En is an unitary vector space or an inner prodcut space. In addition
to the normed spaces there is an inner product dened in an Euclidean vector space. The inner
product assigns to every pair of vectors u and v a scalar quantity ,
~b
~c
Q
P
hu, vi u v = v u =
~a
Figure 2.4: Afne vector space R 2af f ine .
, and
R.
(2.8.9)
The following identities hold:
a mapping given by
u, v En
For example in the 2-dimensional Euclidean vector space the angle between the vectors u and
v is given by
uv
u v = |u| |v| cos , and cos =
.
(2.8.10)
|u| |v|
W W V ,
Rnafne Rn ,
, with
(2.8.2)
(2.8.3)
Two normed space V and W over the same eld are isomorphic, if and only if there exists
a linear mapping f from V to W, such that the following inequality holds for two constants
m and M in every point x W,
m kxk kf (x)k M kxk .
(2.8.11)
30
2.8. Afne Vector Space and the Euclidean Vector Space
31
The set of all linear comnbinations of vectors v1 , v2 , . . . , vn span a subspace. The dimension of this subspace is equal to the number of vectors n, which span the largest linearly
independent space. The dimension of this subspace is at most n.
Every n + 1 vectors of the Euclidean vector space v En with the dimension n must be
linearly dependent, i.e. the vector v = vn+1 could be described by a linear combination of
the vectors v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ,
u
O
Figure 2.5: The scalar product in an 2-dimensional Euclidean vector space.
Every two real n-dimensional normed spaces are isomorphic. For example two subspaces
of the vector space Rn .
Bellow in most cases the Euclidean norm with p = 2 is used to describe the relationships between
the elements of the afne (normed) vector space x R nafne and the elements of the Euclidean
vector space v En . With this condition the relations between a norm, like in section (2.6) and
an inner product is given by
kxk2 = x x,
(2.8.12)
and
q
kxk = kxk2 = x2i .
The vectors zi given by
v + a1 v1 + a2 v2 + . . . + an vn = 0,
1
v = a1 v 1 + a 2 v 2 + . . . + a n v n .
1
z i = ai v i
, with
In this case it is possible to dene a bijective mapping between the n-dimensional afne vector
space and the Euclidean vector space. This bijectivity is called the topology a homeomorphism,
and the spaces are called to be homeomorphic. If two spaces are homeomorphic, then in both
spaces the same axioms hold.
n
X
i=1
v i gi
, with
ai
vi = .
(2.8.18)
The v i gi are called to be the components and the v i are called to be the coordinates of the
vector v w.r.t. the basis gi . Sometimes the scalar quantities v i are called the components
of the vector v w.r.t. to the basis gi , too.
The conditions for the linear dependence and the linear independence of vectors v i in the ndimensional Euclidean vector space En are given below. Furthermore a a vector basis of the
Euclidean vector space En is introduced, and the representation of an arbitrary vector with this
basis is described.
The set of vectors v1 , v2 , . . . , vn is linearly dependent, if there exists a number of scalar
quantities a1 , a2 , . . . , an , not all equal to zero, such that the following condition holds,
(2.8.14)
In every other case is the set of vectors v1 , v2 , . . . , vn called to be linearly independent.

The left-hand side is called the linear combination of the vectors v 1 , v2 , . . . , vn .
(2.8.17)
Every n linearly independent vectors vi of dimension n in the Euclidean vector space En

are called to be a basis of the Euclidean vector space En . The vectors gi = vi are called
the base vectors of the Euclidean vector space En ,
2.8.3 Linear Independence, and a Basis of the Euclidean Vector Space
a1 v1 + a2 v2 + . . . + an vn = 0.
(2.8.16)
are called the components of the vector v in the Euclidean vector space E n .
v = v 1 g1 + v 2 g2 + . . . + v n gn =
(2.8.13)
i = 1, . . . , n,
(2.8.15)
32
2.9
Linear Mappings and the Vector Space of Linear Mappings
Let V and W be two vector spaces over the eld F. A mapping f : V W from elements of
the vector space V to the elements of the vector space W is linear and called a linear mapping,
if for all x, y V and for all R the following axioms hold:
1 . Axiom of Linear Mappings (Additive w.r.t. the vector addition). The mapping f is
additive w.r.t. the vector addition,
x, y V .
(L1)
2 . Axiom of Linear Mappings (Homogeneity of linear mappings). The mapping f is homogeneous w.r.t. scalar multiplication,
f (x) = f (x)
2.9.1.0.2
F ;
x V .
(L2)
Remarks:
The linearity of the mapping f : V W results of being additive (L1), and homogeneous
(L2).
Because the action of the mapping f is only dened on elements of the vector space V, it
is necessary that, the sum vector x + y V (for every x, y V) and the scalar multiplied
vector x V (for every f R) are elements of the vector space V, too. And with this
postulation the set V must be a vector space!
x V ,
(L3)
for all linear mappings f1 , f2 from V to W. The sum f1 + f2 is linear, because both mappings f1
and f2 are linear, i.e. (f1 + f2 ) is a linear mapping, too.
4 . Axiom of Linear Mappings (Denition of the scalar multiplication of linear mappings).
Furthermore a product of a scalar quantity inR and a linear mapping f : V W is dened
by
(f ) (x) := f (x) R ; x V .
(L4)
If the mapping f is linear, then results immediatly, that the mapping (f ) is linear, too.
5 . Axiom of Linear Mappings (Satisfaction of the axioms of a linear vector space). The
denitions (L3) and (L4) satisfy all linear vector space axioms given by (S1)-(S8). This is easy
to prove by computing the equations (S1)-(S8). If V and W are two vector spaces over the eld
F, then the set L of all linear mappings f : V W from V to W,
L (V, W)
is a linear vector space.
(L5)
The identity element w.r.t the addition of a vector space L (V, W) is the null mapping 0, which
sends every element from V to the zero vector 0 W.
2.9.3 The Basis of the Vector Space of Linear Mappings
With the same arguments for the ranges f (x), f (y), and f (x + y), also for the ranges
f (x), and f (x) in W the set W must be a vector space!
A linear mapping f : V W is also called a linear transformation, a linear operator or a
homomorphism.
2.9.2 The Vector Space of Linear Mappings

In the section before the linear mappings f : V W, which sends elements of V to elements of
W were introduced. Because it is so nice to work with vector spaces, it is interesting to check,
if the linear mappings f : V W form a vector space, too? In order to answer this question it
is necessary to check the denitions and axioms of a linear vector space (S1)-(S8). If they hold,
then the set of linear mappings is a vector space:
3 . Axiom of Linear Mappings (Denition of the addition of linear mappings). In the denition of a vector space the existence of an addition "+"is claimed, such that the sum of two linear
33
mappings f1 : V W and f2 : V W should be a linear mapping (f1 + f2 ) : V W, too.

For an arbitrary vector x V the pointwise addition is given by
(f1 + f2 ) (x) := f1 (x) + f2 (x)
2.9.1 Denition of a Linear Mapping
f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y)
2.9. Linear Mappings and the Vector Space of Linear Mappings
34
2.9. Linear Mappings and the Vector Space of Linear Mappings
35
2.9.4 Denition of a Composition of Linear Mappings
2.9.6 The Representation of a Linear Mapping by a Matrix
Till now only an addition of linear mappings and a multiplication with a scalar quantity are
dened. The next step is to dene a "multiplication"of two linear mappings, this combination of
two functions to form a new single function is called a composition. Let f 1 : V W be a linear
mapping and furthermore let f2 : X Y be linear, too. If the image set W of the linear mapping
f1 also the domain of the linear mapping f2 , i.e. W = X, then the composition f1 f2 : V Y
is dened by
(2.9.1)
(f1 f2 ) (x) = f1 (f2 (x)) x V .
Let x and y be two arbitrary elements of the linear vector space V given by
x=
n
X
xi ei
y=
i=1
n
X
y i ei .
(2.9.7)
i=1
Let L be a linear mapping from V in itself

L = ij ij .
(2.9.8)
y = L (x) ,
y i ei = kl kl xj ej
= kl kl xj ej
(2.9.9)
Because of the linearity of the mappings f1 and f2 the composition f1 f2 is also linear.
2.9.4.0.3
, and
Remarks:
The composition f1 f2 is also written as f1 f2 and it is sometimes called the product of f1

and f2 .
If this products exist (, i.e. the domains and image sets of the linear mappings match like
in the denition), then the following identities hold:
f1 (f2 f3 ) = (f1 f2 ) f3
f1 (f2 + f3 ) = f1 f2 + f1 f3
(f1 f2 ) f3 = f1 f3 + f2 f3
(f1 f2 ) = (f1 f2 ) = f1 (f2 )
(2.9.2)
(2.9.3)
(2.9.4)
(2.9.5)
If all sets are equal V = W = X = Y, then this products exist, i.e. all the linear mappings
map the vector space V onto itself
f L (V, V) =: L (V) .
= kl xj kl (ej )
y=.
(2.9.10)
2.9.7 The Isomorphism of Vector Spaces

The term "bijectivity"and the attributes of a bijective linear mapping f : V W imply the
following dention. A bijective linear mapping f : V W is also called an isomorphism of the
vector spaces V and W). The spaces V and W are said to be isomorphic.
n-tuple
(2.9.6)
2.9.5 The Attributes of a Linear Mapping

Let V and W be vector spaces over the F and L (V, W) the vector space of all linear mappings f : V W. Because L (V, W) is a vector space, the addition and the multiplication
with a scalar for all elements of L, i.e. all linear mappings f : V W, is again a linear
mapping from V to W.

x1
x1
..
..
i
x = x ei . x = . ,
xn
xn
In this case with f1 L (V, V), and f2 L (V, V) the composition f1 f2 L (V, V) is a
linear mapping from the vector space V to itself, too.
with
xV
dim V = n
, the space of all n-tuples,
(2.9.11)
x Rn .
An arbitrary composition of linear mappings, if it exists, is again a linear mapping from

one vector space to another vector space. If the mappings f : V W form a space in itself
exist, then every composition of this mappings exist and is again linear, i.e. the mapping
is again an element of L (V, V).
The existence of an inverse, i.e. a reverse linear mapping from W to V, and denoted by
f 1 : W V, is discussed in the following section.
36
2.10
Linear Forms and Dual Vector Spaces
2.10.1 Denition of Linear Forms and Dual Vector Spaces

Let W Rn be the vector space of column vectors x. In this vector space the scalar product
h , i is dened in the usual way, i.e.
h , i : R R R and
n
hx, yi =
n
X
x i yi .
Chapter 3
(2.10.1)
i=1
The relations between the continuous linear functionals f : R n R and the scalar products h , i
dened in the R n are given by the Riesz representation theorem, i.e.
Theorem 2.2 (Riesz representation theorem). Every continuous linear functional f : R n R
could be represented by
(2.10.2)
f (x) = hx, ui x Rn ,
Matrix Calculus
For example G ILBERT [5], and K RAUS [10]. And in german S TEIN ET AL . [13], and Z URMHL
[14].
and the vector u is uniquely dened by f (x).
2.10.2 A Basis of the Dual Vector Space
37
Chapter 3. Matrix Calculus
38

3.1
Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.1.1
Rectangular Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.1.2
Square Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.1.3
3.1.4
Row Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Diagonal Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.1.6
Identity Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.1.7
Transpose of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.1.9
3.2
Column Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.1.5
3.1.8
Symmetric Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Antisymmetric Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Some Basic Identities of Matrix Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.2.1
3.5
Addition of Same Order Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2.2
Multiplication by a Scalar Quantity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2.3
Matrix Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2.4
The Trace of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.2.5
Symmetric and Antisymmetric Square Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.2.6
Transpose of a Matrix Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.2.7
Multiplication with the Identity Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2.8
Multiplication with a Diagonal Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2.9
Exchanging Columns and Rows of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.6
3.4.5
Characteristics of the Congruence Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.4.6
Orthogonal Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.4.7
The Gauss Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Quadratic Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.5.1
Representations and Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.5.2
Congruence Transformation of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.5.3
Derivatives of a Quadratic Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Matrix Eigenvalue Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

3.6.1
The Special Eigenvalue Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.6.2
Rayleigh Quotient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.6.3
The General Eigenvalue Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.6.4
Similarity Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.6.5
Transformation into a Diagonal Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.6.6
Cayley-Hamilton Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.6.7
Proof of the Cayley-Hamilton Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.2.10 Volumetric and Deviator Part of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

3.3
Inverse of a Square Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

3.3.1
3.4
Denition of the Inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.3.2
Important Identities of Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.3.3
Derivation of the Elements of the Inverse of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.3.4
Computing the Elements of the Inverse with Determinants . . . . . . . 50
3.3.5
Inversions of Matrix Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Linear Mappings of an Afne Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

3.4.1
Matrix Multiplication as a Linear Mapping of Vectors . . . . . . . . . 54
3.4.2
Similarity Transformation of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.4.3
Characteristics of the Similarity Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.4.4
Congruence Transformation of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
39
40
3.1
Denitions
3.1. Denitions
41
3.1.5 Diagonal Matrix

The elements of a diagonal matrix are all zero except the ones, where the column index equals
the row index,
D = [Dik ] , and Dik = 0 , iff i 6= k.
(3.1.5)
A matrix is an array of m n numbers
A11 A12
A21 A22
A = [Aik ] = ..
..
.
.
Am1
A1n
A2n
.. .
...
.
Amn
(3.1.1)
The index i is the row index and k is the column index. This matrix is called a m n-matrix.
The order of a matrix is given by the number of rows and columns.
3.1.1 Rectangular Matrix

Something like in equation (3.1.1) is called a rectangular matrix.
3.1.2 Square Matrix
Sometimes a diagonal matrix is written like this, because there are only elements on the main
diagonal of the matrix
(3.1.6)
D = d D11 Dmm c.
3.1.6 Identity Matrix

The identity matrix is a diagonal matrix given by
1 0 0
(
0 1 0
1ik = 0
1 = .. .. . . .. =
. .
. .
1ik = 1
0 0 1
, iff
, iff
i 6= k
i=k
(3.1.7)
3.1.7 Transpose of a Matrix
A matrix is said to be square, if the number of rows equals the number of columns. It is a
n n-matrix
A11 A12 A1n

A21 A22 A2n
(3.1.2)
A = [Aik ] = ..
..
.. .
...
.
.
.
An1 Ann
The matrix transpose is the matrix obtained by exchanging the columns and rows of the matrix
A = [aik ]
, and
AT = [aki ] .
3.1.8 Symmetric Matrix

A square matrix is called to be symmetric, if the following equation is satised
AT = A.
3.1.3 Column Matrix
a1
a2
T

a = .. = a1 a2 am .
.
am
(3.1.9)
It is a kind of reection at the main diagonal.
A m 1-matrix is called a column matrix or a column vector a given by
(3.1.8)
3.1.9 Antisymmetric Matrix

(3.1.3)
A square matrix is called to be antisymmetric, if the following equation is satised

AT = A.
(3.1.10)
For the elements of an antisymmetric matrix the following conditions hold
3.1.4 Row Matrix
aik = aki .
A 1 n-matrix is called a row matrix or a row vector a given by
a = a1 a 2 a n .
For that reason a antisymmetric matrix must have zeros on its diagonal.
(3.1.4)
(3.1.11)
42
3.2
3.2. Some Basic Identities of Matrix Calculus
Some Basic Identities of Matrix Calculus

?
3.2.1 Addition of Same Order Matrices
The matrices A, B and C are commutative under matrix addition

A + B = B + A = C.
(3.2.1)
A(lm)
43
B (mn)
cij
C (ln)
And the same connection given in components notation

Aik + Bik = Cik .
(3.2.2)
Figure 3.1: Matrix multiplication.
The matrices A, B and C are associative under matrix addition

(A + B) + C = A + (B + C) .
(3.2.3)
And there exists an identity element w.r.t. matrix addition 0, called the additive identity, and
dened by A + 0 = A. Furthermore there exists an inverse element w.r.t. matrix addition A,
called the additive inverse, and dened by A + X = 0 X = A.
But in general matrix multiplication is in general not commutative

A B 6= B A.
(3.2.9)
There is an exception, the so called commutative matrices, which are diagonal matrices of the
same order.
3.2.2 Multiplication by a Scalar Quantity

The scalar multiplication of matrices is given by
A11 A12
A21 A22
A = A = ..
..
.
.
Am1
3.2.4 The Trace of a Matrix
A1n
A2n
..
...
.
Amn
The trace of a matrix is dened as the sum of the diagonal elements,

; R.
(3.2.4)
tr A = tr [Aik ](mn) =
n
X
Aii .
(3.2.10)
i=1
It is possible to split the trace of a sum of matrices
3.2.3 Matrix Multiplication

The product of two matrices A and B is dened by the matrix multiplication
A(lm) B (mn) = C (ln)
m
X
Cik =
Ai Bk .
tr (A + B) = tr A + tr B.
(3.2.5)
(3.2.6)
=1
It is important to notice the condition, that the number of columns of the rst matrix equals the
number of rows of the second matrix, see index m in equation (3.2.5). Matrix multiplication is
associative
(A B) C = A (B C) ,
(3.2.7)
Computing the trace of a matrix product is commutative,

tr (A B) = tr (B A) ,
(3.2.12)
but still the matrix multiplication in general is not commutative, see equation (3.2.9),
A B 6= B A.
(3.2.13)
The trace of an identity matrix of dimension n is dened by,
and also matrix multiplication is distributive

(A + B) C = A C + B C.
(3.2.11)
(3.2.8)
tr 1(nn) = n.
(3.2.14)
44
3.2.5 Symmetric and Antisymmetric Square Matrices

The transpose of the matrix C is given by
Every matrix M could be described as a sum of a symmetric part S and an antisymmetric part A
M (nn) = S (nn) + A(nn) .
(3.2.15)
The symmetric part is dened like in equation (3.1.9),

S=S
, i.e.
45
C T = [Cki ]
, and
Cki =
m
X
Ak Bi =
=1
m
X
Bi Ak ,
=1
and nally in symbol notation
S ik = S ki .
(3.2.16)
C T = (A B)T = B T AT .
The antisymmetric part is dened like in equation (3.1.10),

A = AT
, i.e.
Aik = Aki
, and
Aii = 0.
(3.2.17)
The identity matrix is the multiplicative identity w.r.t. the matrix multiplication
For example an antisymmetric matrix looks like this
0 1 5
A = 1 0 2
5 2 0.
A 1 = 1 A = A.
1
M + MT +
M M T = S + A.
M=
2
2
A diagonal matrix D is given by

(3.2.18)
The transpose of the symmetric and the antisymmetric part of a square matrix are given by,
T
1
1 T
M + MT =
M + M = S, and
2
2
T
1
1 T
AT =
M MT =
M M = A.
2
2
ST =
(3.2.19)
(3.2.20)
3.2.6 Transpose of a Matrix Product

The transpose of a matrix product of two matrices is dened by
(A B)T = B T AT , and
T
T
AT B T = B AT = B A,
(A B C) = C T B T C T
, etc.
The proof starts with the l n-matrix C, which is given by the two matrices A and B
C (ln) = A(lm) B (mn)
Cik =
m
X
(3.2.24)
3.2.8 Multiplication with a Diagonal Matrix
The symmetric and antisymmetric part of a square matrix are dened by
for more than two matrices
3.2.7 Multiplication with the Identity Matrix
Ai Bk .
=1
(3.2.21)
(3.2.22)
(3.2.23)
D11 0
0 D22
D = [Dik ] = ..
..
.
.
0
0
...
0
0
..
.
Dnn
(3.2.25)
(nn)
Because the matrix multiplication is non-commutative, there exists two possibilities two compute
the product of two matrices. The rst possibility is the multiplication with the diagonal matrix
from the left-hand side, this is called the pre-multiplication
D11 a1
a1
D22 a
a
2
2
D A = .. ; A = .. .
(3.2.26)
.
.
Dnn an
an
Each row of the matrix A, described by a so called row vector ai or a row matrix
ai = ai1 ai2 ain ,
(3.2.27)
is multiplied with the matching diagonal element Dii . The result is the matrix D A in equation
(3.2.26). The second possibility is the multiplication with the diagonal matrix from the righthand side, this is called the post-multiplication
A D = a1 D11 a2 D22 an Dnn

; A = a1 , a2 , . . . , an .
(3.2.28)
46
Each column of the matrix A, described by a so called column vector ai or a column matrix

ai1
ai2

(3.2.29)
ai = .. ,
.
ain
is multiplied with the matching diagonal element Dii . The result is the matrix A D in equation
(3.2.28).
3.2.9 Exchanging Columns and Rows of a Matrix
47
The ball part is given by

n
Vii =
1X
1
Sii = tr S
n i=1
n
, or
V =
1
tr S .
n
The deviator part is the difference between the matrix S and the volumetric part
Rii = Sii Vii
, R=S
1
tr S ,
n
Rik = Sik
, i 6= k
,and R = RT .
(3.2.34)
The diagonal elements of the volumetric part are all equal
V = [V ik ] =
V
V
...
V
The matrix T is same as its inverse T = T 1 . And with another matrix T the i-th and the j-th
row are exchanged, too.
j
i
.
.
..
1
..
i 0 1
1
.. . .
..
.
, T = T T
.
.
T =
..
. . . ..
.
.
j 1 0
..
..
.
.
1
Furthermore the old j-th row is multplied by 1. Finally post-multiplication with such a matrix
T exchanges the columns i and j of a matrix.
3.2.10 Volumetric and Deviator Part of a Matrix

It is possible to split up every symmetric matrix S in a diagonal matrix (volumetric matrix) V
and in an antisymmetric matrix (deviator matrix) D
(3.2.33)
the non-diagonal elements of the deviator are the elements of the former matrix S
Exchanging the i-th and the j-th row of the matrix A is realized by the pre-multiplication with
the matrix T
(nn)
T (nn) A(nn) = A
(3.2.30)
j
i
..
..
a1
1
a11 a12 a1n
.
.
ai
aj
i 0 1
..
..

..
..
.
.

. 1
.
=
...
...
..
..
.
1 .
j 1 0
aj
ai
an
an
..
..
.
. 1
S (nn) = V (nn) + D(nn) .
(3.2.32)
(3.2.31)
(3.2.35)
48
3.3
Inverse of a Square Matrix
3.3.1 Denition of the Inverse
3.3. Inverse of a Square Matrix

3.3.2.0.7
4. By exchanging two rows (or columns) the sign of the determinant changes.
3.3.2.0.8
5. Multiplication with a scalar quantity is dened by
det A(nn) = n det A(nn) ; R.
A linear equation system is given by

A(nn) x(n1) = y (n1)
; A = [Aik ] .
(3.3.1)
3.3.2.0.9
The inversion of this system of equations introduces the inverse of a matrix A1 .

x = A1 y
A1 := X = [Xik ] .
A1 A x = A1 y x = A1 y
, and A1 A = 1.
(3.3.3)
(3.3.5)
(3.3.6)
The solution of the linear equation system could only exist, if and only if the inverse A1 exists.
The inverse A1 of a square matrix A exists, if the matrix is nonsingular (invertible),
i.e. det A 6= 0; or the difference between the rank and the number of columns resp.
rows d = n r of the matrix A must be equal to zero, i.e. the rank r of the matrix
A(nn) must be equal to the number n of columns or rows (r = n). The rank of a
rectangular matrix A(nn) is dened by the largest number of linearly independent
rows (number of rows m) or columns (number of columns n). The smaller value of
m and n is the characteristic value of the rank.
3.3.2 Important Identities of Determinants

3.3.2.0.4 1. The determinant stays the same, if a row (or a column) is added to another row
(or column).
3.3.2.0.5 2. The determinante equals zero, if the expanded row (or column) is exchanged by
another row (or column). In this case two rows (or columns) are the same, i.e. these rows (or
columns) are linearly dependent.
3.3.2.0.6 3. This is the generaliziation of the rst and second rule. The determinant equals
zero, if the rows (or columns) of the matrix are linearly dependent. In this case it is possible to
produce a row (or column) with all elements equal to zero, and if the determinant is expanded
about this row (or column) the determinant itself equals zero.
det (A B) = det (B A) = det A det B.
(3.3.8)
3.3.3 Derivation of the Elements of the Inverse of a Matrix
Finally the inverse of a matrix is dened by the following relations between a matrix A and its
inverse A1
1 1
= A,
(3.3.4)
A
A1 A = A A1 ,
[Aik ] [Xki ] = 1.
(3.3.7)
6. The determinant of a product of two matrices is given by
(3.3.2)
The pre-multiplication of A x = y with the inverse A1 implies
49
The n column vectors (n-tuples)

ak (k = 1, . . . , n) of the matrix A and ak Rn are linearly
Pn
independent, i.e. the sum =1 a 6= 0 is for all equal to zero
A1k
A2k
A(nn) = a1 a2 ak an
; ak = .. .
(3.3.9)
.
Ank
The ak span a n-dimensional vector space. Than every other vector, the (n + 1)-th vector an+1 =
r Rn , could be described by an unique linear combination of the former vectors ak , i.e. the
vector r Rn is linearly dependent of the n vectors ak Rn . For that reason the linear equation
system
(3.3.10)
A(nn) x(n1) = r(n1) ; r 6= 0 ; r Rn ; x Rn
has an unique solution
A1 := X
, A X = 1.
(3.3.11)
To compute the inverse X from the equation A X = 1 it is necessary to solve n-times the linear
equation system with the unit vector 1j (j = 1, . . . , n) on the right-hand side. Then the j-th
equation system is given by

X1j
0
X2j 0
.
.
.
.
1 2
.X
.
a a ak an kj = ,
1
. .
.. ..
Xnj
0
A X j = 1j ,
with the inverse represented by its column vectors
X = A1 = X 1 X 2 X j X n
(3.3.12)
(3.3.13)
50
and the identity matrix also represented by its column vectors
and nally the identity matrix itself
1 = 1 1 1 2 1 j 1n ,
0
1
.. . .
.
.
0 0
1
0
1 = ..
.
0
0
.. .
.
(3.3.14)
This result is the same like the result by using the determinant expansion by minors. In this
example the determinant is expanded about its rst row. In general the determinant is expanded
about the i-th row like this

n
n
X
X
Aij det Aij (1)i+j =

Aij Aij .
(3.3.21)
det A(nn) =
j=1
(3.3.15)
The solutions represented by the vectors X j could be computed with the determinants.
3.3.4 Computing the Elements of the Inverse with Determinants

The determinant det A(nn) of a square matrix Aik R is a real number, dened by Leibnitz like
this
X
det A(nn) =
(1)I A1j A2k A3l Ann .
(3.3.16)
The indices j, k, l, . . . , n are rearranged in all permutations of the numbers 1, 2, . . . , n and I is the
total number of inversions. The determinant det A is established as the sum of all (n!) elements.
In every case there exists the same number of positive and negative terms. For example the
determinant det A of an 3 3-matrix is computed
A11 A12 A13

A(33) = A = A21 A22 A23 .
(3.3.17)
A31 A32 A33
, or
231
, or
3 1 2,
(3.3.18)
, or
1 3 2.
(3.3.19)
and an odd permutation is a sequence like this,

321
, or
213
is the so called cofactor of the element Aij . For

used.
Example: Simple 3 3-matrix. The matrix A
1
A= 2
1
4 0
1 1
0 2,
1 1
0 2
2
+ 4 (1)1+2 det
1
2
+ 0 (1)1+3 det
1
det A =1 (1)1+1 det
1
2
1
,
0
and nally the result is

=1 1 2 4 1 5 + 0 1 1 = 18.
In order to compute the inverse X of a matrix the determinant det A is calculated by expanding
the i-th row of the matrix A. The matrix A(nn) is assumpted to be linearly independent, i.e.
det A 6= 0. Equation (3.3.21) implies
n
X
j=1
this factor again the determinant expansion is
is expanded about the rst row
For this example with n = 3 equation (3.3.16) becomes

det A =A11 A22 A33 + A12 A23 A31 + A13 A21 A32
A31 A22 A13 A32 A23 A11 A33 A21 A12
=A11 (A22 A33 A32 A23 )
A12 (A21 A33 A31 A23 )
+ A13 (A21 A32 A31 A22 ) .
j=1
Aij is a matrix, created by eliminating the i-th row and the j-th column of A. The factor Aij
An even permutation of the numbers 1, 2, . . . , 3 is a sequence like this,

123
51
Aij Aij = det A = 1 det A.
(3.3.22)
The second rule about determinants implies that exchanging the expanded row i by the row k
leads to an linearly dependent matrix,
(3.3.20)
n
X
j=1
Akj Aij = 0 = 0 det A if
i 6= k,
(3.3.23)
52
or
53
Proof. Start with the assumption

n
X
j=1
Aij Akj = 0 = 0 A if
i 6= k.
(A B)1 (A B) = 1,
(3.3.24)
using equation (3.3.31) this implies
The denition of the Kronecker delta ik is given by
ik =
1,iff
0,iff
i=k
i 6= k
B 1 A1 A B = 1,
1
0
[ik ] = ..
.
0
0
1
.. . .
.
.
0
0
0
.. = 1.
.
and nally
(3.3.25)
B 1 1 B = 1.
Equation (3.3.22) is rewritten with the dention of the Kronecker delta,

n
X
3.3.5.0.11
Aij Akj = ik det A.
2. The inverse of the triple matrix product is given by
(3.3.26)
(A B C)1 = C 1 B 1 A1 .
j=1
The elements xjk of the inverse X = A1 are dened by

n
X
Aij Xjk = ik
A X = 1,
3.3.5.0.12
(3.3.27)
3. The order of inversion and transposition could be exchanged,

1 T T 1
A
= A
.
(3.3.33)
Proof. The inverse is dened by
j=1
T
T
A A1 = 1 = A A1 = A1 AT ,
and comparing (3.3.26) with (3.3.27) implies

Xjk =
Akj
det A
[Xjk ] = A1 .
(3.3.28)
and this nally implies
If the matrix is symmetric, i.e. A = AT , the equations (3.3.26) and (3.3.27) imply
Xjk =
Ajk
det A
[Xjk ] = A1 ,
(3.3.29)
3.3.5.0.13
(3.3.30)
3.3.5.0.14
and nally
T
A1 = A1 .
1. The inverse of a matrix prodcut is given by
(A B)
AT
1 1 T
AT = 1 AT
= A
.
4. If the matrix A is symmetric, then the inverse matrix A1 is symmetric, too,

T
A = AT A1 = A1 .
(3.3.34)
5. For the diagonal matrix D the following relations hold,

det D =
3.3.5 Inversions of Matrix Products

3.3.5.0.10
(3.3.32)
=B A .
D1
(3.3.31)
n
Y
Dii ,
(3.3.35)
i=1
1
=
.
Dii
(3.3.36)
54
3.4
3.4. Linear Mappings of an Afne Vector Spaces
55
Linear Mappings of an Afne Vector Spaces

1...k...n
1
B
..
.
..
.
m
1.........m
1
C
i A
Cik
3.4.1 Matrix Multiplication as a Linear Mapping of Vectors

The linear mapping is dened by
y=Ax
x Rm
with
, y Rl
, and
A Rlm ,
(3.4.1)
and its components are
yi =
n
X
Aij xj
j=1
y1 = A11 x1 + . . . + A1j xj + . . . + A1m xm
...
yi = Ai1 x1 + . . . + Aij xj + . . . + Aim xm
..
y = A x + . . . + A x + . . . + A x
l
l1 1
lj j
(3.4.2)
lm m
3.4.2 Similarity Transformation of Vectors
This linear function describes a mapping of the m-tuple (vector) x onto the l-tuple (vector) y
with a matrix A. Furthermore the vector x Rm is described by a linear mapping with a matrix
B and a vector z Rn
x=Bz
, with
xR
with the components

xj =
,
n
X
zR
, and B R
mn
Figure 3.2: Matrix multiplication for a composition of matrices.
Bik zk .
(3.4.3)
For a square matrix A a linear mapping is dened by

y=Ax
k=1
k=1
j=1
x=T x
, with x, x
Rn , T Rnn , and
y = T y , with y, y Rn , T Rnn , and
(3.4.5)
(3.4.9)
k=1
A B = C,
T 1 |
(3.4.6)
with the components Cik given by

Aij Bjk = Cik .
(3.4.7)
j=1
The matrix multiplication is the combination or the composition of two linear mappings
y=Ax
y = A (B z) = (A B) z = C z.
(3.4.8)
x=Bz
det T 6= 0.
det T 6= 0.
(3.4.10)
(3.4.11)
Inserting this relations in equation (3.4.9) implies
With this relation the matrix multiplication is dened by
m
X
, and A Rnn .
(3.4.4)
Inserting equation (3.4.4) in equation (3.4.2) implies
!
m
!
m
m
n
n
n
X
X
X
X
X
X
yi =
(Aij xj ) =
Bjk zk =
Aij Bjk zk =
Cik zk .
Aij
j=1
x, y Rn
The two vectors x and y are described by the same linear mapping and the same nonsingular
and y. The vectors are called to be similar, because they are
square matrix T and the vectors x
transformed in the same way
k=1
j=1
, with
T y = A T x
,
(3.4.12)
,
y = T 1 A T x
(3.4.13)
A = T 1 A T .
(3.4.14)
and nally
The matrix A = T 1 A T is the result of the so called similarity transformation of the matrix
A with the nonsingular transformation matrix T . The matrices A and A are said to be similar
matrices.
3.4.3 Characteristics of the Similarity Transformation

Similar matrices A and A have some typical characteristics . . .
56
the determinants are equal
57
3.4.5 Characteristics of the Congruence Transformation
det A = det T
= det T
AT ,
det A det T
Congruent matrices A and A have some typical characteristics . . .

, and
det T
1
=
,
det T
det A = det A.
the congruence transformation keeps the matrix A symmetric

A = AT ,
condition:
(3.4.15)
(3.4.23)
assumption: A = A ,
the traces are equal

tr (A B) = tr (B A) ,
tr A = tr T 1 A T ,
= tr A T T 1 ,
(3.4.17)
the same characteristic polynomial.
3.4.4 Congruence Transformation of Vectors

Let y = A x a be linear mapping
(3.4.25)
assumption: P = xT y = P = x
T y,
(
x
= T 1 x

proof:
x=T x
y = T T y
T
x
T y = T 1 x T T y
T
= xT T 1 T T y
1 T
= xT T T
T y
(3.4.26)
, with
det T 6= 0.
(3.4.27)
= xT y
, with
x, y Rn
, and A Rnn .
(3.4.18)
with a square matrix A. The vectors x and y are computed in an opposite way (kontragredient)
with the nonsingular square matrix T and the vectors x
and y
, with
the product P = xT y = xT A x is an invariant scalar quantity
the same eigenvalues.
x=T x
(3.4.24)
A = (T A T ) = T A T = T A T = A.
proof:
(3.4.16)
tr A = tr A.
y=Ax
x, x
Rn
T Rnn
, and
det T 6= 0.
(3.4.19)
The scalarproduct P = xT y = xT A x is also called the quadratic form of the vector x.

The quantity P could describe a mechnical work, if the elements of the vector x describe
a displacement and the components of the vector y describe the assigned forces of a static
system. The invariance of this work under a congruent transformations is important for
numerical mechanics, e.g. for the nite element method.
The y is the result of the mutliplication of the transpose of the matrix T and the vector y
y = T T y
, with
y, y Rn
T Rnn
, and
det T 6= 0.
(3.4.20)
Let the square matrix A describe a linear mapping
Inserting equation (3.4.19) in equation (3.4.18) implies

T
T |
3.4.6 Orthogonal Transformation
y=AT x
,
y=Ax
x, y Rn
, and A Rnn .
(3.4.28)
The vectors x and y will be transformed in the similar way and in the congruent way with the so
called orthogonal matrix T = Q, det Q 6= 0.
and comparing this with equation (3.4.20) implies

,
TTy = TTA T x
x=Qx
,
and nally
,
y = A x
(3.4.21)
A = TTA T.
(3.4.22)
The matrix product A = T T A T is called the congruence transformation of the matrix A. The
matrices A and A are called to be congruent matrices.
, with
y = Q y
y = Q1 y
T
y = Q y
similar transformation,
(3.4.29)
congruent transformation.
(3.4.30)
For the orthogonal transformation the transformations matrices are called to be orthogonal, if
they fulll the relations
(3.4.31)
Q1 = QT or Q QT = 1.
For the orthogonal matrices the following identities hold.
58
If a matrix is orthogonal, its inverse equals the transpose of the matrix.
59
and
y = QT y,

cos sin y1
y1
=
y2
sin cos y2
The determinant of an orthogonal matrix has the value +1 or 1,

det Q = 1.
(3.4.32)
(3.4.35)
y = QT y.
(3.4.36)
The inversion of equation (3.4.33) with the aid of determinants implies
The product of orthogonal matrices is again orthogonal.

An Orthogonal matrix A with det A = +1 is called a rotation matrix.
y = Q1 y
Q1 := x
; Xik =
ki
Q
.
det Q
(3.4.37)
Solving this equations step by step, starting with computing the determinant,
y2 sin
y1 cos
:9
det Q = cos2 + sin2 = 1,

the general form of the equation to compute the elements of the inverse of the matrix,
O9
y2 -axis y2 -axis 6
ki = (1)k+i det Q ,
Q
ki
y2
y2 cos
y1 sin
?
6
(3.4.38)
the different elements
y2
y1 sin
y2 cos
y1 -axis
y1
O
W
y1
X11 =
(3.4.40)
X12
Q22
= cos ,
1
= (1)3 Q12 = (1)3 ( sin ) = + sin ,
(3.4.41)
X21 = (1)3 Q21 = (1)3 ( sin ) = sin ,

X22 = Q11 = cos ,
(3.4.42)
(3.4.43)
and nally
y1 -axis
y2 sin
y1 cos
(3.4.39)
X = Q1 =
cos sin
.
sin cos
(3.4.44)
Comparing this result with equation (3.4.35) leads to

Figure 3.3: Orthogonal transformation.
Q1 = QT .
The most important usage of this rotation matrices is the rotation transformation of coordinates.
For example the rotation transformation in R2 is given by
y = Q y,

cos sin y1
y1
=
sin cos
y2
y2
(3.4.33)
y = Q y,
(3.4.34)
(3.4.45)
3.4.7 The Gauss Transformation

Let A(mn) be a real valued matrix, Aik R. If m > n, then the matrix A is nonsingular w.r.t.
the columns, i.e. the column vectors are linearly independent. The Gauss transformation is
dened by
B = AT A
, with
B Rnn
, AT Rnm
, and A Rmn .
(3.4.46)
60
The matrix B is symmetric, i.e.
61
For example
B = BT ,
(3.4.47)
B T = (AT A)T = AT A = B.
(3.4.48)
because
If the rows and columns A are nonsingular, then the matrix B is nonsingular, i.e. the determinant
is not equal to zero,
det B 6= 0.
(3.4.49)
This product was introduced by Gauss in order to compute the so called normal equation. The
matrix A is given by
a
a
a
A=
n
1 2
ai = i-th column vector of A,
2 1
13 4
A = 0 3 ; AT A =
,
4 14
3 2
sX
p
N (A) = 22 + 12 + 32 + (3)2 + 22 = 3 3 =
A2ik ,
i,k
13 + 14 = 3 3 = tr AT A .
The matrix B = AT A is positive denite.
(3.4.50)
and the matrix B is computed by

B = AT A,

aT1
aT
2
a1 a2
= ..
.
T
an
T
a1 a1 aT1 a2
T
a a aT a
= 2. 1 2. 2
..
..
aTn a1
(3.4.51)
an
,
aT1 an
..
.
.
..
...
.
T
an an nn
(3.4.52)
An element Bik of the product matrix is the scalar product of the i-th column vector with the k-th
column vector of A,
Bik = aTi ak .
(3.4.53)
The diagonal elements are called the quadratic value of the norm of the column vectors and this
value is always positive (ai 6= 0). The sum, i.e. the trace of the product AT A or the sum of all
A2ik , is the quadratic valued of a matrix norm, called the Euklidian matrix norm N (A),
N (A) =
sX
q
tr(AT A) =
A2ik .
(3.4.54)
i,k
62
3.5
Quadratic Forms
3.5. Quadratic Forms
63
The vector x is treated by the nonsingular transformation T

x = T y,
3.5.1 Representations and Characteristics
= y T T T A T y,
Let y = A x be a linear mapping

y = A x , with
x Rn
y Rn
, and
Aik R,
(3.5.1)
det A 6= 0 , and A = A .
(3.5.2)
:= xT y = xT A x.
(3.5.3)
the product
is a real number, R, and is called the quadratic form of A. The following conditions hold
= T
, scalar quantities are invariant w.r.t. to transposition, and

T
=x Ax= =x A x
, because A = A ,
(3.5.11)
B = TTA T,
(3.5.12)
where T is a real nonsingular matrix. Than the matrices B and A are called to be congruent to
each other,
c
A B.
(3.5.13)
The congruence transformation bewares the symmetry of the matrix A, because the following
equation holds,
(3.5.14)
B = BT .
(3.5.4)
(3.5.5)
i.e. the matrix A must be symmetric. The scalar quantity and than the matrix A, too, are called
to be positive denite (or negative denite), if the following conditions hold,
> 0 , for every x 6= 0

.
(3.5.6)
= xT A x
(<)
= 0 , iff x = 0
It is necessary, that the determinant does not equal zero det A 6= 0, i.e. the matrix A must be
nonsingular. If there exists a vector x 6= 0, such that = 0, then the form = xT A x is called
semidenite. In this case if the matrix A is singular, i.e. det A = 0, then the homogenous system
of equations,
(3.5.7)
Ax=0
xT A x = 0 , iff x 6= 0 , and det A = 0 ,
or resp.
a1 x1 + a2 x2 + . . . + an xn = 0,
= y T B y.
The matrix A transforms like,
with the nonsingular, square and symmetric matrix A, i.e.

T
(3.5.10)
(3.5.8)
3.5.3 Derivatives of a Quadratic Form

The quadratic form
= xT A x
, and AT = A.
(3.5.15)
should be partial derived w.r.t. the components of the vector x. The result forms the column
,
matrix
x

0
0
.
.
x
.
= = ei , i-th unit vector,
(3.5.16)
xi 1
.
..
0
and
xT
= 0 0 1 0 = eTi .
xi
With equations (3.5.16) and (3.5.17) the derivative of the quadratic form is given by,
has got only nontrivial solutions, because of the linear dependence of the columns of the matrix
A. The condition xT A x = 0 could only hold, iff the vector is nonequal to zero, x 6= 0, and the
determinant of the matrix A equals zero, det A = 0.
(3.5.17)
= eTi A x + xT A ei .
xi
(3.5.18)
A = AT ,
(3.5.19)
With the symmetry of the matrix A
3.5.2 Congruence Transformation of a Matrix
the second part of equation (3.5.18) is rewritten as,
Let = x A x be a quadratic form, given by

= xT A x
, and AT = A.
(3.5.9)
T
T
x A ei = eTi AT x = eTi A x,
(3.5.20)
64
3.6
and nally
= 2 eTi A x.
xi
(3.5.21)
The quantity eTi A x is the i-th component of the vector A x. Furthermore the n derivatives
are combined as a column matrix

1 0 0
x1

x2
0 1 0
= . = 2 .. .. . . .. A x
x ..
. .
. .
1
xn
xi
= 21 A x
= 2A x.
x
3.6. Matrix Eigenvalue Problem
(3.5.22)
65
Matrix Eigenvalue Problem
3.6.1 The Special Eigenvalue Problem

For a given linear mapping
y (n1) = A(nn) x(n1)
, with
x, y Rn
xi , yi , Aik F
, and
det A 6= 0,
(3.6.1)
nd the vectors x0 in the direction of the vectors y 0 ,

y 0 = x0
, and F.
(3.6.2)
The directions associated to the eigenvector x0 is called a principal axis. The whole task is
described as the principal axes problem of the matrix A. The scalar quantity is called the
eigenvalue, because of this denition the whole problem is also called the eigenvalue problem.
The equation (3.6.2) could be rewritten like this
y 0 = 1 x0 ,
(3.6.3)
and inserting this in equation (3.6.1) implies

y 0 = A x0 = 1 x0 ,
(3.6.4)
and nally the special eigenvalue problem,

(A 1) x0 = 0.
(3.6.5)
The so called special eigenvalue problem is characterized by the eigenvalues distributed only
on the main diagonal. For the homogeneous linear equation system of the x0 exists a trivial
solution x0 = 0. A nontrivial solution exists only if this condition is fullled,
det (A 1) = 0.
(3.6.6)
This equation is called the characteristic equation, and the left-hand side det (A 1) is called
the characteristic polynomial. The components of the vector x0 are yet unknown. The vector
x0 could be computed by determing the norm, because the principal axes are searched. Solving
the determinant implies for a matrix with n rows a polynomial of n-th degree. The roots or
sometimes also called the zeros of this equation or polynomial are the eigenvalues.
p () = det (1 A) = n + an1 n1 + . . . + a1 + a0 .
(3.6.7)
The rst and the last coefcient of the polynomial are given by
an1 = tr A, and
a0 (1)n = det A.
(3.6.8)
(3.6.9)
66
With the polynomial factorization the equation p () or the polynomial (3.6.7) could be described
by
(3.6.10)
p () = ( 1 ) ( 2 ) . . . ( n ) .
Comparing this with Newtons relation for a symmetric polynomial the equations (3.6.8) and
(3.6.9) could be rewritten like this,
tr A = 1 + 2 + . . . + n , and
det A = 1 2 . . . n .
(3.6.11)
(3.6.12)
Because the associated eigenvectors to each eigenvalue could not be computed explict, the whole
equation is normed
y 0i = A xi0 = i x0i
, with i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n,
(3.6.13)
and the eigenvectors x0i . If for example the matrix (A 1) has the reduction of rank d = 1 and
(1)
the vector x0i is an arbitrary solution of the eigenvalue problem, then the equation,
(1)
x0i = cx0i ,

With A being symmetric
T
= xT1 A x2 = xT1 A x2 = xT2 A x1
results
(1 2 ) xT1 x2 = 0,
(3.6.20)
Furthermore hold the

3.6.1.0.17 2nd Rule. A real, nonsingular and symmetric square matrix with n rows has exact
n real eigenvalues i , being the roots of its characterstic equation.
3.6.1.0.18
Proof. Let the eigenvalues be complex numbers, given by

1 = + i
, and
x1 = b + ic , and
3.6.1.0.15 1st Rule. The eigenvectors x0i of a nonsingular and symmetric matrix A are orthogonal to each other.
Proof. Let the vectors x0i = xi , x1 and x2 be eigenvectors
2 = i,
(3.6.22)
x2 = b ic.
(3.6.23)
Inserting this relations in the above orthogonality condition,
implies
(3.6.15)
and nally
muliplied with the vector x2 from the left-hand side,

xT2 (A 1 1) x1 = 0,
(3.6.16)
xT1 (A 2 1) x2 = 0,
(3.6.17)
and also
(1 2 ) xT1 x2 = 0,
(3.6.24)
(1 2 ) bT + icT bT icT = 0,
(3.6.25)
2i bT b + cT c = 0.
(3.6.26)
T
T
This equation implies = 0, because the term b b + c c 6= 0 is nonzero, i.e. the eigenvalues
are real numbers.
3.6.2 Rayleigh Quotient

The largest eigenvalue 1 of a symmetric matrix could be estimated with the Rayleigh quotient.
The special eigenvalue problem y = A x = x, or
and nally equation (3.6.16) subtracted from equation (3.6.17),
(3.6.19)
and because (1 2 ) 6= 0, and the scalar product xT1 x2 = 0 must equal zero, this means that
the vectors are orthogonal
x1 x2 , iff 1 6= 2 .
(3.6.21)
For a symmetric matrix A the following identities hold.
xT2 A x1 + 1 xT2 x1 + xT1 A x2 + 2 xT1 x2 = 0.
A = AT ,
than the eigenvectors are given by
eigenvectors of different eigenvalues are linearly independent.
(A 1 1) x1 = 0,
, and
(3.6.14)
with the parameter c represents the general solution of the eigenvalue problem. If the reduction
of rank of the matrix is larger than 1, then there exist d > 1 linearly independent eigenvectors
x1 . As a rule of thumb,
3.6.1.0.16
67
(3.6.18)
(A 1) x = 0
, with
A = AT
det A 6= 0
, Aij R,
(3.6.27)
68
69
3.6.3 The General Eigenvalue Problem
has the n eigenvalues, in order of magnitude,

|1 | |2 | |3 | . . . n
, with
R.
(3.6.28)
For large matrices A the setting-up and the solution of the characteristic equation is very complicated. Furthermore for some problems it is sufcient to know only the largest and/or the smallest
eigenvalue, e.g. for a stability problem only the smallest eigenvalue is of interest, because this is
the critical load. Therefore the so called direct method to compute the approximated eignevalues
1 by von Mises is interesting. For using this method it is necessary to compute the inverse before starting with the actual method to determine the smallest, critical load case. This so called
von Mises iteration is given by
z = A z 1 = A z 0 .
(3.6.29)
In this iterative process the vector z converges to x1 , i.e. the vector converges to the eigenvalue 1 with the largest absolute value. The starting vector z 0 is represented by the linearly
independent eigenvectors xi ,
z 0 = C1 x1 + C2 x2 + . . . + Cn xn 6= 0,
(3.6.30)
The general eigenvalue problem is dened by

A x = B x,
(A B) x = 0,
(3.6.36)
(3.6.37)
with the matrices A and B being nonsingular. The eigenvalues are multiplied with an arbitrary
matrix B and not with the identity matrix 1. This problem is reduced to the special eigenvalue
problem by multiplication with the inverse of matrix B form the left-hand side,
1
B A 1 x = 0,
(3.6.38)
1
(3.6.39)
B A 1 x = 0.
Even if the matrices A and B are symmetric, the matrix C = B 1 A is in general a nonsymmetric
matrix, because the matrix multiplication is noncommutative.
3.6.4 Similarity Transformation

In the special eigenvalue problem
and an arbitrary vector is given by

z = 1 C1 x1 + 2 C2 x2 + . . . + n Cn xn 6= 0.
(3.6.31)
(3.6.32)
(3.6.33)
A component is given by,

()
()
qi
zi
(1)
zi
1 .
(3.6.34)
The convergence will be better, if the ratio |1 | / |2 | increases. A very good approximated value
1 for the dominant (largest) eigenvalue 1 is established with the so called Rayleigh quotient,
zT z
zT A z
1 = R [z ] = T +1 = T
z z
z z
, with
1 1 .
(3.6.35)
The numerator and the denominator of the Rayleigh quotient include scalar products of the ap()
proximated vectors. For this reason the information of all components q i are used in this
approximation.
(3.6.40)
the vectors are transformed like in a similar transformation,
If the condition |1 | |2 | |3 | . . . n holds, then with the raising value of the vector
z u converges to the eigenvector x1 multiplied with a constant c1 ,
z 1 c1 x1 ,
z +1 1 z .
A x = y = x = 1 x,
, and y = T y
x=T x
, with
y = 1 x
.
(3.6.41)
The transformation matrix T is nonsingular, i.e. det T 6= 0, and T ik R. This implies

= T x
,
AT x
T 1 A T x
=
x = 0,
1
= 0, and
T A T 1 x
1 x
= 0.
A
(3.6.42)
(3.6.43)
The determinant of the inverse of matrix T is given by
det T 1 =
1
,
det T
and the determinant of the product is split in the product of determinants,
det T 1 A T = det T 1 det A det T ,

= det A.
det A
(3.6.44)
(3.6.45)
70
71
3.6.4.0.19 Rule. The eigenvalues of the matrix A do not change if the matrix is transformed
into the similar matrix A,
1 = det (A 1) = 0.
det T 1 A T 1 = det A
(3.6.46)
3.6.6 Cayley-Hamilton Theorem
The nonsingular symmetric matrix A with n rows contains n linearly independent eigenvectors xi , if and only if for any multiple eigenvalue (, i.e. multiple roots of the characteristic
polynomial) of multiplicity p the reduction of rank d = p (, with = 1, 2, . . . , s) for the
characteristic matrix (A 1) equals the multiplicity of the multiple eigenvalue. The quantity s
describes the number of different eigenvalues. The n linearly independent normed eigenvectors
xi of the matrix A are combined as column vectors to form the nonsingular eigenvector matrix,
then the matrix A solves the Cayley-Hamilton equation
The Cayley-Hamilton Theorem says, that an arbitrary square matrix A satises its own characteristic equation. If the characteristic polynomial for the matrix A is
p () = det (1 A) ,
= n + an1 n1 + . . . + a1 + a0 ,
3.6.5 Transformation into a Diagonal Matrix
X = [x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ]
, with
det X 6= 0.
(3.6.47)
The equation of eigenvalues given by

A xi = i xi ,
A X = [A x1 , A x2 , . . . , A xn ] = [1 x1 , 2 x2 , . . . , n xn ] ,
1 0 0
..
.
0 2
[1 x1 , . . . , n ] = [x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ] .
,
. . . ..
..
.
0 n
[1 x1 , . . . , n ] = X .
(3.6.48)
(3.6.49)
(3.6.50)
(3.6.51)
Combining the results implies

A X = X ,
(3.6.52)
and nally
X 1 A X = X , with
det X 6= 0.
(3.6.54)
or
AT =T D
, with
T = [t1 , . . . , tn ] ,
(3.6.55)
and nally
A ti = Dii ti .
(3.6.56)
The column vectors ti of the transformation matrix T are the n linearly independent eigenvectors
of the matrix A with the associated eigenvalues i = Dii .
(3.6.59)
and the matrix A to the power n is given by

An = A A . . . A.
(3.6.60)
The matrix with the exponent n, written like A , could be described by a linear combination
of the matrices with the exponents n 1 up to 0, resp. An1 till A0 = 1. If the matrix A is
nonsingular, then also negative quantities as exponents are allowed, e.g.
A1 = p (A) = 0,
a0
n1
+ an1 A
n2
(3.6.61)
+ . . . + a1 = 0
, a0 6= 0.
(3.6.62)
Furthermore the power series P (A) of a matrix A, with the eigenvalues appearing -times
in the minimal polynomial, converges, if and only if the usual power series converges for all
eigenvalues of the matrix A. For example
A
1
1
e = 1 + A + A 2 + A3 + . . . ,
(3.6.63)
2!
3!
1 2 1 4
(3.6.64)
[cos (A)] = 1 A + A + . . . ,
2!
4!
1 3 1 5
[sin (A)] = A A + A + . . . .
(3.6.65)
3!
5!
(3.6.53)
Therefore the diagonal matrix of eigenvalues could be computed by the similarity transformation of the matrix A with the eigenvector matrix X. In the opposite direction a transformation
matrix T must fulll some conditions, in order to transform a matrix A by a similarity transformation into a diagonal matrix, i.e.
T 1 A T = D = dDi ic,
p (A) = A + an1 An1 + . . . + a1 A + a0 1 = 0,
(3.6.57)
(3.6.58)
3.6.7 Proof of the Cayley-Hamilton Theorem

A vector z Rn is represented by a combination of the linearly independent eigenvectors xi of
the matrix A similar to a diagonal matrix with n rows,
z = c 1 x 1 + c 2 x2 + . . . + c n xn ,
(3.6.66)
with the ci called the evaluation coefcients. Introducing some basic vectors and matrices, in
order to establish the evaluation theorem,
X = [x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ] ,
(3.6.67)
c = [c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ]T ,
X c = z, and
(3.6.68)
(3.6.69)
c = X 1 z.
(3.6.70)
72
Let z 0 be an arbitrary real vector to start with, and establish some iterated vectors
(3.6.71)
z 2 = A z 1 = A2 z 0 ,
...
z n = A z n1 = An z 0 .
(3.6.72)
(3.6.73)
The n + 1 vectors z 0 till z n are linearly dependent, because every n + 1 vectors in Rn must be
linearly dependent. The characteristic polynomial of the matrix A is given by
(3.6.74)
(3.6.75)
The relation between the starting vector z 0 and the rst n iterated vectors z i is given by the
following equations, the evaluation theorem
z 0 = c 1 x 1 + c 2 x2 + . . . + c n xn ,
(3.6.76)
and the eigenvalue problem

A xi = i xi
, and
p () = det (1 A) = 0.
73
leads to the result
z1 = A z0,
p () = det (1 A) ,
= a0 + a1 + . . . + an1 n1 + n .
(3.6.77)
a0 z 0 + a1 z 1 + . . . + z n = a0 + a1 1 + . . . + an1 1n1 + n1 c1 x1
+ a0 + a1 2 + . . . + an1 2n1 + n2 c2 x2
..
.
+ a0 + a1 n + . . . + an1 nn1 + nn cn xn .
(3.6.82)
With equations (3.6.71)-(3.6.73),
(a0 1 + a1 A + . . . + An ) z 0 = p (1 ) c1 x1 + p (2 ) c2 x2 + . . . + p (n ) cn xn ,
p (A) z 0 = 0 c1 x1 + 0 c2 x2 + . . . + 0 cn xn ,
and nally
p (A) z 0 = a0 z 0 + a1 z 1 + . . . + z n = 0.
(3.6.83)
Inserting the iterated vectors z k = ak z 0 , see equations (3.6.71)-(3.6.73), in equation (3.6.83)

leads to,
p (A) z 0 = a0 z 0 + a1 A z 0 + . . . + An z 0 = 0,
= (a0 1 + a1 A + . . . + An ) z 0 = 0,
(3.6.84)
(3.6.85)
The n vectors z 0 till z n are iterated by

z0 = z0,
(3.6.78)
and with an arbitrary vector z 0 the term in brackets must equal the zero matrix,
a0 1 + a1 A + . . . + An = 0.
and
z 1 = A; z 0 ,
z 1 = c1 A; x1 + c2 A; x2 + . . . + cn A; xn ,
z 1 = 1 c 1 x1 + 2 c 2 x2 + . . . + n c n xn ,
..
.
z n = n1 c1 x1 + n2 c2 x2 + . . . + nn cn xn ,
In other words, an arbitrary square matrix A solves its own characteristic equation. If the characteristic polynomial of the matrix A is given by equation (3.6.74), then the matrix A solves the
so called Cayley-Hamilton equation,
(3.6.79)
(3.6.80)
and nally summed like this, with a n = 1,

z0 = z0
| a0
+ z 1 = 1 c 1 x1 + 2 c 2 x2 + . . . + n c n xn | a 1
..
.
+ z n = n1 c1 x1 + n2 c2 x2 + . . . + nn cn xn | 1
(3.6.86)
p (A) = a0 1 + a1 A + . . . + An = 0.
(3.6.87)
The polynomial p (A) of the matrix A equals the zero matrix, and the a i are the coefcients of
the characteristic polynomial of matrix A,
p () = det (1 A) = n + an1 n1 + . . . + a1 + a0 = 0.
(3.6.81)
(3.6.88)
74
Chapter 4
Vector and Tensor Algebra
For example S IMMONDS [12], H ALMOS [6], M ATTHEWS [11], and A BRAHAM, M ARSDEN, and
R ATIU [1].
And in german DE B OER [3], S TEIN ET AL . [13], and I BEN [7].
75
Chapter 4. Vector and Tensor Algebra
76

4.1
Index Notation and Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

4.1.1
4.1.2
4.2
The Covariant Basis and Metric Coefcients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.1.4
The Contravariant Basis and Metric Coefcients . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.1.5
Raising and Lowering of an Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.1.6
Relations between Co- and Contravariant Metric Coefcients . . . . . . 83
4.1.7
Co- and Contravariant Coordinates of a Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Denition of the Cross Product of Base Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.2.3
The Permutation Symbol in Cartesian Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Denition of the Scalar Triple Product of Base Vectors . . . . . . . . . 88
4.2.5
Introduction of the Determinant with the Permutation Symbol . . . . . 89
4.2.6
Cross Product and Scalar Triple Product of Arbitrary Vectors . . . . . . 90
4.2.7
The General Components of the Permutation Symbol . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.2.8
Relations between the Permutation Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.2.9
The Dyadic Product or the Direct Product of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . 94
Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.3.1
Introduction of a Second Order Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.3.2
The Denition of a Second Order Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.3.3
The Complete Second Order Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.5.7
The Orthogonal Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.5.8
The Polar Decomposition of a Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.5.9
The Physical Components of a Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.7
The Principal Axes of a Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

4.6.1
Introduction to the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.6.2
Components in a Cartesian Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.6.3
Components in a General Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.6.4
Characteristic Polynomial and Invariants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.6.5
Principal Axes and Eigenvalues of Symmetric Tensors . . . . . . . . . 124
4.6.6
Real Eigenvalues of a Symmetric Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.6.7
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.6.8
The Eigenvalue Problem in a General Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Higher Order Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

4.7.1
Review on Second Order Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.7.2
Introduction of a Third Order Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.7.3
The Complete Permutation Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.7.4
Introduction of a Fourth Order Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.7.5
Tensors of Various Orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Transformations and Products of Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

4.4.1
4.5
4.6
The Scalar Product or Inner Product of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.2.4
The Symmetric and Antisymmetric (Skew) Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . 115

The Inverse of a Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.5.10 The Isotropic Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Products of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.2.2
4.4
The Kronecker delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.1.3
4.2.1
4.3
The Summation Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.5.5
4.5.6
The Transformation of Base Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.4.2
Collection of Transformations of Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.4.3
The Tensor Product of Second Order Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.4.4
The Scalar Product or Inner Product of Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Special Tensors and Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

4.5.1
The Determinant of a Tensor in Cartesian Coordinates . . . . . . . . . 112
4.5.2
The Trace of a Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.5.3
The Volumetric and Deviator Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.5.4
The Transpose of a Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
77
78
4.1
Index Notation and Basis
4.1. Index Notation and Basis
79
If the indices of two terms are written in brackets it is forbidden to sum these terms
4.1.1 The Summation Convention

For a product the summation convention, invented by Einstein, holds if one index of summation
is a superscript index and the other one is a subscript index. This repeated index implies that the
term is to be summed from i = 1 to i = n in general,
n
X
v(m) g(m) 6=
(4.1.6)
m=1
4.1.2 The Kronecker delta
(4.1.1)
ij = ji = ij = ij =
and for the special case of n = 3 like this,

j
v gj = v g1 + v g2 + v g3 = v gj ,
(4.1.2)
ij vj =
or even for two sufces
1
0
if
if
i=j
.
i 6= j
(4.1.7)
An index i, for example in a 3-dimensional space, is substituted with another index j by multiplication with the Kronecker delta,
j=1
3 X
3
X
v m gm .
The Kronecker delta is dened by

ai bi = a 1 b 1 + a 2 b 2 + . . . + a n b n = a i b i ,
i=1
3
X
3
X
3
X
ij vj = i1 v1 + i2 v2 + i3 v3 = vi ,
(4.1.8)
j=1
gik ui v k = g11 u1 v 1 + g12 u1 v 2 + g13 u1 v 3
or with a summation over two indices,
i=1 k=1
+ g21 u2 v 1 + g22 u2 v 2 + g23 u2 v 3

+ g31 u3 v 1 + g32 u3 v 2 + g33 u3 v 3 = gik ui v k .
(4.1.3)
The repeated index of summation is also called the dummy index. This means that changing the
index i to j or k or any other symbol does not infect the value of the sum. But is important to
notice, that it is not allowed to repeat an index more than twice! Another important thing to note
about index notation is the use of the free indices. The free indices in every term and on both
sides of an equation must match. For that reason the addition of two vectors could be written in
different ways, where a, b and c are vectors in the vector space V with the dimension n, and the
ai , bi and ci are their components,
a1 + b 1 = c 1
a 2 + b 2 = c 2
, a, b, c V.
(4.1.4)
a + b = c a i + bi = c i
...
a + b = c
n
For the special case of Cartesian coordinates there holds another important convention. In this
case it is allowed to sum repeated subscript or superscript indices, in general for a Cartesian
coordinate system the subscript index is preferred,
3
X
xi ei = x i e i .
i=1
(4.1.5)
ij v i uj =
3 X
3
X
ij v i uj
i=1 j=1
= 11 v 1 u1 + 12 v 1 u2 + 13 v 1 u3
+ 21 v 2 u1 + 22 v 2 u2 + 23 v 2 u3
+ 31 v 3 u1 + 32 v 3 u2 + 33 v 3 u3
= 1 v 1 u1 + 0 v 1 u2 + 0 v 1 u3
+ 0 v 2 u1 + 1 v 2 u2 + 0 v 2 u3
+ 0 v 3 u1 + 0 v 3 u2 + 1 v 3 u3
ij v i uj = v 1 u1 + v 2 u2 + v 3 u3 = v i ui
v u,
(4.1.9)
or just for a Kronecker delta with two equal indices,

jj =
3
X
jj = 11 + 22 + 33 = 3,
(4.1.10)
j=1
and for the scalar product of two Kronecker deltas,

ij jk =
3
X
ij jk = i1 1k + i2 1k + i3 3k = ik .
j=1
(4.1.11)
80
For the special case of Cartesian coordinates the Kronecker delta is identied by the unit matrix
or identity matrix,
1 0 0
(4.1.12)
[ij ] = 0 1 0 .
0 0 1
4.1.3 The Covariant Basis and Metric Coefcients

In an n-dimensional afne vector space R naf f En = V a vector v is given by
v = v i gi
, with
v, gi V , and
i = 1, 2, 3.
(4.1.13)
The vectors gi are choosen as linear independent, i.e. they are a basis. If the index i is an
subscript index, the denitions
gi
, covariant base vectors,
81
4.1.4 The Contravariant Basis and Metric Coefcients

Assume a new reciprocal basis to the covariant base vectors gi by introducing the
gk
, contravariant base vectors,
in the same space like the covariant base vectors. This contravariant base vectors are dened by
(
1 i=k
k
k
gi g = i =
,
(4.1.21)
0 i 6= k
and with the covariant coordinates vi the vector v is given by
v = vi g i
, with
v, gi V , and i = 1, . . . , n.
For example in the 2-dimensional vector space E2
(4.1.14)
g2 O
and
vi
, contravariant coordinates,
g2
(4.1.15)
of v with respect to the gi , hold. The v 1 g1 , v 2 g2 , v 3 g3 are called the components of v. The
Scalar product of the base vectors gi and gk is dened by
gi gk = gik
= gk gi = gki
gik = gki
(4.1.16)
(4.1.17)
(4.1.18)
g1
g1
Figure 4.1: Example of co- and contravariant base vectors in E 2 .
and these coefcients are called the

gik = gki
(4.1.22)
, covariant metric coefcients.
The metric coefcients are symmetric, because of the commutativity of the scalar product g i
gk = gk gi . The determinant of the matrix of the covariant metric coefcients g ik ,
g = det [gik ]
(4.1.19)
is nonzero, if and only if the gi form a basis. For the Cartesian basis the metric coefcients
vanish except the ones for i = k and the coefcient matrix becomes the identity matrix or the
Kronecker delta
(
1 i=k
ei ek = ik =
.
(4.1.20)
0 i 6= k
g1 g 2
g2 g 1
g1 g 1
g2 g 2
= 0 g1 g2 ,
= 0 g2 g1 ,
= 1,
= 1.
(4.1.23)
(4.1.24)
(4.1.25)
(4.1.26)
The scalar product of the contravariant base vectors g i ,

gi gk = g ik
ik
= gk gi = g ki
g =g
ki
(4.1.27)
(4.1.28)
(4.1.29)
82
83
Lemma 4.1. The covariant base vectors transform with the contravariant metric coefcients
into the contravariant base vectors.
e2 = e 2 6
gk = g ki gi
Raising an index with the contravariant metric coefcients.
The same argumentation for the covariant metric coefcients starts with
e1 = e 1
gk = Akm gm ,
gk gi = Akm im ,
gki = Aki ,
(4.1.36)
(4.1.37)
(4.1.38)
gk = gki gi .
(4.1.39)
and nally implies
As a rule of thumb:
Lemma 4.2. The contravariant base vectors transform with the covariant metric coefcients
into the covariant base vectors.
e3 = e 3
gk = gki gi
Figure 4.2: Special case of a Cartesian basis.
Lowering an index with the covariant metric coefcients.
4.1.6 Relations between Co- and Contravariant Metric Coefcients
denes the
g ik = g ki
Both sides of the transformation formula
, contravariant metric coefcients.
For the special case of Cartesian coordinates and an orthonormal basis e i co- and contravariant
base vectors are equal. For that reason it is not necessary to differentiate between indices as
subscript or superscript indices. From now on Cartesian base vectors and Cartesian coordinates
get only indicies as subscript indices,
u = u i ei
, or u = uj ej .
(4.1.30)
(4.1.40)
gk gi = g km gm gi .
(4.1.41)
are multiplied with the vector gi
Comparing this with the denitions of the Kronecker delta (4.1.7) and of the metric coefcients
(4.1.16) and (4.1.27) leads to
4.1.5 Raising and Lowering of an Index
ik = g km gmi .
If the vectors gi , gm and gk are in the same space V, it must be possible to describe g k by a
product of gm and some coefcient like A km ,
gk = Akm gm
gk = g km gm ,
(4.1.31)
Both sides of the equations are multiplied with g i ,

gk gi = Akm gm gi ,
(4.1.32)
and with the denition of the Kronecker delta,

i
g ki = Akm m
,
(4.1.33)
g ki = Aki .
(4.1.34)
The result is the following relation between co- and contravariant base vectors
gk = g ki gi .
(4.1.35)
(4.1.42)
Like in the expression A A = 1 co- und contravariant metric coefcients are inverse to each
other. In matrix notation equation (4.1.42) denotes
1 = g km [gmi ] ,
(4.1.43)
km
1
= [gmi ] ,
(4.1.44)
g
and for the determinants
1
.
(4.1.45)
det [gik ]
With the denition of the determinant, equation (4.1.19), the determinant of the contravariant
metric coefcients gives
(4.1.46)
det [gik ] = g,

det g ik =
and the determinant of the contravariant metric coefcients

1
det g ik = .
g
(4.1.47)
84
4.2
4.1.7 Co- and Contravariant Coordinates of a Vector

The vector v V is represented by the two expressions v = v gi and v = vk g . Comparing
these expressions, with respect to equation (4.1.39) gi = gik gk , leads to
i
v i gik gk = vk gk
vk = gik v i .
vk = gki v i .
(4.1.48)
(4.1.49)
In the same way comparing the contravariant vector g k = g ik gi with the equations (4.1.35) and
(4.1.18) gives
(4.1.50)
v i gi = vk g ki gi v i = g ki vk ,
and after changing the indices
ik
v = g vk .
(4.1.51)
Lemma 4.3. The covariant coordinates transform like the covariant base vectors with the contravariant metric coefcients and vice versa. In index notation the transformation for the covariant coordinates and the covariant base vectors looks like this
v i = g ik vk
gi = g ik gk ,
(4.1.52)
Products of Vectors
gk = gki gi .
4.2.1 The Scalar Product or Inner Product of Vectors

The scalar product of two vectors u and v V is denoted by
=< u | v > u v
u = u i gi
and
(4.2.1)
v = v i gi ,
(4.2.2)
with respect to the covariant base vectors gi V and i = 1, . . . , n or by

u = ui g i
and v = vi gi .
(4.2.3)
w.r.t. the contravariant base vectors g j and j = 1, . . . , n. By combining these representations the
scalar product of two vectors could be written in four variations
= u v = ui v j gi gj = ui v j gij = ui vi ,
= ui vj gi gj = ui vj g ij = ui v i ,
= ui vj gi gj = ui vj i.j = ui vi ,
= ui v g g j =
(4.1.53)
, R,
and also called the inner product or dot product of vectors. The vectors u and v are represented
by
j i
and for the contravariant coordinates and the contravariant base vectors
vk = gki v i
85
After changing the indices of the symmetric covariant metric coefcient, like in equation (4.1.29),
the transformation from contravariant coordinates to covariant coordinates denotes like this
4.2. Products of Vectors
ui v j .ji
= ui v .
(4.2.4)
(4.2.5)
(4.2.6)
(4.2.7)
The Euclidean norm is the connection between elements of the same dimension in a vector space.
The absolute values of the vectors u and v are represented by
(4.2.8)
|u| = kuk2 = u u,
|v| = kvk2 = v v.
(4.2.9)
The scalar product or inner product of two vectors in V is a bilinear mapping from two vectors
to R.
Theorem 4.1. In the 3-dimensional Euclidean vector space E 3 one important application of the
scalar product is the denition of the work as the force times the distance moved in the direction
opposite to the force,
Work = Force in direction of the distance Distance
or = f d .
(4.2.10)
Theorem 4.2. The scalar product in 3-dimensional Euclidean vector space E 3 is written u v
and is dened as the product of the absolute values of the two vectors and the cosine of the angle
between them,
= u v := |u| |v| cos .
(4.2.11)
86
87
3-dimensional Euclidean vector space E3 ,

6
1
3 2 =6 1 + 3 2 + 7 3 = 33,
7
3
vf
:
=ui v j gij = u1 v j g1j + u2 v j g2j + u3 v j g3j ,

=6 1 1 + 6 2 0 + 6 3 0,
+ 3 1 0 + 3 2 1 + 3 3 0,
+ 7 1 0 + 7 2 0 + 7 3 1 = 33.
eu
ud
4.2.2 Denition of the Cross Product of Base Vectors
|v| cos
The cross product, also called the vector product, or the outer product, is only dened in the
3-dimensional Euclidean vector space E3 . The cross product of two arbitrary, linear independent
covariant base vectors gi , gj E3 implies another vector gk E3 and is introduced by
Figure 4.3: Projection of a vector v on the dircetion of the vector u.
The quantity |v| cos represents in the 3-dimensional Euclidean vector space E the projection
of the vector v in the direction of vector u. The unit vector in direction of vector u is given by
gi gj = gk ,
eu =
u
.
|u|
(4.2.12)
uv
.
|u| |v|
(4.2.13)
(4.2.18)
with the conditions
i, j, k = 1, 2, 3
i 6= j 6= k,
, or another even permutation of i, j, k.
Therefore the cosine of the angle is given by

cos =
The cross products of the Cartesian base vectors ei in the 3-dimensional Euclidean vector space
E3 are given by
The absolute value of a vector is its Euclidean norm and is computed by

|u| =
u u , and
|v| =
v v.
This formula rewritten with the base vectors gi and gi simplies in index notation to
q
p
p
|u| = ui gi uk gk = ui uk ik = ui ui ,
p
|v| = v i vi .
(4.2.14)
(4.2.15)
(4.2.16)
The cosine between two vectors in the 3-dimensional Euclidean vector space E 3 is dened by
i
cos = p
u vi
ui v
=p
.
uj uj v k v k
uj uj v k v k
(4.2.17)
For example the scalar product of two vectors w.r.t. the Cartesian basis g i = ei = ei in the
4.2.3 The Permutation Symbol in Cartesian Coordinates
e1 e 2
e2 e 3
e3 e 1
e2 e 1
e3 e 2
e1 e 3
= e3 = e3 ,
= e1 = e1 ,
= e2 = e2 ,
= e3 = e3 ,
= e1 = e1 ,
= e2 = e2 .
(4.2.19)
(4.2.20)
(4.2.21)
(4.2.22)
(4.2.23)
(4.2.24)
The Cartesian components of a permutation tensor , or just the permutation symbols, are dened
by
+1 if (i, j, k) is an even permutation of (1, 2, 3),

(4.2.25)
eijk = 1 if (i, j, k) is an odd permutation of (1, 2, 3),
0 if two or more indices are equal.

88
Thus, returning to equations (4.2.19)-(4.2.24), the cross products of the Cartesian base vectors
could be described by the permutation symbols like this,
k
ei ej = eijk e .
(4.2.26)
For example
4.2.4 Denition of the Scalar Triple Product of Base Vectors

Starting again with the cross product of base vectors, see equation (4.2.18),
i, j, k = 1, 2, 3
(4.2.27)
(gi gj ) gk = g gk ,
[g1 , g2 , g3 ] = kk = 3.
(4.2.28)
(4.2.29)
This result is the so called scalar triple product of the base vectors
= [g1 , g2 , g3 ] .
(4.2.30)
and for covariant base vectors

gk =
gi g j
,
[g1 , g2 , g3 ]
(4.2.31)
gi gj
.
[g1 , g2 , g3 ]
(4.2.32)
Computing the determinant by expanding about the rst row implies
a
a
a
a
a
a
= a11 22 23 a12 21 23 + a13 21 22
a32 a33
a31 a33
a31 a32
= a11 a22 a33 a11 a32 a23
a12 a21 a33 + a12 a31 a23
+ a13 a21 a32 a13 a31 a22 .
(4.2.36)
The alternative way with the permutation symbol is given by

= a11 a22 a33 e123 + a11 a23 a32 e132
+ a12 a23 a31 e231 + a12 a21 a33 e213
+ a13 a21 a32 e312 + a13 a22 a31 e321 ,
= a11 a22 a33 1 + a11 a23 a32 (1)

+ a12 a23 a31 1 + a12 a21 a33 (1)
+ a13 a21 a32 1 + a13 a22 a31 (1)
and nally the result is equal to the rst way of computing the determinant, see equation (4.2.36),
Furthermore the scalar product of two scalar triple products of base vectors is given by
1
[g1 , g2 , g3 ] g1 , g2 , g3 = = 1.
The scalar quantity in the section above could also be described by the square root of the
determinant of the covariant metric coefcients,
1
= (det gij ) 2 = g.
(4.2.34)
and after inserting the values of the various permutation symbols,
This scalar triple product of the base vectors gi for i = 1, 2, 3 represents the volume of the
parallelepiped formed by the three vectors gi for i = 1, 2, 3. Comparing equations (4.2.28) and
(4.2.29) implies for contravariant base vectors
gk =
4.2.5 Introduction of the Determinant with the Permutation Symbol
and nally
The gk are the contravariant base vectors and the scalar quantity is computed by multiplication
of equation (4.2.18) with the covariant base vector gk ,
k
89
The determinant of a 3 3 matrix could be represented by the permutations symbols e ijk ,
a11 a12 a13
= det [amn ] = a21 a22 a23 = a1i a2j a3k eijk .

(4.2.35)
a31 a32 a33
e1 e2 = e121 e1 + e122 e2 + e123 e3 = 0 e1 + 0 e2 + 1 e3 = e3

e1 e3 = e131 e1 + e132 e2 + e133 e3 = 0 e1 + (1) e2 + 0 e3 = e2 .
gi gj = gk ,
i 6= j 6= k,
, or another even permutation of i, j, k.
= a11 a22 a33 a11 a23 a32

+ a12 a23 a31 a12 a21 a33
+ a13 a21 a32 a13 a22 a31 .
(4.2.37)
Equations (4.2.35) can be written with contravariant elements, too,

(4.2.33)
= a1i a2j a3k eijk .

(4.2.38)
90
The matrix of the covariant metric coefcients is the inverse of the matrix of the contravariant
metric coefcients and vice versa,
det gij g
The product rule of determinants
jk
gij g jk = ik ,

= det [gij ] g jk = det ik = 1.
det [gij ] g jk = det [gij ] det g jk
simplies for this special case
1
1=g ,
g
and nally
det [gij ] = g
1
det g ij = .
g
(4.2.40)
g = g1i g2j g3k e = det [gij ] ,

1
= g 1i g 2j g 3k eijk = det g ij .
g
[d, e, f ] = (d e) f .
(4.2.51)
and the rst one of this scalar triple product is given by

(a b) c = [g1 , g2 , g3 ] ai bj eijk gk cr gr = [g1 , g2 , g3 ] ai bj eijk rk cr
= [g1 , g2 , g3 ] ai bj ck eijk
1 2 3
1 2 3 a1 a2 a3
= g , g , g b b b
c1 c2 c3
1 1 1
1 1 1
a b c
a b c
2 2 2
= [g1 , g2 , g3 ] a b c = a2 b2 c2 .
3
3
3
3
3
3
a b c
a b c
(4.2.41)
(4.2.42)
(4.2.43)
(4.2.44)
(4.2.45)
The vectors a up to f are written in the 3-dimensional Euclidean vector space E 3 with the base
vectors gi and gi ,
a = a i gi
d = d i gi ,
(4.2.46)
b = b i gi
e = e i gi ,
(4.2.47)
c = c i gi
f = f i gi .
(4.2.48)
The cross product (4.2.26) rewritten with the formulae for the scalar triple product (4.2.28) (4.2.30),
a b = ai gi bj gj = ai bj eijk [g1 , g2 , g3 ] gk ,
1 2 3
1 2 3
a a a
g g g
1 2 3
a b = [g1 , g2 , g3 ] b b b = [g1 , g2 , g3 ] a1 a2 a3 .
g1 g2 g3
b1 b2 b 3
(4.2.49)
[a, b, c] = (a b) c,
(4.2.50)
(4.2.52)
The same formula written with covariant components and contravariant base vectors,
4.2.6 Cross Product and Scalar Triple Product of Arbitrary Vectors
The product
1
(a b) c = g1 , g2 , g3 ai bj ck eijk = ai bj ck eijk
1 2 3 a 1 a2 a 3
= g , g , g b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
1 1 1
a b c
= [g1 , g2 , g3 ] a2 b2 c2 .
a3 b 3 c 3
P = [a, b, c] [d, e, f ]
is therefore with the equations (4.2.52), (4.2.53) and (4.2.46) up to (4.2.48)
1 2 3
1 2 3 a1 a2 a3 d1 e1 f1
1
P = [g1 , g2 , g3 ] g , g , g b b b d2 e2 f2 = |A| |B| = |A| |B| .
c1 c2 c3 d 3 e 3 f3
(4.2.53)
(4.2.54)
(4.2.55)
The element (1, 1) of the product matrix A B with respect to the product rule of determinants
det A det B = det (A B) is given by
a1 d 1 + a 2 d 2 + a 3 d 3 = a i g i d j g j
= ai dj ij
Two scalar triple products are dened by
91
and
(4.2.39)
For this reason the determinants of the matrix of the metric coefcients are represented with the
permutation symbols, see equations (4.2.35) and (4.2.43), like this
ijk
= ai di
= a d.
(4.2.56)
92
Comparing this with the product P leads to
a d a e a f
P = [a, b, c] [d, e, f ] = b d b e b f ,
c d c e c f
and for the scalar triple product [a, b, c] to the power two,
a a a b a c
2
[a, b, c] = b a b b b c .
c a c b c c
(4.2.57)

or by the contravariant symbol,
1
+ g if (i, j, k) is an even permutation of (1, 2, 3),

ijk = 1g if (i, j, k) is an odd permutation of (1, 2, 3),
4.2.8 Relations between the Permutation Symbols
Comparing equations (4.2.25) with (4.2.65) and (4.2.66) shows the relations,
ijk =
The square value of a scalar triple product of the covariant base vectors, like in equations (4.2.58),
g1 g 1 g 1 g 2 g1 g 3
[g1 , g2 , g3 ] = g2 g1 g2 g2 g2 g3 = |gij | = det [gij ] = g

(4.2.59)
g3 g 1 g 3 g 2 g3 g 3
[g1 , g2 , g3 ] =
g.
Equation (4.2.60) could be rewritten analogous to equation (4.2.26)
gi gj = ijk gk ,
(4.2.63)
and for the corresponding contravariant base vectors
g i g j = g 1 , g 2 , g 3 gk
1
= eijk gk ,
g
gi gj = ijk gk .
(4.2.64)
For example the general permutation symbol could be given by the covariant symbol,

(4.2.65)
ijk = g if (i, j, k) is an odd permutation of (1, 2, 3),
0 if two or more indices are equal,

geijk
1
, and eijk = ijk ,
g
(4.2.67)
ijk
g .
(4.2.68)
and
1
ijk = eijk
g
, and eijk =
The comparison of equation (4.2.44) and (4.2.35) gives
(4.2.60)
The same for relation for the scalar triple product of the contravariant base vectors leads to
1 2 3 2
1
g ,g ,g
(4.2.61)
= det g ij =
g
1 2 3
1
(4.2.62)
g ,g ,g = .
g
gi gj = [g1 , g2 , g3 ] gk
= g eijk gk ,
(4.2.66)
(4.2.58)
4.2.7 The General Components of the Permutation Symbol
reduces to
93
g = |gij | = g1i g2j g3k eijk ,
g elmn = gli gmj gnk eijk ,

1
g lmn = gli gmj gnk gijk ,

g
(4.2.69)
(4.2.70)
(4.2.71)
lmn = gli gmj gnk ijk ,
(4.2.72)
lmn = g li g mj g nk ijk .
(4.2.73)
and
The covariant symbols are converted into the contravariant symbols with the contravariant
metric coefcients and vice versa. This transformation is the same as the one for tensors. The
conclusion is that the symbols are tensors! The relation between the e and symbols is written
as follows
g
(4.2.74)
eijk elmn = ijk lmn ,
g
eijk elmn = ijk lmn .
The relation between the permutation symbols and the Kronecker delta is given by
i i
l m ni
j
ijk
ijk
j
j

l m n = lmn = e elmn .
k k k
m
n
l
(4.2.75)
(4.2.76)
94
After expanding the determinant and setting k = n,
ijk
lmk =
j
li m
i j
m
l ,
(4.2.77)
and if i = l and j = m
95
The proof that the dyadic product is a tensor starts with the assumption, see equations (T4) and
(T5),
(a b) (u + v) = (a b) u + (a b) v.
(4.2.86)
ijk ijn = 2nk ,
(4.2.78)
Equation (4.2.86) rewritten with the mapping T is given by
and if all three indices are equal
T (u + v) = T (u) + T (v) .
ijk
ijk
ijk = e eijk =
2kk
= 6.
(4.2.79)
With the denitions of the mapping T it follows, that
4.2.9 The Dyadic Product or the Direct Product of Vectors
T (u + v) = (a b) (u + v) = a [b (u + v)]
= a [b u + b v]
= [a (b u)] + [a (b v)]
The dyadic product of two vectors a and b V denes a so called simple second order tensor
with rank = 1 in the tensor space V V over the vector space V by
T=ab
T V V .
, and
(4.2.80)
This tensor describes a linear mapping of the vector v V with the scalar product by
T v = (a b) v = a (b v) .
The vectors a and b are represented by the base vectors gi (covariant) and gj (contravariant)
(4.2.81)
The dyadic product a b could be represented by a matrix, for example with a, b R and
T R 3 R3 ,

a1
T
b1 b2 b3 13
T = a b = a2
(4.2.82)
a3 31
a 1 b 1 a1 b2 a1 b 3
= a2 b 1 a2 b2 a2 b 3 .
(4.2.83)
a3 b1 a3 b2 a3 b3 33
The rank of this mapping is rank = 1, i.e. det T
(33)
a = a i gi
a 1 b 1 a1 b 2
a 2 b 1 a2 b 2
a 3 b 1 a3 b 2
T = a b = ai bj gi gj = T ij gi gj ,
(4.2.88)
(4.2.89)
and by
gi g j
the dyadic product of the base vectors,
with the conditions
det T ij = 0 ,
(22)

r T ij = 1
, and
rank = 1.
(4.2.90)
The mapping T maps the vector v = v k gk onto the vector w,
3
P
a1 i=1 bi vi
a1 b 3
v1
3
P
a2 b 3 v 2 =
a
b
v
i i ,
2
i=1
a3 b 3
v3
3
P
a3
bi v i
(4.2.84)
a bT v = T v = a bT v .
w = T v = T ij gi gj v k gk
= T ij v k gi gj gk
= T ij v k gi jk ,
i=1
or
, and gi , gj V.
The dyadic product i.e. the mapping T is dened by
= 0 and det T i = 0 for i = 1, 2, 3. The
b = bj g j
mapping T v denotes in matrix notation
= T (u) + T (v) .
(4.2.87)
w = T ij v j gi = wi gi .
(4.2.85)
(4.2.91)
96
4.3
4.3. Tensors
97
Tensors
x3 6
4.3.1 Introduction of a Second Order Tensor

With the denition of linear mappings f in chapter (2.8), the deniton of vector spaces of linear
mappings L over the vector space V, and the denition of dyads it is possible to dene the second
order tensor. The original denition of a tensor was the description of a stress state at a point
and time in a continuum, e.g. a uid or a solid, given by Cauchy. The stress tensor or the Cauchy
stress tensor T at a point P assigns a stress vector (P ) to an arbitrarily oriented section,
given by a normal vector at the point P . The resulting stress vector t (n) (P ) at an arbitrarily
dF(n) = t(n) dA(n)
dF
(2)
n(1)
(2)
= t dA(2)
I
dF(1) = t(1) dA(1)

dA(1)
n(2)
6 (n)
(P )
dA(2)
dA(n)
x1
dA(3)
x2
dF(3) = t(3) dA(3)
n(3)
Figure 4.4: Resulting stress vector.

Figure 4.5: Resulting stress vector.
oriented section, described by a normal vector n at a point P , in a rigid body loaded by an
equilibrium system of external forces could have an arbitrary direction! Because the equilibrium
conditions hold only for forces and not for stresses, an equlibirum system of forces is established
at an innitesimal tetrahedron. This tetrahedron will have four innitesimal section surfaces,
too. If the section surface is rotated, then the element of reference (the vector of direction)
will be transformed and the direction of stress will be transformed, too. Comparing this with the
transformation of stresses yields to products of cosines, which lead to quantities with two indices.
The stress state at a point could not be described by one or two vectors, but by a combination
of three vectors t(1) , t(2) , and t(3) . The stress tensor T for the equilibrium conditions for a
innitesimal tetrahedron, given by the three stress vectors t 1 , t2 , and t3 , assigns to every direction
a unique resulting stress vector t(n) .
4.3.1.0.20
Remarks
The scalar product F n = Fn ; |n| = 1 projects F cos on the direction of n, and the
result is a scalar quantity.
The cross product rF = MA establishs a vector of momentum at a point A in the normal
direction of the plane rA , F and perpendicular to F, too.
The dyadic product a b = T assigns a second order tensor T to a pair of vectors a and
b.
The spaces R3 and E3 are homeomorphic, i.e. for all vectors x R3 and v E3 the same
rules and axioms hold. For this reason it is sufcient to have a look at the vector space R 3 .
Also the spaces Rn , En and V are homeomorphic, but with n 6= 3 the usual cross product
will not hold. For this reason the following denitions are made for the general vector
space V, but most of the examples are given in the 3-dimensional Euclidean vector space
E3 . In this space the cross product holds, and this space is the visual space.
4.3.2 The Denition of a Second Order Tensor

A linear mapping f = T of an (Euclidean) vector space V into itself or into its dual space V
is called a second order tensor. The action of a linear mapping T on a vector v is written like a
"dot"-product or multiplication, and in most cases the "dot"is not written any more,
T v = Tv.
(4.3.1)
The denitions and rules for linear spaces in chapter (2.4), i.e. the axioms of vector space (S1)
up to (S8) are rewritten for tensors T V V.
98
4.3.2.0.21 Linearity for the Vectors.

1 . Axiom of Second Order Tensors. The tensor (the linear mapping) T V V maps the
vector u V onto the same space V,
T (u) = T u = Tu = v
u V
v V.
3 . Axiom of Second Order Tensors. The unit tensor 1 sends any vector into itself,
u V, 1 V V.
5 . Axiom of Second Order Tensors. If the vector u is multiplied by a scalar, then the linear
mapping is denoted by
T (u) = Tu ; u V, R .
(T5)
4.3.2.0.22 Linearity for the Tensors.
6 . Axiom of Second Order Tensors. The multiplication with the sum of tensors of the same
space is distributive,
; u V, T1 , T2 V V.
(T6)
7 . Axiom of Second Order Tensors. The multiplication of a tensor by a scalar is linear, like
in equation (T5) the multiplication of a vector by a scalar,
(T) u = T (u)
u V, R .
n
X
Ti =
i=1
i
and
det T 6= 0
n
X
i=1
ai b i ,
T = a bi = ai bi ,
(4.3.2)
(4.3.3)
, if the vectors ai and bi are linearly independent.
If the vectors ai and bi are represented with the base vectors gi and gi V like this,
ai = aij gj
bi = bil gl ,
(4.3.4)
then the second order tensor is given by

T = aij bil gj gl ,
(4.3.5)
and nally the complete second order tensor is given by

T = T jl gj gl
the mixed formulation of a second order tensor.
(4.3.6)
The dyadic product of the base vectors includes one co- and one contravariant base vector. The
mixed components T jl of the tensor in mixed formulation are written with one co- and one contravariant index, too,
det T jl 6= 0.
(4.3.7)
If the contravariant base vector is transformed with the metric coefcient ,
gl = g lk gk ,
T = T jl gj g lk gk ,
(T8)
(T9)
and it exists, if and only if T is linear independent, i.e. det T 6= 0.

10 . Axiom of Second Order Tensors. The transpose of the transpose is the tensor itself,
T T
= T.
(T10)
T
T=
(4.3.8)
the tensor T changes, like
but like in matrix calculus not commutative, i.e. T1 T2 6= T2 T1 . The "product"T1 T2 of the
tensors is also called a "composition"of the linear mappings T 1 , T2 .
9 . Axiom of Second Order Tensors. The inverse of a tensor T1 is dened by
v = T u u = T1 v,
The simple second order tensor T V V is dened as a linear combination of n dyads and its
rank is n,
(T7)
8 . Axiom of Second Order Tensors. The action of tensors on a vector is associative,

T1 (T2 u) = (T1 T2 ) u = T u,
4.3.3 The Complete Second Order Tensor
(T3)
4 . Axiom of Second Order Tensors. The multiplication by a tensor is distributive with respect
to vector addition,
T (u + v) = Tu + Tv ; u, v V.
(T4)
(T1 + T2 ) u = T1 u + T2 u
99
(T1)
This mapping is the same like the mapping of a vector with a quadratic matrix in a space with
Cartesian coordinates.
2 . Axiom of Second Order Tensors. The action of the zero tensor 0 on any vector u maps the
vector on the zero vector,
0 u = 0u = 0 ; u, 0 V.
(T2)
1 u = 1u = u ;
4.3. Tensors
(4.3.9)
T = T jl g lk gj gk ,
(4.3.10)
the tensor with covariant base vectors

and contravariant coordinates.
(4.3.11)
and the result is

T = T jk gj gk
The transformation of a covariant base vector in a contravariant base vector,

gj = gjk gk ,
(4.3.12)
100
4.4. Transformations and Products of Tensors
4.4
implies
T = T jl gjk gk gl ,
T = Tkl g g
the tensor with contravariant base vectors

and covariant coordinates.
4.4.1 The Transformation of Base Vectors
(4.3.14)
A vector v with v V is given by the covariant basis gi and i = 1, . . . , n and afterwards in

another covariant basis gi and i = 1, . . . , n. For example this case describes the situation of a
solid body with different congurations of deformation and a tangent basis, which moves along
the coordinate curves. And the same denitions are made with a contravariant basis g i and a
transformed contravariant basis g i . Then the representations of the vector v are
(4.3.15)
v = v i gi = v i g i = v i g i = v i g i .
creates the vector w V, and this one is computed by

w = T v = T ij (gi gj ) v k gk
ij k
(4.3.16)
ij
= T v gi gjk = T vj gi ,
w = w i gi
wi = T ij vj .
(4.3.17)
In the same way the other representation of the vector w is given by
w = T v = T i j g i gj v k g k
(4.3.18)
w=
and
Ti vk gi jk =
wi gi , and
Transformations and Products of Tensors
(4.3.13)
The action of the tensor T V V on the vector

g = v k gk V,
101
T i vj g ,
w i = T i vj
The relation between the two covariant base vectors gi and gi could be written with a second
order tensor like
g i = A gi .
(4.4.2)
If this linear mapping exists, then the coefcients of the transformation tensor A are given by
gi = 1gi = gk gk gi
(4.4.3)
k
= g gi gk = Aki gk ,
gi = Aki gk
(4.3.19)
(4.4.1)
, and Aki = gk gi .
The complete tensor A in the mixed formulation is then dened by
A = gk gi gk gi = Aki gk gi .
Insert equation (4.4.5) in (4.4.2), in order to get the transformation (4.4.4) again,
i
gm = Aki gk gi gm = Aki m
gk = Akm gk .
(4.4.4)
(4.4.5)
(4.4.6)
If the inverse transformation of equation (4.4.2) exists, then it should be denoted by

gi = Agi .
(4.4.7)
This existence results out of its linear independence. The "retransformation"tensor A is again
dened by the multiplication with the unit tensor 1
gi = 1gi = gk gk gi
(4.4.8)
k
k
= g gi g k = A i g k ,
k
gi = A i g k
, and A i = gk gi .
(4.4.9)
The transformation tensor A in the mixed representation is given by
k
A = g k gi g k g i = A i g k g i .
(4.4.10)
102
Inserting equation (4.4.10) in (4.4.7) implies again the transformation relation (4.4.9),
k
k i
k
gm = A i g k g i g m = A i m
gk = A m gk .
(4.4.11)
The tensor A is the inverse to A and vice versa. This is a result of equation (4.4.7) ,
1
A |
gi = A g i ,
gi = g i .
(4.4.12)
(4.4.13)
Comparing this with equation (4.4.2) implies

A=A
A=A
A A = 1,
(4.4.14)
and in the same way

A A = 1.
(4.4.15)
In index notation with equations (4.4.4) and (4.4.9) the relation between the "normal"and the
"overlined"coefcients of the transformation tensor is given by
m
gi = Aki gk = Aki A k gm
ij
ij
m j
Aki A k m
,
k j
A iA k .
| gj ,
(4.4.16)
(4.4.17)
The transformation of contravariant basis works in the same way. If in equations (4.4.3) or
(4.4.8) the metric tensor of covariant coefcients is used in stead of the identity tensor, then
another representation of the transformation tensor is described by
gm = 1gm = gik gi gk gi
(4.4.18)
= gik Akm gi ,
gm = Aim gi
, and
Aim = gik Akm .
(4.4.19)
If the transformed covariant base vectors g m should be represented by the contravariant base
vectors gi , then the complete tensor of transformation is given by
A = (gi gk ) gi gk = Aik gi gk .
(4.4.20)
The inverse transformation tensor T is given by an equation developed in the same way like the
equations (4.4.16) and (4.4.8). This inverse tensor is denoted and dened by
A = A1 = (gi gk ) gi gk = Aik gi gk .
(4.4.21)
103
4.4.2 Collection of Transformations of Basis

There is a large number of transformation relations between the co- and contravariant basis of
both systems of coordinates. Transformation from the "normal basis"to the "overlined basis",
like gi gi and gk gk , is given by the following equations. First the relation between the
covariant base vectors in both systems of coordinates is dened by
gi = 1gi = gk gk gi = gk gi gk = Aki gk .
(4.4.22)
With this relationship the transformed (overlined) covariant base vectors are represented by the
covariant base vectors
gi = Agi , and A = gk gm gk gm = Akm gk gm ,

(4.4.23)
k
k
g i = g g i gk = A i gk ,
(4.4.24)
and the transformed (overlined) covariant base vectors are represented by the contravariant base
vectors,
gi = Agi
, and
k
A = (gk ,gm ) gk gm = Akm gk gm ,

k
gi = (gk gi ) g = Aki g .
(4.4.25)
(4.4.26)
The relation between the contravariant base vectors in both systems of coordinates is dened by
gi = 1gi = gk gk gi = gk gi gk = Bki gk .
(4.4.27)
With this relationship the transformed (overlined) contravariant base vectors are represented by
the contravariant base vectors
gi = Bgi , and B = (gk gm ) gk gm = Bkm gk gm ,
gi = gk gi gk = Bki gk ,
(4.4.29)
gi = Bgi , and B = gk gm gk gm = B km gk gm ,
gi = gk gi gk = B ki gk .
(4.4.31)
(4.4.28)
and the transformed (overlined) contravariant base vectors are represented by the covariant base
vectors,
(4.4.30)
The inverse relation gi gi , and gk gk representing the "retransformations"from the transformed (overlined) to the "normal"system of coordinates are given by the following equations.
The inverse transformation between the covariant base vectors of both systems of coordinates is
denoted and dened by
k
gi = 1gi = gk gk gi = gk gi gk = Ai gk .
(4.4.32)
104
With this relationship the covariant base vectors are represented by the transformed (overlined)
covariant base vectors,
k
(4.4.33)
gi = Agi , and A = gk gm gk gm = Am gk gm ,
k
k
gi = g g i g k = A i g k ,
(4.4.34)
and the covariant base vectors are represented by the transformed (overlined) contravariant base
vectors,
gi = Ag
A = (gm gk ) g g = Amk g g ,
, and
gi = (gk gi ) gk = Aki gk .
(4.4.35)
(4.4.36)
The inverse relation between the contravariant base vectors in both systems of coordinates is
dened by
i
gi = 1gi = gk gk gi = gk gi gk = B k gk .
(4.4.37)
4.4.3 The Tensor Product of Second Order Tensors

The vector v is dened by the action of the linear mapping given by T on the vector u,
v = T u = Tu
gi = Bgi , and B = (gk gm ) gk gm =
i
gi = gk gi gk = B k gk ,
gm ,
(4.4.38)
There exist the following relations between the transformation tensors A and A,
AA = 1 , or
k
Ami A m = ik
AA = 1
, i.e.
A i Akm = ik
(4.4.42)
BB = 1
, i.e.
B m Bkm = ki .
v = T mk uk gm = v m gm .
; Bmk = A m ,
w = Sv
Bmk =
, with
w V , and S V V ,
(4.4.50)
and the linear mapping (4.4.48) the associative law for the linear mappings holds
w = Sv = S (T u) = (ST) u.
(4.4.51)
The second linear mapping w = Sv in the mixed formulation with the contravariant base vectors
gi V is given by
(4.4.52)
S = Sji gi gj .
Then the vector w in index notation with the results of the equations (4.4.49), (4.4.51) and
(4.4.52) is rewritten as
w = S (Tu) = Sji gi gj T mk uk gm
j
gi
= Sji T mk uk m
= Sji T jk uk gi = wi gi ,
(4.4.43)
and the coefcients of the vector are given by
(4.4.44)
(4.4.45)
(4.4.53)
For the second order tensor product ST exists in general four representations with all possible
combinations of base vectors
i
T mk gi gk
S T = Sm
ST=
(4.4.46)
and a relation between the transformation tensors B and the retransformation tensor A,
k
A m.
(4.4.49)
Furthermore with the linear mapping,
Furthermore exists a relation between the transformation tensors A and the retransformation
tensor B
Ami Bmk = ik
(4.4.48)
= T mk ur gkr gm
wi = Sji T jk uk .
BB = 1 , or
m
, and T V V .
and with lowering an index, see (4.1.39)
and for the inverse transformation tensors B and B
Bmi B k = ki
u, v V
= T mk ur (gk gr ) gm ,
(4.4.39)
and the contravariant base vectors are represented by the transformed (overlined) covariant base
vectors,
km
(4.4.40)
gi = Bgi , and B = gk gm gk gm = B gk gm ,
ki
gi = gk gi gk = B gk .
(4.4.41)
, with
In index notation with the covariant base vectors gi V equation (4.4.48) denotes like that
v = T mk gm gk (ur gr )
With this relationship the contravariant base vectors are represented by the transformed (overlined) contravariant base vectors,
m
B k gk
105
ST=
Sim Tkm gi gk
S im Tmk gi gk
covariant basis,
(4.4.54)
contravariant basis,
(4.4.55)
mixed basis,
(4.4.56)
mixed basis.
(4.4.57)
and
(4.4.47)
S T = Sim T mk gi gk
106
Lemma 4.4. The result of the tensor product of two dyads is the scalar product of the inner
vectors of the dyads and the dyadic product of the outer vectors of the dyads. The tensor product
of two dyads of vectors is denoted by
(a b) (c d) = (b c) a d.
(4.4.58)
With this rule the index notation of equations (4.4.53) up to (4.4.57) is easily computed, for
example equation (4.4.53) or (4.4.54) implies
i
ST = Sm
gi gm T nk gn gk
i
T nk nm gi gk ,
= Sm

Distributive law for the tensor product:
(R + S) T = RT + ST
(4.4.59)
ST 6= TS
(tensor tensor = tensor).
(4.4.60)
(ST)T = TT ST
(4.4.69)
Inverse of a tensor product:

(ST)1 = T1 S1
if S and T are nonsingular.
(4.4.70)
Determinant of a tensor product:
The linear mappings w = Sv and v = Tu with the vectors u, v, and w V are composed like
w = Sv = S (Tu) = (ST) u = STu = Pu.
(4.4.68)
Transpose of a tensor product:
The "multiplication"or composition of two linear mappings S and T is called a tensor product
P = S T = ST
(4.4.67)
In general cases NO commutative law:
and nally
i
ST = Sm
T mk gi gk .
107
det (ST) = det S det T
(4.4.71)
(4.4.61)
This "multiplication"is, like in matrix calculus, but not like in "normal"algebra (a b = b a),
noncommutative, i.e.
ST 6= TS.
(4.4.62)
For the three second order tensors R, S, T V V and the scalar quantity R the following
identities for tensor products hold.
Trace of a tensor product:

tr(ST) = tr(TS)
(4.4.72)
Proof of equation (4.4.63).

(ST) = (S) T = S (T) ,
Multiplication by a scalar quantity:

with the assumption
(ST) = (S) T = S (T)
(4.4.63)
(S) v = (Sv)
Multiplication by the identity tensor:

1T = T1 = T
(4.4.64)
, with
v V,
(4.4.73)
with this
[ (ST)] v = [S (Tv)] = (S) (Tv) = [(S) T] v,
Existence of a zero tensor:

0T = T0 = 0
(4.4.65)
Associative law for the tensor product:

(RS) T = R (ST)
and nally
(ST) = (S) T.
(4.4.66)
(4.4.74)
108
109

1T = T1 = T
, with
(R + S) T = RT + ST,
1 V V,
with the well known condition for a linear mapping,
with the assumption of equation (4.4.61),

S (Tv) = (ST) v,
(R + S) v = Rv + Sv,
(4.4.75)
(4.4.80)
with this and equation (4.4.61),
and the identity
[(R + S) T] v = (R + S) (Tv) = R (Tv) + S (Tv) = (RT) v + (ST) v,

1v = v,
(4.4.76)
and nally
this implies
(R + S) T = RT + ST.
(4.4.81)
(4.4.82)
(1T) v = 1 (Tv) = Tv,

(T1) v = T (1v) = Tv,
and nally
1T = T1 = T.
(ST)T = TT ST ,
(4.4.77)
with the dention

(RS) T = R (ST)
, with
which implies
R, S, T V V,
, with
v, w V,
= S,
= ST,
(ST)T
with the assumption of equation (4.4.61) and inserting it into equation (4.4.66),
[(RS) T] v = (RS) (Tv) = (RS) w
ST
(4.4.78)
(4.4.84)
and this equation only holds, if

T
T
(ST)T
= TT ST = ST.
with equation (4.4.61) again,

(RS) w = R (Sw) , and w = Tv,
[(RS) T] v = R [S (Tv)] = R [(ST) v] = R (Lv) = (RL) v
(4.4.83)
(4.4.85)

(ST)1 = T1 S1 ,
and nally
(RS) T = R (ST) .
(4.4.79)
and if the inverses T1 and S1 exist, then

(ST) (ST)1 = 1,
(4.4.86)
110
with equations (4.4.64) and (4.4.66),
S1 (ST) (ST)1 = S1 1 = S1 ,
(4.4.87)

S1 (ST) (ST)1 = S1 (ST) (ST)1 ,
(4.4.88)
(4.4.89)
with equation (4.4.88) inserted in (4.4.89) and comparing with equation (4.4.87),
(T) : S = T : (S) = (T : S)
T (ST)1 = S1 ,
T (ST)1 = T1 S1 ,
T : S = 0 , and if T is arbitrary, then S = 0.

Existence of a positive denite tensor:
(
> 0 , if T 6= 0
T : T = tr TTT
= 0 , iff T = 0
T (ST)
(4.4.91)
(4.4.92)
For the norms of tensors, like for the norms of vectors, the following identities hold,
(4.4.90)
= 1 (ST)
(4.4.93)
T : (v w) = vTw
, with
v, w V
, and
T V V .
(a b) : (c d) = (a c) (b d) .
(4.4.94)
For the three second order tensors R, S, T V V and the scalar quantity R the following
identities for scalar products of tensors hold.
S:T=T:S
(4.4.95)
Distributive law for the scalar product of tensors:

T : (R + S) = T : R + T : S
(4.4.96)
(4.4.102)
(4.4.103)
(4.4.104)
With this rule the index notation of equation (4.4.104) implies for example

S : T = S im gi gm : Tnk gn gk
k
= S im Tnk in m
and nally
S : T = S nm Tnm .
Commutative law for the scalar product of tensors:
(4.4.100)
And as a rule of thumb:

Lemma 4.5. The result of the scalar product of two dyads is the scalar product of the rst vectors
of each dyad and the scalar product of the second vectors of each dyad. The scalar product of
two dyads of vectors is denoted by
4.4.4 The Scalar Product or Inner Product of Tensors

The scalar product of tensors is dened by
(4.4.99)
(4.4.101)
|T| = || |T| ,
|T + S| |T| + |S| .
(ST)1 = T1 S1 .
(4.4.98)
The Schwarz inequality:
|TS| |T| |S|
= T1 T (ST)
and nally comparing this with equation (4.4.91)
, i.e. T is positive denite.
Absolute value or norm of a tensor:

p
|T| = tr (TTT )
and with equation (4.4.61) and (4.4.90),
(4.4.97)
Existence of an additive identity:
S1 (ST) = S1 S T = T,
111
Multiplication by a scalar quantity:
and equation (4.4.61) implies
and
(4.4.105)
And for the other combinations of base vectors the results are
S : T = Snm T nm
S : T = S nm Tnm
S : T = Snm T nm .
(4.4.106)
(4.4.107)
(4.4.108)
112
4.5
Special Tensors and Operators
It is not absolutely correct to speak about the determinant of a tensor, because it is only the
determinant of the coefcients of the tensor in Cartesian coordinates 1 and not of the whole tensor
itself. For the different notations of a tensor with covariant, contravariant and mixed coefcients
the determinant is given by

det T = det T ij = det [Tij ] = det T ij = det Ti j .
(4.5.1)
Expanding the determinant of the coefcient matrix of a tensor T works just the same as for any
other matrix. For example the determinant could be described with the permutation symbol ,
like in equation (4.2.35)
T11 T12 T13
(4.5.2)
det T = det [Tmn ] = T21 T22 T23 = T1i T2j T3k ijk .
T31 T32 T33
Some important identities are given without a proof by
det (T) = 3 det T,
det (TS) = det T det S,
(4.5.3)
(4.5.4)
det TT = det T,
(det Q) = 1
det T
(4.5.5)
, if Q is an orthogonal tensor,
= (det T)
if T
113
and in index notation,
4.5.1 The Determinant of a Tensor in Cartesian Coordinates
4.5. Special Tensors and Operators
exists.
(4.5.6)
(4.5.7)
The inner product of a tensor T with the identity tensor 1 is called the trace of a tensor,
The same statement written in index notation,

gk gk : T ij gi gj = T ij ki jk = Tkk ,
(4.5.8)
(4.5.9)
(4.5.10)
1
To compute the determinant of a second order tensor in general coordinates is much more complicated, and this
is not part of this lecture/script, for any details see for example DE B OER [3].
(4.5.11)
tr STT = S : T
(4.5.12)
The trace of a product of two tensors S and T is dened by
and easy to proof just writting it in index notation. Starting with this some more important
identities could be found,
tr T = tr TT ,
tr (ST) = tr (TS) ,
tr (RST) = tr (TRS) = tr (STR) ,
tr [T (R + S)] = tr (TR) + tr (TS) ,
tr [(S) T] = tr (ST) ,
(
> 0 , if T 6= 0,
, i.e. the tensor T is positive denite

T : T = tr TTT
= 0 , iff T = 0,
p
|T| = tr (TTT ) the absolute value of a tensor T,
(4.5.13)
(4.5.14)
(4.5.15)
(4.5.16)
(4.5.17)
(4.5.18)
(4.5.19)
and nally the inequality
|S : T| |S| |T| .
(4.5.20)
Like for the symmetric and skew parts of a tensor there are also a lot of notations for the volumetric and deviator parts of a tensor. The volumetric part of a tensor in the 3-dimensional Euclidean
vector space E3 is dened by
TV = Tvol =
and in this way it is easy to see that the result is a scalar. For the dyadic product of two vectors
the trace is given by the scalar product of the two involved vectors,
tr (a b) = 1 : (a b) = a (1 b) = a b,
gk gk : ai gi bj gj = ai bj ki jk = ak bk .
4.5.3 The Volumetric and Deviator Tensor
4.5.2 The Trace of a Tensor
tr T = 1 : T = T : 1.
1
(tr T) 1
n
, and
T E 3 E3 .
(4.5.21)
It is important to notice that all diagonal components V (i)(i) are equal and all the other components equals zero
(4.5.22)
V ij = 0 if i 6= j.
The deviator part of a tensor is given by
TD = Tdev = dev T = T Tvol = T TV = T
1
(tr T) 1.
n
(4.5.23)
114
4.5.4 The Transpose of a Tensor
115
4.5.5 The Symmetric and Antisymmetric (Skew) Tensor
The transpose T of a second order tensor T is dened by
There are a lot of different notations for the symmetric part of a tensor T, for example
v, w V ,
w (T v) = v (TT w) , and
T V V.
(4.5.24)
For a dyadic product of two vectors the transpose is assumed as
TS = Tsym = sym T,
(4.5.41)
and for the antisymmetric or skew part of a tensor T
w [(a b) v] = v [(b a) w] ,
(4.5.25)
(a b)T = (b a) .
(4.5.26)
TA = Tasym = skew T.
(4.5.42)
and
A second rank tensor is said to be symmetric, if and only if
T = TT .
(4.5.43)
The left-hand side of equation (4.5.25),

And a second rank tensor is said to be antisymmetric or skew, if and only if
w [(a b) v] = (w a) (b v) ,
(4.5.27)
T = TT .
and the right-hand side of equation (4.5.25)

v [(b a) w] = (v b) (a w) = (a w) (v b) ,
(4.5.28)
The same statement in index notation

T ij = T ji
are equal, q.e.d. For the transpose of a tensor the following identities hold,
(a b)T = (b a),
(T ) = T,
(4.5.30)
(4.5.31)
1 = 1,
(S + T)T = ST + TT ,
T
(4.5.32)
(T) = T ,
T
T ij = T ji
(4.5.29)
T T
(4.5.33)
T
(S T) = T S .
(4.5.34)
T = Tji gi gj TT = Tji gj gi = Tij gi gj ,
(4.5.37)
T=
Tij gi
gj T =
Tij gj
and the relations between the tensor components,

ij T
= T ji , or
T
g =
Tji gi
g ,
(Tij )T = Tji ,
(4.5.36)
T ij
= Tj i
, or
Ti j
= T ji .
(4.5.45)
(4.5.46)
1
1
T = TS + TA = TTsym + TTasym = sym T + skew T = (T + TT ) + (T TT ). (4.5.47)
2
2
The symmetric part of a tensor is dened by
(4.5.48)
and the antisymmetric (skew) part of a tensor is dened by

1
TA = Tasym = skew T = (T TT ).
2
(4.5.38)
(4.5.49)
4.5.6 The Inverse of a Tensor

(4.5.39)
The inverse of a tensor T exists, if for any two vectors v and w the expression,
and
, if T is antisymmetric.
1
TS = Tsym = sym T = (T + TT ),
2
(4.5.35)
T = Tij gi gj TT = Tij gj gi = Tji gi gj ,
, if T is symmetric,
Any second rank tensor can be written as a sum of a symmetric tensor and an antisymmetric
tensor,
The index notations w.r.t. to the different basis are given by

T = T ij gi gj TT = T ij gj gi = T ji gi gj ,
(4.5.44)
(4.5.40)
w = Tv,
(4.5.50)
v = T1 w.
(4.5.51)
could be transformed in
116
117
4.5.8 The Polar Decomposition of a Tensor
Comparing these two equations gives

TT1 = T1 T = 1
, and
The inverse of a tensor,

T1
1 1
= T.
det T 6= 0.
exists, if and only if
(4.5.52)
T = RU
(4.5.53)
The inverse of a product of a scalar and a tensor is dened by

(T)1 =
1 1
T ,
The polar decomposition of an nonsingular second order tensor T is given by
(4.5.54)
, or T = VR
, with
TVV
, and
det T 6= 0.
(4.5.62)
In the polar decomposition the tensor R = Q is chosen as an orthogonal tensor, i.e. R T = R1

and det R = 1. In this case the tensors U and V are positive denite and symmetric tensors.
The tensor U is named the right-hand Cauchy strain tensor and V is named the left-hand Cauchy
strain tensor. Both describe the strains, e.g. if a ball (a circle) is deformed in an ellipsoid (an
ellipse), on the opposite R represents a rotation. The gure (4.6) implies the denition of the
and the inverse of a product of two tensors is dened by

(ST)1 = T1 S1 .
(4.5.55)
4.5.7 The Orthogonal Tensor
dz
An orthogonal tensor Q satises
QQT = QT Q = 1 , i.e.
Q1 = QT .
From this it follows that the mapping w = Qv with ww = vv implies

wQv = vQT w = vQ1 w.
(4.5.56)
dX
F=T
(4.5.57)
R
The orthogonal mappings of two arbitrary vectors v and w is rewritten with the denition of the
transpose (4.5.24)
(Qw) (Qv) = wQT Qv,
dx
dz
(4.5.58)
and with the denition of the orthogonal tensor (4.5.56)

Figure 4.6: The polar decomposition.
(Qw) (Qv) = w v.
(4.5.59)
The scalar product of two vectors equals the scalar product of their orthogonal mappings. And
for the square value of a vector and its orthogonal mapping equation (4.5.59) denotes
(Qv)2 = v2 .
(4.5.60)
Sometimes even equation (4.5.59) and not (4.5.56) is used as denition of an orthogonal tensor.
The orthogonal tensor Q describes a rotation. For the special case of the Cartesian basis the
components of the orthogonal tensor Q are given by the cosine of the rotation angle
Q = qik ei ek
k ))
qik = cos (^ (ei ; e
vectors
and
det Q = 1.
If det Q = +1, then the tensor is called proper orthogonal tensor or a rotator.
(4.5.61)
dz = R dX,
(4.5.63)
dx = V dz.
(4.5.64)
and
The composition of this two linear mappings is given by

dx = V R dX = F dX,
(4.5.65)
118
119
t3
The other possible way to describe the composition is with the vector d z,
dx = R dz,
(4.5.66)
da3
g3 6
g2
and
dz = U dX,
(4.5.67)
dx = R U dX = F dX,
(4.5.68)
and nally
The composed tensor F is called the deformation gradient and its polar decomposition is given
by
T F = R U = V R.
(4.5.69)
g1
Figure 4.7: An example of the physical components of a second order tensor.
4.5.9 The Physical Components of a Tensor
In general a tensor w.r.t. the covariant basis gi is given by

T = T ik gi gk .
The denition of the physical stresses ik is given by

(4.5.70)
The physical components T ik are dened by
T = T ik
gi
gk
|gi | |gk |
T ik
T ik
gi g k ,
=
g(i)(i) g(k)(k)
= T ik g(i)(i) g(k)(k) .
(4.5.71)
(4.5.72)
ik
The stress tensor T = T gi gk is given w.r.t. to the bais gi . Then the associated stress vector
ti w.r.t. a point in the sectional area dai is dened by
ti =
df
da(i)
ti = ik gk
df i = ti da(i) ,
; df i = ik gk da(i) ,
(4.5.74)
with the differential force df . Furthermore the sectional area and its absolute value are given by
(4.5.75)
and

|dai | = da(i) g(i) ,
p
|dai | = da(i) g (i)(i) .
(4.5.77)
Comparing equations (4.5.74) and (4.5.77) implies

!
p
p
g (i)(i)
ik
ik
da(i) g (i)(i) = 1,

g(k)(k)
and nally the denition for the physical components of the stress tensor ik is given by
(4.5.73)
dai = da(i) g(i) ,
gk
da(i) ,
|gk |
p
gk
df i = ik
da(i) g (i)(i) .
g(k)(k)
df i = ik
4.5.10 The Isotropic Tensor
g(k)(k)
ik = ik p
.
g (i)(i)
(4.5.78)
An isotropic tensor is a tensor, which has in every rotated coordinate system, if it is a Cartesian
coordinate system the same components. Every tensor with order zero, i.e. a scalar quantity, is
an isotropic tensor, but no rst order tensor, i.e. a vector, could be isotropic. The unique isotropic
second order tensor is the Kronecker delta, see section (4.1).
(4.5.76)
120
4.6
The Principal Axes of a Tensor
4.6. The Principal Axes of a Tensor
121
condition the shear stresses in orthogonal sections are equal

T ik = T ki , and
4.6.1 Introduction to the Problem
(4.6.2)
T = TT = T ki ei ek .
The computation of the . . .
(4.6.3)
The stress vector in the section surface, given by e1 = e1 , is dened by the linear mapping of
the normal unit vector e1 with the tensor T
invariants,
t1 = T (e1 )
eigenvalues and eigenvectors,
(4.6.4)
= T ik (ei ek )e1
vectors of associated directions, and
= T ik k1 ei ,
t1 = T 1i e1 .
principal axes
(4.6.5)
is described for the problem of the principal axes of a stress tensor, also called the directions of
principal stress. The Cauchy stress tensor in Cartesian coordinates is given by
The stress tensor T assigns the resulting stress vector t(n) to the direction of the normal vector
perpendicular to the section surface n. This linear mapping fullls the equilibrium conditions
T = T ik ei ek .
t(n) = T n,
(4.6.1)
This stress tensor T is symmetric because of the equilibrium conditon of moments. With this
(4.6.6)
with the normal vector

n = n l el ,
k
ne =
t(n) dA(n)
x3 6
nl lk
(4.6.7)
k
= n = cos n, e
and the absolute value
|n| = 1.
t(3) dA(3)
I
t(1) dA(1)
e3 6
The stress vector in direction of n is computed by
t(n) = T ik ei ek nl el
= T ik nl kl ei ,
e2
x2
e1
R
t(2) dA(2)
1
x
(4.6.8)
= T ik nl (ek el ) ei
(n)
= T ik nk ei .
(4.6.9)
The action of the tensor T on the normal vector n reduces the order of the second order tensor
T (stress tensor) to a rst order tensor t (n) (i.e. the stress vector in direction of n).
Lemma 4.6. Principal axes problem Exists a direction no in space, in such a way, that the
resulting stress vector t(n0 ) is oriented in this direction, i.e. that the vector n0 fullls the following
equations?
Figure 4.8: Principal axis problem with Cartesian coordinates.
t(n0 ) = n0
= 1 n0 .
(4.6.10)
(4.6.11)
122
Comparing equations (4.6.6) and (4.6.11) leads to T n 0 = 1 n0 and therefore to

(T 1) n0 = 0.
(4.6.12)
For this special case of eigenvalue problem . . .

the directions n0j are called the principal stress directions, and they are given by the eigenvectors.
and the j = j are called the eigenvalues or resp. in this case the principal stresses.
4.6.2 Components in a Cartesian Basis

The equation (4.6.12) is rewritten with index notaion
ik
T ei ek ik ei ek nl0 el
ik
T ik nl0 (ek el ) ei
ik
T ik nl0 kl ei
ik
T ik n0k ei
= 0,
(4.6.13)
= 0,
(4.6.14)
This is a linear homogenous system of equations for n01 , n02 and n03 , then non-trivial solutuions
exist, if and only if
det(T 1) = 0,
(4.6.17)
or in index notation
(4.6.18)
4.6.3 Components in a General Basis

In a general basis with a stress tensor with covariant base vectors T = Tik gi gk , a normal
vector n0 = nl0 gl , and a unit tensor with covariant base vectors 1 = G = g ik gi gk , too the
= 0,
(4.6.19)
= 0,
= 0,
= 0,
and nally in index notation
Tik g ik = 0,
det Tik g ik = 0.
Tki ki nk0 = 0,
i
det Tk ki = 0.
This equation could be represented in matrix notation, because it is given in a Cartesian basis,
ik

(4.6.15)
T ik [n0k ] = [0] ,
(T 1) n0 = 0,

11
n01
T 12
T 13
0
T
22
23
T 21
T
T
n02 = 0 .
(4.6.16)
T 31
T 32
T 33
n03
0
det(T ik ik ) = 0.
equation (4.6.12) is denoted like this
Tik gi gk g ik gi gk nl0 gl
Tik g ik nl0 (gk gl ) gi
Tik g ik nl0 gkl gi
Tik g ik n0k gi
= 0,
T ik ik n0k = 0.
123
(4.6.20)
And the same in mixed formulation is given by
= 0,
and nally
(4.6.21)
4.6.4 Characteristic Polynomial and Invariants

The characteristic polynomial of an eigenvalue problem with the invariants I 1 , I2 , and I3 in a
3-dimensional space E3 is dened by
f () = I3 I2 + 2 I1 3 = 0.
(4.6.22)
For a Cartesian basis the equation (4.6.22) becomes a cubic equation, because of being an eigenvalue problem in E3 with the invariants given by
I1 = tr T = gik Tik = ik T ik = Tkk = T kk ,
1 ii kk
1
(tr T)2 tr (T)2 =
T T T ik T ki ,
I2 =
2
2

I3 = det T = det T ik .
(4.6.23)
I1 = 1 + 2 + 3 ,
I2 = 1 2 + 2 3 + 3 1 ,
I3 = 1 2 3 .
(4.6.26)
(4.6.27)
(4.6.28)
(4.6.24)
(4.6.25)
The fundamental theorem of algebra implies that there exists three roots 1 , 2 , and 3 , such that
the following equations hold
124
125
4.6.5 Principal Axes and Eigenvalues of Symmetric Tensors
4.6.7 Example
The assumption that the tensor is symmetric is denoted in tensor and index notation like this
TT = T, T ik = T ki and resp. in matrix notation T T = T . The eigenvalue problem with
j 6= l is given in matrix notation by
Compute the characteristic polynomial, the eigenvalues and the eigenvectors of this matrix
1 4 8
4 7 4 .
8
4 1
(T 1) n0 = 0,
(4.6.29)
+nT0l |
(T j 1) n0j = 0,
(4.6.30)
nT0j |
(T l 1) n0l = 0.
(4.6.31)
in matrix notation for an an arbitrary j
By expanding the determinant det (A 1) the characteristic polynomial becomes

p () = + 92 + 81 729,
and with an arbitrary l
The addition of the last two equations leads to the relation,

nT0l T n0j j nT0l n0j nT0j T n0l + l nT0j n0l = 0.
(4.6.32)
A quadratic form implies
i.e.
nT0j T n0l = nT0j T n0l = nT0l T T n0j = nT0l T n0j ,

(l
j ) nT0j n0l
0.
(4.6.33)
(4.6.34)
4.6.6 Real Eigenvalues of a Symmetric Tensors

Two complex conjugate eigenvalues are denoted by
(l j ) nT0j n0l = 0,
bT b + cT c 6= 0,
(4.6.37)
(4.6.38)
i.e. = 0 and the eigenvalues are real numbers. The result is a symmetric stress tensor with
three real principale stresses and the associated directions being orthogonal to each other.
For this eigenvalues the orthogonal eigenvectors are established by

2
1
2
,
x2 = 2
und
x3 = 2 .
x1 = 1
2
2
1
Let T be an arbitrary tensor, given in the basis gi with i = 1, . . . , n, and dened by
T = Tik gi gk .
(4.6.39)
The identity tensor in Cartesian coordinates 1 = ik ei ek is substituted by the identity tensor

1, dened by
1 = g ik gi gk .
(4.6.40)
Then the eigenvalue problem
(4.6.35)
(4.6.36)
The coordinates of the associated eigenvectors n0j and n0l could be written as column matrices
n0j and n0l . Furthermore the relations n0j = b + ic and n0l = b + ic hold. Comparing this with
the equation (4.6.34) implies
2i (b + ic)T (b ic) = 0,
2i bT b + cT c = 0,
1 = 9, 2,3 = 9.
4.6.8 The Eigenvalue Problem in a General Basis
This equation holds, if and only if l j 6= 0 and nT0j n0l = 0. The conclusion of this relation
between the eigenvalues j , l , and the normal unit vectors n0j , and n0l is, that the normal vectors
are orthogonal to each other.
j = + i,
l = i.
with the (real) eigenvalues
(T 1) n0 = 0
is substituted by the eigenvalue problem in general coordinates given by
Tik gi gk g ik gi gk nl0 gl = 0,
(4.6.41)
(4.6.42)
with the vector n0 = nl0 gl in the direction of a principal axis. Begining with the eigenvalue
problem
Tik g ik nl0 (gk gl ) gi = 0
Tik g ik nl0 gkl gi = 0
(4.6.43)
Tik g ik n0k gi = 0,
126
4.7. Higher Order Tensors
4.7
and with
n0k 6= 0,
results nally the condition
ik
ik
(4.6.44)
Higher Order Tensors
4.7.1 Review on Second Order Tensor

A complete second order tensor T maps a vector u for example in the vector space V, like this
n0k = 0.
(4.6.45)
The tensor T could be written in the mixed notation,

T = Tki gi gk ,
(4.6.46)
and with the identity tensor also in mixed notation,

1 = ki gi gk .
v = Tu
implies the condition
Tki ki nl0 gk gl gi = 0
i
Tk ki nl0 lk gi = 0,
Tki ki n0k = 0.
, with
u, v V , and
T V V.
(4.7.1)
For example in index notation with a vector basis gi V, a vector is given by

u = u i gi = u i g i ,
(4.7.2)
and a second order tensor by

(4.6.47)
T = T jk gj gk
The eigenvalue problem
127
, with
gj , gk V.
(4.7.3)
Than a linear mapping with a second order tensor is given by

v = T jk (gj gk ) ui gi
(4.6.48)
= T jk ui gki gj ,
(4.6.49)
But the matrix [Tki ] = T is nonsymmetric. For this reason it is necessary to control the orthogonality of the eigenvectors by a decomposition.
(4.7.4)
= T jk ui (gk gi ) gj
v = Tij ui gj = v j gj .
(4.7.5)
4.7.2 Introduction of a Third Order Tensor

After having a close look at a second order tensor, and realizing that a vector is nothing else but
a rst order tensor, it is easy to understand, that there might be also a higher order tensor. In the
same way like a second order tensor maps a vector onto another vector, a complete third order
tensor maps a vector onto a second order tensor. For example in index notation with a vector
basis gi V, a vector is given
u = u i gi = u i g i ,
(4.7.6)
and a complete third order tensor by

3
A = Ajkl gj gk gl
, with
gj , gk , gl V.
(4.7.7)
Than a linear mapping with a third order tensor is given by

T = Ajkl (gj gk gl ) ui gi
(4.7.8)
= Ajkl ui (gl gi ) (gj gk )
= Ajkl ui gli (gj gk ) ,
T = Ajkl ul (gj gk ) = T jk (gj gk ) .

(4.7.9)
128
4.7.3 The Complete Permutation Tensor

The most important application of a third order tensor is the third order permutation tensor, which
is the correct description of the permutation symbol in section (4.2). The complete permutation
tensor is antisymmetric and in the space E3 just represented by a scalar quantity (positive or
negative), see also the permutation symbols e and in section (4.2). The complete permutation
tensor in Cartesian coordinates or also called the third order fundamental tensor is dened by
3
E = eijk ei ej ek
, or
E = eijk ei ej ek .
(4.7.10)
ijk
For the orthonormal basis ei the components of the covariant eijk and contravariant e permutation tensor (symbol) are equal
(4.7.11)
ei ej = eijk ek .
Equation (4.2.26) in section 3(4.2) is the short form of a product in Cartesian coordinates between the third order tensor E and the second order identity tensor. This scalar product of the
permutation tensor and ei ej from the right-hand side yields,
ei ej = ersk er es ek : (ei ej )
= ersk is jk er = erij er ,
ei ej = eijr er ,
(4.7.12)
or with ej ei from the left-hand side yields
(4.7.13)
= C.
(4.7.18)
Comparing this with the well known unidimensional Hookes law it is easy to see that this mapping is the generalized 3-dimensional linear case of Hookes law. The elasticity tensor C has in
general in space E3 the total number of 34 = 81 components. Because of the symmetry of the
strain tensor and the stress tensor this number reduces to 36. With the potential character
of the elastic stored deformation energy the number of components reduces to 21. For an elastic
and isotropic material there is another reduction to 2 independent constants, e.g. the Youngs
modulus E and the Poissons ratio .
4.7.5 Tensors of Various Orders

Higher order tensor are represented with the dyadic products of vectors, e.g. a simple third order
tensor and a complete third order tensor,
3
B=
n
X
i=1
ai b i c i =
n
X
i=1
Ti ci = B ijk gi gj gk ,
(4.7.19)
n
X
i=1
ai b i c i d i =
n
X
i=1
Si Ti = C ijkl gi gj gk gl .
(4.7.20)
For example the tensors form order zero till order four are summarized in index notation with a
basis gi ,
4.7.4 Introduction of a Fourth Order Tensor

The action of a fourth order tensor C, given by
C = C ijkl (gi gj gk gl ) ,
Really important is the so called elasticity tensor C used in elasticity theory. This is a fourth
order tensor, which maps the strain tensor onto the stress tensor ,
C=
= ersk ir js ek ,
ei ej = eijk e .
129
and a simple fourth order tensor and a complete fourth order tensor,
ei ej = (ei ej ) : ersk er es ek
k
4.7. Higher Order Tensors
a scalar quantity, or a tensor of order zero

(4.7.14)
a vector, or a rst order tensor
(0)
= ,
(1)
(4.7.21)
i
v = v = vi g ,
(4.7.22)
(2)
on a second order tensor T given by
a second order tensor
T = T = T jk gj gk ,
(4.7.23)
C = C = C ijkl gi gj gk gl .
(4.7.25)
T=T
mn
(gm gn ) ,
is given in index notation, see also equation (4.4.104), by
S = C : T = C ijkl gi gj gk gl : (T mn gm gn ) ,
(4.7.15)
a third order tensor

a fourth order tensor
B = B ijk gi gj gk ,
(4.7.16)
= C ijkl T mn (gk gm ) (gl gn ) (gi gj ) ,
= C ijkl T mn gkm gln (gi gj ) = C ijkl Tkl (gi gj ) ,
S = S ij gi gj .
(4.7.17)
(4.7.24)
130
Chapter 5
Vector and Tensor Analysis
S IMMONDS [12], H ALMOS [6], A BRAHAM, M ARSDEN, and R ATIU [1], and M ATTHEWS [11].
And in german DE B OER [3], S TEIN ET AL . [13], and I BEN [7].
131
Chapter 5. Vector and Tensor Analysis
132
5.1. Vector and Tensor Derivatives
5.1
133
Vector and Tensor Derivatives
5.1.1 Functions of a Scalar Variable

5.1
5.2
Vector and Tensor Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

5.1.1
Functions of a Scalar Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.1.2
Functions of more than one Scalar Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.1.3
The Moving Trihedron of a Space Curve in Euclidean Space . . . . . . 135
5.1.4
Covariant Base Vectors of a Curved Surface in Euclidean Space . . . . 138
5.1.5
Curvilinear Coordinate Systems in the 3-dim. Euclidean Space . . . . . 139
5.1.6
The Natural Basis in the 3-dim. Euclidean Space . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.1.7
Derivatives of Base Vectors, Christoffel Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
= ()
()
v=v
a scalar-valued scalar function,

a vector-valued scalar function,
(5.1.1)
(5.1.2)
()
T=T
a tensor-valued scalar function,
(5.1.3)
and
Derivatives and Operators of Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

5.2.1
Denitions and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.2.2
The Gradient or Frechet Derivative of Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.2.3
Index Notation of Base Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.2.4
The Derivatives of Base Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.2.5
The Covariant Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.2.6
The Gradient in a 3-dim. Cartesian Basis of Euclidean Space . . . . . . 146
5.2.7
Divergence of Vector and Tensor Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.2.8
Index Notation of the Divergence of Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.2.9
Index Notation of the Divergence of Tensor Fields . . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.2.10 The Divergence in a 3-dim. Cartesian Basis in Euclidean Space . . . . 149

5.2.11 Rotation or Curl of Vector and Tensor Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.2.12 Laplacian of a Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.3
A scalar function could be represented by another scalar quantity, a vector, or even a tensor,
which depends on one scalar variable. These different types of scalar functions are denoted by
Integral Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

5.3.1
Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.3.2
Gausss Theorem for a Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.3.3
Divergence Theorem for a Tensor Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.3.4
Integral Theorem for a Scalar Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.3.5
Integral of a Cross Product or Stokess Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.3.6
Another Interpretation of Gausss Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
The usual derivative w.r.t. a scalar variable of the equation (5.1.1) is established with the
Taylor series of the scalar-valued scalar function () at a value ,

(5.1.4)
( + ) = () + () + O 2 .
The term () given by
() = lim
( + ) ()
,
(5.1.5)
is the derivative of a scalar w.r.t. a scalar quantity. The usual representations of the derivatives
dd are given by
d
( + ) ()
= 0 = lim
.
(5.1.6)
() =
0
d
The Taylor series of the scalar-valued vector function, see equation (5.1.2), at a value is given
by

( + ) = v
() + y () + O 2 .
v
(5.1.7)
The derivative of a vector w.r.t. a scalar quantity is dened by
y () =
( + ) v
()
dv
v
= v0 = lim
.
0
d
(5.1.8)
() is given by
The total differential or also called the exact differential of the vector function v
dv = v0 d.
(5.1.9)
() at a value is given by
The second derivative of the scalar-valued vector function v

d dv
dy ()
=
= v00 .
(5.1.10)
d
d d
134
The Taylor series of the scalar-valued tensor function, see equation (5.1.3), at a value is given
by

( + ) = T
() + Y () + O 2 .
(5.1.11)
T
This implies the derivative of a tensor w.r.t. a scalar quantity,
( + ) T
()
dT
T
Y () =
= T0 = lim
.
0
d
(5.1.12)
In the following some important identities are listed,

(v)0 = 0 v + v0 ,
0
(5.1.13)
0
(vw) = v w + vw ,
(v w) = v0 w + v w0 ,
0
(v w) = v w + v w ,
(Tv)0 = T0 v + Tv0 ,
0
135
With this partial derivatives ,i the exact differential of the function is given by
d = ,i di .
(ST) = S T + ST ,
1 0
T
= T1 T0 T1 .
(5.1.15)
(5.1.16)
(5.1.17)
(5.1.18)
(5.1.19)
(1 , . . . , i + , . . . , n ) v
(1 , . . . , i , . . . , n )
v
v
,
= v,i = lim
0
i
dv = v,i di .
(1 , . . . , i , . . . , n )
(1 , . . . , i + , . . . , n ) T
T
T
,
= T,i = lim
0
i
dT = T,i di .
(5.1.28)
A vector function x = x (1 ) with one variable 1 in the Euclidean vector space E3 could be
represented by a space curve. The vector x (1 ) is the position vector from the origin O to the
point P on the space curve. The tangent vector t (1 ) at a point P is then dened by
Like for the functions of one scalar varaible it is also possible to denite varoius functions of
more than one scalar variable, e.g.
(5.1.20)
(5.1.21)

dx (1 )
.
t 1 = x 0 1 =
d1
(5.1.29)
The tangent unit vector or just the tangent unit of the space curve at a point P with the position
vector x is dened by
t (s) =
dx
x 1
=
1 s
ds
, and
|t (s)| = 1.
(5.1.30)
The normal vector at a point P on a space curve is dened with the derivative of the tangent
vector w.r.t. the curve parameter s by
and nally
(1 , 2 , . . . , i , . . . , n )
T=T
(5.1.27)
and the exact differential is given by
5.1.2 Functions of more than one Scalar Variable
a scalar-valued function of multiple variables,

a vector-valued function of multiple variables,
(5.1.26)
The partial derivatives of the tensor-valued function (5.1.22) w.r.t. the scalar variable i are
dened by
5.1.3 The Moving Trihedron of a Space Curve in Euclidean Space
= (1 , 2 , . . . , i , . . . , n )
(1 , 2 , . . . , i , . . . , n )
v=v
(5.1.25)
and its exact differential is given by
As a short example for a proof of the above identities the proof of equation (5.1.19) is given by
TT1 = 1,
0
0
TT1 = T0 T1 + T T1 = 0,
0
T0 T1 = T T1 ,
0
T1 = T1 T0 T1 .
(5.1.24)
The partial derivatives of the vector-valued function (5.1.21) w.r.t. the scalar variable i are
dened by
(5.1.14)
0
0
a tensor-valued function of multiple variables.
(5.1.22)
In stead of establishing the total differentials like in the section before, it is now necessary to
establish the partial derivatives of the functions w.r.t. the various variables. Starting with the
scalar-valued function (5.1.20), the partial derivative w.r.t. the i-th scalar variable i is dened
by
(1 , . . . , i + , . . . , n ) (1 , . . . , i , . . . , n )
.
(5.1.23)
= ,i = lim
0
i
n=
d2 x
dt
= 2.
ds
ds
(5.1.31)
The term 1/ is a measure of the curvature or just the curvature of a space curve at a point P .
The normal vector n at a point P is perpendicular to the tangent vector t at this point,
nt i.e.
n t = 0,
136
137
n M
s = s (1 )
e3 6
x (1 )
R
1
t (1 )
x (1 + 1 )
e1
e2
M
Figure 5.1: The tangent vector in a point P on a space curve.
Figure 5.2: The moving trihedron.
The so called binormal unit vector b or just the binormal unit is the vector perpendicular to the
tangent vector t, and the normal vector n at a point P , and dened by
and the curvature is given by

d2 x d2 x
1
= 2 2.
2
ds ds
(5.1.32)
b = t n.
The absolute value |b| of the binormal unit is a measure for the torsion of the curve in space at a
point P , and the derivative of the binormal vector w.r.t. the curve parameter s implies,
The proof of this assumption starts with the scalar product of two tangent vectors,
t t = 1,
d
(t t) = 0,
ds
dt
2 t = 0,
ds
dt
dn
db
=
n+t
ds
ds
ds
dn
=nn+t
ds
1
=0+ n
db
1
= n.
ds
and nally results, that the scalar product of the derivative w.r.t. the curve parameter and the
tangent vector equals zero, i.e. this two vectors are perpendicular to each other,
This implies the denition
With the curvature 1 the normal unit vector n or just the normal unit is dened by
of the torsion of a curve at a point P ,
and with equation (5.1.35) the torsion is given by
3
1
dx d2 x
dx
= 2
2 3.
ds
ds
ds
of the curvature of a curve at a point P .
n = n.
(5.1.35)
This yields the denition
dt
t.
ds
1
= n
(5.1.34)
(5.1.33)
(5.1.36)
The three unit vectors t, n and b form the moving trihedron of a space curve in every point P .
The derivatives w.r.t. the curve parameter ds are the so called Serret-Frenet equations, and given
138
below,
139
With this relation the other metric coefcients are given by

1
d2 x
dt
= n = 2 , and b = t n,
ds
ds
1
1
1
1
dn
= n b t n = t b,
ds
db
1
d
= n = (t b) .
ds
ds
a3 = 0
(5.1.37)
(5.1.38)
a = det a, .
The absolute value of a line element dx is computed by
ds2 = dx x = x, d x, d ,
e3 6
a1
e1
q
a d d .
(5.1.45)
(5.1.46)
The contravariant base vectors of the curved surface are computed with the metric coefcients
and the covariant base vectors,
a = a a ,
(5.1.47)
and the Kronecker delta is given by
and nally
The differential element of area dA is given by
dA = a d1 d2 .
P
z
= a a d d = a d d ,
ds =
2
1ds
(5.1.44)
(5.1.39)
The vector-valued function x = x (1 , 2 ) with two scalar variables 1 , and 2 represents

a curved surface in the Euclidean vector space E3 . The covariant base vectors of the curved
a3 o
(5.1.43)
and nally the determinant of the metric coefcients is given by
5.1.4 Covariant Base Vectors of a Curved Surface in Euclidean Space
a2
, and a33 = 1,
e2
a a = .
Figure 5.3: The covariant base vectors of a curved surface.
(5.1.48)
5.1.5 Curvilinear Coordinate Systems in the 3-dim. Euclidean Space

The position vector x in an orthonormal Cartesian coordinate system is given by
surface are given by

x
x
, and a2 =
.
(5.1.40)
1
2
The metric coefcients of the curved surface are computed with the base vectors, and the following predenition for the small greek letters,
x = x i ei .
a1 =
a = a a
, and , = 1, 2.
(5.1.41)
The normal unit vector of the curved surface, perpendicular to the vectors a 1 , and a2 , is dened
by
a1 a 2
n = a3 =
.
(5.1.42)
|a1 a2 |
(5.1.49)
The curvilinear coordinates or resp. the curvilinear coordinate system is introduced by the
following relations between the curvilinear coordinates i and the Cartesian coordinates xj and
base vectors ej ,
i x1 , x 2 , x 3 .
(5.1.50)
i =
The inverses of this relations in the domain are explicit dened by
xi = xi 1 , 2 , 3 ,
if the following conditions hold, . . .
(5.1.51)
140
141
3
g2M
g3
1
2
2
1
x3
3
e3 6
e3 6
x
-
e1
O e2
g1
x
-
x2
e1
O e2
x1
Figure 5.4: Curvilinear coordinates in a Cartesian coordinate system.
Figure 5.5: The natural basis of a curvilinear coordinate system.
the function is at least one-time continuous differentiable,

and the Jacobian or more precisely the determinant of the Jacobian matrix is not equal to
zero,
i
x
J = det
6= 0.
(5.1.52)
k
The vector x w.r.t. the curvilinear coordinates is represented by
x = xi 1 , 2 , 3 ei .
gk gi = ki .
x = xi gi .
(5.1.53)
(5.1.56)
(5.1.57)
The covariant coordinates x and the contravariant coordinates xi of the position vector x are
connected by the metric coefcients like this,
i
A basis in the point P represented by the position vector x and tangential to the curvilinear
coordinates i is introduced by
xi (1 , 2 , 3 )
ei .
k
For each covariant natural basis gk an associated contravariant basis with the contravariant base
vectors of the natural basis g i is dened by
The vector x w.r.t. the contravariant basis is represented by
5.1.6 The Natural Basis in the 3-dim. Euclidean Space
gk =
position vectors of the points along this curvilinear coordinate. The vector x w.r.t. the covariant
basis is given by
x = xi gi .
(5.1.55)
(5.1.54)
xi = gik xk ,
xi = g ik xk .
(5.1.58)
(5.1.59)
5.1.7 Derivatives of Base Vectors, Christoffel Symbols
These base vectors gk are the covariant base vectors of the natural basis and form the so called
natural basis. In general these base vectors are not perpendicular to each other. Furthermore
this basis gk changes along the curvilinear coordinates in every point, because it depends on the
The derivative of a covariant base vector gi E3 w.r.t. a coordinate k is again a vector, which
could be described by a linear combination of the base vectors g 1 , g2 , and g3 ,
gi
!
= gi,k = sik gs .
(5.1.60)
k
142
The sik are the components of the Christoffel symbol (i) . The Christoffel symbol could be
described by a second order tensor w.r.t. the basis gi ,
(i) = sij gs gj .
(5.1.61)
With this denition of the Christoffel symbol as a second order tensor a linear mapping of the
base vector gk is given by
gi,k = (i) gk = sij gs gj gk

(5.1.62)
j
s
s j
= ij g gk gs = ij k gs ,
and nally
gi,k =
sik gs .
(5.1.63)
Equation (5.1.63) is again the deniton of the Christoffel symbol, like in equation (5.1.60). With
this relation the components of the Christoffel symbol could be computed, like this
gi,k gs = rik gr gs = rik rs = sik .
(5.1.64)
Like by any other second order tensor, the raising and lowering of the indices of the Christoffel
symbol is possible with the contravariant metric coefcients g ls , and with the covariant metric
coefcients g ls , e.g.
(5.1.65)
ikl = gls sik .
Also important are the relations between the derivatives of the metric coefcients w.r.t. to the
coordinates i and the components of the Christoffel symbol,
ikl =
1
(gkl,i + gil,k gik,l ) .
2
(5.1.66)
5.2. Derivatives and Operators of Fields
5.2
143
Derivatives and Operators of Fields
5.2.1 Denitions and Examples

A function of an Euclidean vector, for example of a vector of position x E 3 is called a eld.
The elds are seperated in three classes by their value,
=
(x)
(x)
v=v
the scalar-valued vector function or scalar eld,

the vector-valued vector function or vector eld,
(5.2.1)
(5.2.2)
(x)
T=T
the tensor-valued vector function or tensor eld.
(5.2.3)
and
For example some frequently used elds in the Euclidean vector space are,
scalar elds - temperature eld, pressure eld, density eld,
vector elds - velocity eld, acceleration eld,
tensor elds - stress state in a volume element.
5.2.2 The Gradient or Frechet Derivative of Fields

A vector-valued vector function or vector eld v = v (x) is differentiable at a point P represented by a vector of position x, if the following linear mapping exists

(x + y) = v
(x) + L (x) y + O y2
v
, and |y| 0,
(5.2.4)
(x + y) v
(x)
v
L (x) 1 = lim
.
(5.2.5)
|y|0
|y|
The linear mapping L (x) is called the gradient or the Frechet derivative
(x) .
L (x) = grad v
(5.2.6)
(x) of a vector-valued vector function (vector eld) is a tensor-valued funcThe gradient grad v
tion (second order tensor depending on the vector of position x). For a scalar-valued vector
function or a scalar eld
(x) there exists an analogue to equation (5.2.4), resp. (5.2.5),

, and |y| 0,
(5.2.7)
(x + y) =
(x) + l (x) y + O y2
(x + y)
(x)
l (x) 1 = lim
.
(5.2.8)
|y|0
|y|
And with this relation the gradient of the scalar eld is a vector-valued vector function (vector
eld) given by
l (x) = grad
(x) .
(5.2.9)
144
(x) the relations analogue to equaFinally for a tensor-valued vector function or a tensor eld T
tion (5.2.4), resp. (5.2.5), are given by
3
(x + y) = T
(x) + L (x) y + O y
T
(x + y) T
(x)
3
T
.
L (x) 1 = lim
|y|0
|y|
, and
|y| 0,
(5.2.10)
(5.2.11)
The gradient of the second order tensor eld is a third order tensor-valued vector function (third
order tensor eld) given by
3
(x) .
L (x) = grad T
(5.2.12)
The gradient of a second order tensor grad (v w) or grad T is a third order tensor, because of
(grad v) w being a dyadic product of a second order tensor and a vector ("rst order tensor")
is a third order tensor. For arbitrary scalar elds , R, vector elds v, w V, and tensor
eld T V V the following identities hold,
grad ( ) = grad + grad ,
grad (v) = v grad + grad v,
grad (T) = T grad + grad T,
grad (v w) = (grad v)T w + (grad w)T v,

grad (v w) = v grad w + grad v w,
grad (v w) = [(grad v) w] grad w.
(5.2.13)
(5.2.14)
(5.2.15)
(5.2.16)
(5.2.17)
(5.2.18)
It is important to notice, that the gradient of a vector of position is the identity tensor,
grad x = 1.
(5.2.19)
Most of the up now discussed relations hold for all n-dimensional Euclidean vector spaces E n ,
but most uses are in continuum mechanics and in the 3-dimensional Euclidean vector space E 3 .
The scalar-valued, vector-valued or tensor-valued functions depend on a vector x V, e.g. a
vector of position at a point P . In the sections below the following basis are used, the curvilinear
coordinates i with the covariant base vectors,
x
= x,i ,
i
(5.2.20)
5.2.4 The Derivatives of Base Vectors

In section (5.1) the , resp. the partial derivatives of base vectors g i w.r.t. the coordinates k
were introduced by
gi
= gi,k = sik gs .
(5.2.22)
k
With the Christoffel symbols dened by equations (5.1.60) and (5.1.61),
(i) = sij gs gj ,
(5.2.23)
the derivatives of base vectors are rewritten,

gi,k = (i) gk .
(5.2.24)
The denition of the gradient, equation (5.2.1), compared with equation (5.2.23) shows, that the
Christoffel symbols are computed by
(i) = grad gi .
(5.2.25)
Proof. The proof of this relation between the gradient of the base vectors and the Christoffel
symbols,
(5.2.26)
grad gi = (i) = gi,j gj ,
is given by
gi,k = (i) gk = gi,j gj gk
j
= g gk gi,j = kj gi,j
gi,k = gi,k .
grad gi = gi,j gj = sij gs gj .
(5.2.27)
5.2.5 The Covariant Derivative

(x) = v i gi be a vector eld, see equation (5.2.14), then the gradient of the vector eld
Let v = v
is given by
(x) = grad v i gi = gi grad v i + v i grad gi .

grad v = grad v
(5.2.28)
The gradient of a scalar-valued vector function (x) is dened by
and the Cartesian coordinates xi = xi with the orthonormal basis

ei = e i .
145
Finally the gradient of a base vector is represented in index notation by
5.2.3 Index Notation of Base Vectors
gi =
(5.2.21)
grad =
i
g = ,i gi ,
i
(5.2.29)
146
than the gradient of the contravariant coefcients v i (x) in the rst term of equation (5.2.28) is
given by
i k
g .
(5.2.30)
grad v i = v,k
Equation (5.2.30) in (5.2.28), and together with equation (5.2.25) the complete gradient of a
vector eld could be given by
i k
grad v = gi v,k
g + v i i ,
(5.2.31)
and nally with equation (5.2.23),

grad v =
i
v,k
gi
g +
v i sik gs
g .
(5.2.32)
The dummy indices i and s are changed like this,
147
This denition implies another notation for the gradient in a 3-dimensional Cartesian basis of the
Euclidean vector space,
grad = .
(5.2.39)
(x) be a vector eld in a space with the Cartesian basis e i ,

Let v = v
(x) = v i ei = vi ei = vi ei
v=v
, with
vi = vi (x1 , x2 , x3 ) ,
(5.2.40)
than the gradient of the vector eld in a Cartesian basis is given with the relation of equation
(5.2.14) by
(x) = grad (vi ei ) = ei grad vi + vi grad ei .
grad v = grad v
(5.2.41)
Computing the second term of equation (5.2.41) implies, that all derivatives of base vectors w.r.t.
the vector of position x, see the denition (5.2.38), are equal to zero,
i s , and s i.
Rewritting equation (5.2.32), and factor out the dyadic product, implies
i
+ v s isk gi gk .
grad v = v,k
(5.2.33)
(ei )
(ei )
(ei )
( )
e1 +
e2 +
e3 =
ei = 0.
x1
x2
x3
xi
(5.2.42)
Than equation (5.2.41) simplies to
The term
i
+ v s isk ,
v i |k = v,k
grad ei = (ei ),j ej =
(5.2.34)
grad v = ei grad vi + 0 = ei vi,k ek ,
(5.2.43)
is called the covariant derivative of the coefcient v i w.r.t. the coordinate k and the basis gi .
Than the gradient of a vector eld is given by
i
, with v i |k = v,k
+ v s isk .
(5.2.35)
grad v = v i |k gi gk
and nally the gradient of a vector eld in a 3-dimensional Cartesian basis of the Euclidean
vector space is given by
Let be a scalar eld in a space with the Cartesian basis e i ,
5.2.7 Divergence of Vector and Tensor Fields
5.2.6 The Gradient in a 3-dim. Cartesian Basis of Euclidean Space

=
(x)
, with
x = x i ei = x i e i = x i e i ,
(5.2.36)
grad v = vi,k (ei ek ) .
(5.2.44)
The divergence of a vector eld is dened by
than the gradient of the scalar eld in a Cartesian basis is given by

grad = ,i ei
, and
,i =
.
xi
div v = tr (grad v) = grad v : 1,
and must be a scalar quantity, because the gradient of a vector is a second order tensor, and the
trace of a second order denes a scalar quantity. The divergence of a tensor eld is dened by
The nabla operator is introduced by

= (. . .),i ei =
(. . .)
(. . .)
(. . .)
e1 +
e2 +
e3 ,
x1
x2
x3
div T = grad (T) : 1
and nally dened by

=
( )
ei .
xi
(5.2.45)
(5.2.37)
(5.2.38)
, and T V V
(5.2.46)
and must be a vector-valued quantity, because the scalar product of the second order unit tensor
1 and the third order tensor grad (T) is a vector-valued quantity . Another possible denition is
given by
(5.2.47)
a div T = div TT a = grad TT a : 1.
148
For an arbitrary scalar eld R, and arbitrary vector elds v, w V, and arbitrary tensor
elds S, T V V the following identities hold,
div (v) = v grad + div v,
div (T) = T grad + div T,
(5.2.48)
(5.2.49)
div (grad v)T = grad (div v) ,

div (v w) = (grad v w) : 1 (grad w v) : 1
= w rot v v rot w,
div (v w) = (grad v) w + (div w) v,
div (Tv) = div TT v + TT : grad v,

div (v T) = v div T + grad v T,
div (TS) = (grad T) S + T div S.
(5.2.50)
(5.2.51)
(5.2.52)
(5.2.53)
(5.2.54)
(5.2.55)
(x) = v i gi V be a vector eld, with v i = vi (1 , 2 , 3 , . . . , n ), than a basis is

Let v = v
given by
x
gi = x,i =
.
(5.2.56)
i
The deniton of the divergence (5.2.45) of a vector eld with using the index notation of the
gradient (5.2.35) implies
div v = grad v : 1 = v i |k gi gk : [sr (gr gs )]

=v
|k sr gir g ks
div v = v i |i .
= v |k gis g
ks
=v
|k ik ,
(5.2.57)
Let T be a tensor, given by

(5.2.58)
and
(5.2.59)
1 = sr gr gs .
= gi T,jik kj + T ik sij gs kj + skj lr sl jr T ik gi

= T,kik gi + T ik sik gs + jkj T ik gi ,
and nally after renaming the dummy indices,
div T = T,lkl + T lm klm + T km lml gk .

T kl |l = T,lkl + T lm klm + T km lml ,
(5.2.62)
(5.2.63)
is the so called covariant derivative of the tensor coefcients w.r.t. the coordinates l , than the
divergence is given by
(5.2.64)
div T = T kl |l gk .
Other representations are possible, e.g. a mixed formulation is given by
div T = T kl |k gl ,
(5.2.65)
l
T kl |k = Tl,k
Tnk nlk + Tln kkn
(5.2.66)
and with the covariant derivative
T kl |k ,
div v = grad v : 1 = (vi,k ei ek ) : (rs er es )

= vi,k rs ir ks = vi,k ik
div v = vi,i
The divergence of a vector eld in the 3-dimensional Euclidean space with a Cartesian basis E 3
is a scalar invariant, and is given by
div v = vi,i ,
(5.2.67)
or in its complete description by
and with equation (5.2.47) the divergence of this tensor is given by

div T = grad T : 1 , and
and with equation (5.2.14),
div T = gi grad T ik + T ik grad gi gk + grad gk 1T ik gi
= gi T,jik gj + T ik sij gs gj gk + skj gs gj : lr gl gr T ik gi
A vector eld v in a Cartesian basis e i E3 is represented by equation (5.2.40) and its gradient
by equation (5.2.41). The divergence dened by (5.2.45) rewritten with using the denition of
the gradient of a vector eld in a Cartesian basis (5.2.44) is given by
5.2.9 Index Notation of the Divergence of Tensor Fields
T ik = Tik 1 , 2 , 3 , . . . , n ,
(5.2.61)
5.2.10 The Divergence in a 3-dim. Cartesian Basis in Euclidean Space
The divergence of a vector eld is a scalar quantity and an invariant.
(x) = T ik (gi gk ) V V,
T=T
149
The divergence of a second order tensor is a vector, see also equation (5.2.52),
div T = div T ik gi gk
ik
= grad T gi gk + [div gk ] T ik gi ,
The term T kl |l dened by
5.2.8 Index Notation of the Divergence of Vector Fields
(5.2.60)
div v =
v1
v2
v3
+
+
.
x1 x2 x3
(5.2.68)
150
5.2.11 Rotation or Curl of Vector and Tensor Fields

The rotation of a vector eld v (x) is dened with the fundamental tensor E by
3
(5.2.69)
In English textbooks in most cases the curl operator curl instead of the rotation operator rot is
used,
rot v = curl v.
(5.2.70)
The rotation, resp. curl, of a vector eld rot v (x) or curl v (x) is a unique vector eld. Sometimes another denition of the rotation of a vector eld is given by
rot v = div (1 v) = 1 grad v.
(5.2.71)
For an arbitrary scalar eld R, and arbitrary vector elds v, w V, and an arbitrary tensor
rot grad = 0,
div rot v = 0,
rot grad v = 0,
(5.2.72)
(5.2.73)
(5.2.74)
rot (grad v)T = grad rot v,

rot (v) = rot v + grad v,
rot (v w) = v div w grad wv w div v + grad vw
= div (v w w v) ,
div rot T = rot div TT ,
T
div (rot T) = 0,
and T is a tensor-valued quantity. For an arbitrary vector eld v V, and an arbitrary tensor
h
i
div grad v (grad v)T = v grad div v,
(5.2.87)
rot rot v = grad div v v,
tr T = tr T
rot rot T = T + grad div T + (grad div T)T ,

grad grad tr T + 1 [ (tr T) div div T] .
rot rot T = S + grad div S + (grad div S)T 1 div div S.
(5.2.75)
(5.2.76)
(5.2.77)
(5.2.78)
(5.2.80)
rot (1) = [rot (1)] ,
rot (Tv) = rot TT v + (grad v)T T.
(5.2.81)
(5.2.82)
Also important to notice is that, if the tensor eld T is symmetric, then the following identity
holds,
rot T : 1 = 0.
(5.2.83)
5.2.12 Laplacian of a Field

The laplacian of a scalar eld or the Laplace operator of a scalar eld is dened by
= grad grad : 1.
(5.2.84)
The laplacian of a scalar eld is a scalar quantity. The laplacian of a vector eld v is
dened by
v = (grad grad v) 1,
(5.2.85)
(5.2.88)
(5.2.89)
(5.2.90)
Finally, if the tensor eld T is symmetric and dened by T = S 1 tr S, with the symmetric
part given by S, then the following identity holds,
(5.2.79)
(rot rot T)T = rot rot TT ,
151
and v is a vector-valued quantity. The denition of the laplacian of a tensor eld T is given
by
T = (grad grad T) 1,
(5.2.86)
rot v = E (grad v)T .
(5.2.91)
152
5.3
Integral Theorems
5.3. Integral Theorems
153
resp.
dV =
5.3.1 Denitions
The surface integral of a tensor product of a vector eld u (x) and an area vector da should
be transformed into a volume integral. The volume element dV with the surface dA is given at
a point P by the position vector x in the Euclidean space E3 . The surface dA of the volume
element dV is described by the six surface elements represented by the aera vectors da 1 , . . .,
and da6 .
gg3 g3 d1 d2 d3 =
gd1 d2 d3 .
(5.3.4)
i be dened as the mean value of the vector eld u in the area element i, for example for
Let u
i = 1 a Taylor series is derived like this,
1 = u +
u
u d2
u d3
+
.
2
2
3 2
(5.3.5)
The Taylor series for the area element i = 4 is given by
1 +
4 = u
u
dA
6
5
1
u
dV
da1
1
)
4 =
u
1
u
1
1 +
u
1 d
4 = u
1 +
u
d2 g2
3
d g3
1 +
4 = u
u
u
d1 ,
1
u
2 +
5 = u
d2 ,
u
2
4 = u
1 +
u
e1
6 = u
3 +
u
(5.3.7)
(5.3.8)
da1 = d2 d3 g3 g2 = d2 d3 gg1 = da4 ,

1
3
1
3
da2 = d d g1 g3 = d d gg2 = da5 ,
(5.3.1)
(5.3.2)
and
1
da3 = d d g2 g1 = d d
gg = da6 .
(5.3.3)
The volume of the volume element dV is given by the scalar triple product of the tangential
vectors gi associated to the curvilinear coordinates i at the point P ,
dV = (g1 g2 ) g3 d1 d2 d3 ,
u
d3 .
3
(5.3.9)
The surface integral is approximated by the sum of the six area elements,
Figure 5.6: The volume element dV with the surface dA.
(5.3.6)
and
O e2
d1 ,
Considering only the linear terms for i = 4, 5, 6 implies
d1 g1
u
2 u d2 1
2 u d3 1
d1 +
d +
d .
1
1
2
2
1 3 2
e3 6
u d3
3 2
and nally
1
3
1 1
u
d ,
1
h
u d2
u +
+
2 2
u da =
dA
6
X
i=1
i dai .
u
(5.3.10)
This equation is rewritten with all six terms,

6
X
i=1
1 da1 + u
2 da2 + u
3 da3 + u
4 da4 + u
5 da5 + u
6 da6 ,
i dai = u
u
inserting equations (5.3.1)-(5.3.3)

4 ) da1 + (
5 ) da2 + (
6 ) da3 ,
= (
u1 u
u2 u
u3 u
154
and nally with equations (5.3.7)-(5.3.9),
6
X
i=1
i dai =
u
u
u
u
d1 da1
d2 da2
d3 da3 .
1
2
3
(5.3.11)
Equations (5.3.1)-(5.3.3) inserted in (5.3.11) implies

6
X
i=1
i dai =
u
u
u
u
1
2
3
g
+
g
+
g
gd1 d2 d3 ,
1
2
3
i=1
volumes are summed over, then the dyadic products of the inner surfaces vanish, because every
dyadic product appears twice. Every area vector da appears once with the normal direction n
and once with the opposite direction n. The vector eld u is by denition continuous, i.e. for
each of the two sides of an inner surface the value of the vector eld is equal. In order to solve
the whole problem it is only necessary to sum (to integrate) the whole outer surface dA with the
normal unit vector n. If the summation over all subvolumes dV with the surfaces da is rewritten
as an integral, like in equation (5.3.13), then for the whole volume and surface the following
relation holds,
Z
Z
nV Z
X
u da = u da = grad u dV ,
(5.3.14)
V
and with da = dan
nV Z
X
u
i
dV ,
g
i
i=1
u n da =
dA
u n da =
grad u dV .
(5.3.15)
With this integral theorems it would be easy to develop integral theorems for scalar elds, vector
elds and tensor elds.
and nally with the denition of the gradient

6
X
155
i=1 dA
with the summation convention i = 1, . . . , 3,
i dai = grad u dV .
u
(5.3.12)
5.3.2 Gausss Theorem for a Vector Field

The Gausss theorem is dened by
Comparing this result with equation (5.3.10) yields

Z
dA
u da =
6
X
i=1
i dai =
u
u
gi dV = grad u dV .
i
(5.3.13)
Equation (5.3.13) holds for every subvolume dV with the surface dA. If the terms of the sub-
u n da =
div u dV .
(5.3.16)
Proof. Equation (5.3.15) is multiplied scalar with the unit tensor 1 from the left-hand side,
Z
Z
1 : u n da = 1 : grad u dV ,
(5.3.17)
V
with the mixed formulation of the unit tensor 1 = gj gj ,
1 : u n = g j g j : uk g k n i g i
= uk ni gjk ij = uj nj ,
1 : u n = u n,
(5.3.18)
and the scalar product of the unit tensor and the gradient of the vector eld
1 : grad u = tr (grad u) ,
1 : grad u = div u,
Figure 5.7: The Volume, the surface and the subvolumes of a body.
(5.3.19)
Finally inserting equations (5.3.18) and (5.3.19) in (5.3.17) implies

Z
Z
Z
Z
1 : u n da = u n da = 1 : grad u dV = div u dV .
A
(5.3.20)
156
5.3.3 Divergence Theorem for a Tensor Field

The divergence theorem is dened by
Z
Z
T n da = div T dV .
(5.3.21)
Proof. If the vector a is constant, then this implies

Z
Z
Z
Z
T
T a n da.
a T n da = a T n da = n TT a da =
A
(5.3.22)
ZA
div TT a dV ,
T n da =
a n da
A
n da =
grad dV = 0,
grad dV .
n u da =
rot u dV ..
(5.3.26)
Proof. If the vector a is constant, then the following condition holds

Z
Z
a n da = a n da.
A
The Stokes theorem for the cross product of a vector eld u and its normal vector n is dened
by
Z
Z
div T dV .
The integral theorem for a scalar eld is dened by

Z
Z
Z
da = n da = grad dV .
(5.3.25)
5.3.5 Integral of a Cross Product or Stokess Theorem
Proof. Let the vector a be constant,

Z
Z
Z
a n u da = a (n u) da = (u a) n da,
5.3.4 Integral Theorem for a Scalar Field
(5.3.24)
Inserting relation (5.3.25) in equation (5.3.24) implies

Z
Z
a n da = a grad dV ,
and nally
and nally the identity
with equation (5.2.47) and the vector a being constant,
div TT a = (div T) a + T grad a = div Ta + 0 = a div T,
Z
Z
a T n da div T dV = 0,
A
It is possible to use Gausss theorem (5.3.16), because a is a vector, this implies

Z
Z
a n da = div (a) dV .
div (a) = a grad + div a = a grad + 0 = a grad .
With TT a = u being a vector it is possible to use Gausss theorem (5.3.16), this implies
Z
Z
T
T a n da
a T n da =
A
157
Using the identity (5.2.48) and the vector a being constant yields
(5.3.23)
with the cross product u a being a vector it is possible to use the Gausss theorem (5.3.16)
Z
Z
(5.3.27)
a n u da = div (u a) da.
A
The identity (5.2.51) with the vector a being constant implies

div (u a) = a rot u u rot a = a rot u 0 = a rot u,
(5.3.28)
158
inserting relation (5.3.28) in equation (5.3.27) yields

Z
Z
a n u da = a rot u dV ,
V
and nally
Z
n u da =
Chapter 6
rot u dV .
Exercises
5.3.6 Another Interpretation of Gausss Theorem

The Gausss theorem, see equation (5.3.16), could be established by inverting the denition of
the divergence. Let u (x) be a continuous and differentiable vector eld. The volume integral is
approximated by a limit, see also (5.3.10), where the whole surface is approximated by surface
elements dai ,
Z
X
i Vi .
u (x) dV = lim
(5.3.29)
u
Vi 0
i be the mean value in a subvolume Vi . The volume integral of the divergence of the
Let u
vector eld u with inserting the relation of equation (5.3.29) is given by
Z
X
^
div u dV = lim
(5.3.30)
div
ui Vi .
Vi 0
The divergence (source density) is dened by

R
u da
a
.
div u = lim
V 0
V
(5.3.31)
i in equation (5.3.30) is replaced by the identity of equation (5.3.31),

The mean value u
R
ui da
ai
^
div ui =
,
Vi R
u da
Z
X ai i
div u dV = lim
.
Vi 0
Vi
i
V
and nally with the suammation of all subvolumes, like at the begining of this section,
Z
Z
Z
div u dV = u da = u nda.
(5.3.32)
V
159
Chapter 6. Exercises
160

6.5.3

6.1
6.1.2
A Simple Statically Indeterminate Plane Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
6.1.3
Basisc Relations for bars in a Local Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . 165
6.1.4
Basic Relations for bars in a Global Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . 167
6.1.5
Assembling the Global Stiffness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6.1.6
Computing the Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.1.7
Computing the Forces in the bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.1.8
6.2.2
6.5
The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

The Equilibrium Conditions after the Excursion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.2.3
Transformation into a Special Eigenvalue Problem . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.2.4
Solving the Special Eigenvalue Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
6.2.5
Orthogonal Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.2.6
Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
6.7
The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
6.6.2
The Base vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
6.6.3
The Curvature and the Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
6.6.4
The Christoffel Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
6.6.5
Forces and Moments at an Arbitrary sectional area . . . . . . . . . . . 203
6.6.6
Forces and Moments for the Given Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Tensors, Stresses and Cylindrical Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

6.7.1
The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
6.7.2
Co- and Contravariant Base Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
6.7.3
Coefcients of the Various Stress Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
6.7.4
Physical Components of the Contravariant Stress Tensor . . . . . . . . 215
6.7.5
Invariants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
6.7.6
Principal Stress and Principal Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
6.7.7
Deformation Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
6.7.8
Normal and Shear Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Fundamentals of Tensors in Index Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

6.3.1
6.4
The Principle of Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Calculating a Structure with the Eigenvalue Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

6.2.1
6.3
A Simple Statically Determinate Plane Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
The Moving Trihedron, Derivatives and Space Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

6.6.1
Application of Matrix Calculus on Bars and Plane Trusses . . . . . . . . . 162

6.1.1
6.2
6.6
The Coefcient Matrices of Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
6.3.2
The Kronecker Delta and the Trace of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
6.3.3
Raising and Lowering of an Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
6.3.4
Permutation Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
6.3.5
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
6.3.6
Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Various Products of Second Order Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

6.4.1
The Product of a Second Order Tensor and a Vector . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.4.2
The Tensor Product of Two Second Order Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.4.3
The Scalar Product of Two Second Order Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.4.4
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
6.4.5
Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Deformation Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

6.5.1
Tensors of the Tangent Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
6.5.2
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
161
162
6.1
Application of Matrix Calculus on Bars and Plane Trusses
6.1. Application of Matrix Calculus on Bars and Plane Trusses

see also free-body diagram (6.2). This relations imply
6.1.1 A Simple Statically Determinate Plane Truss
S1 = S 2
A very simple truss formed by two bars is given like in gure (6.1), and loaded by an arbitrary
force F in negative y-direction. The discrete values of the various quantities, like the Youngs
, and S1 + S2 =
bar II, l, A2 , E2
y
= 45o
Figure 6.1: A simple statically determinate plane truss.
S2
F1x
S1
Figure 6.3: Free-body diagrams for the nodes 1 and 3.
and in vertical direction by
S1
y
6
S2 R
1
F3x
mdoulus Ei or the sectional area Ai , are of no further interest at the moment. Only the forces in
direction of the bars are to be computed. The equilibrium conditions of forces at the node 2 are
I
(6.1.4)
6F1y
F
.
2 cos
6F3y
(6.1.3)
The equilibrium conditions of forces at the node 1 are given in horizontal direction by
bar I, l, A1 , E1
F
,
cos
and nally
S1 = S 2 =
163
FH = 0 = F1x S1 cos ,
(6.1.5)
FV = 0 = F1y S1 sin ,
(6.1.6)
see also the right-hand side of the free-body diagram (6.3). The rst one of this two relations
yields with equation (6.1.4)
F1x = S1 cos =
Figure 6.2: Free-body diagram for the node 2.
F cos
2 cos
, and nally
1
F 1x = F ,
2
(6.1.7)
F sin
2 cos
, and nally
1
F 1y = F .
2
(6.1.8)
and the second one implies

given in horizontal direction by
X
FH = 0 = S2 sin + S1 sin ,
(6.1.1)
FV = 0 = F + S2 cos + S1 cos ,
(6.1.2)
F1y = S1 sin =
The equilibrium conditions of forces at the node 3 are given in horizontal direction by
X
FH = 0 = F3x S2 cos ,
(6.1.9)
164
165

X
FV = 0 = F3y S2 sin ,
6Fy = 2kN
(6.1.10)
see also the left-hand side of the free-body diagram (6.3). The rst one of this two relations
yields with equation (6.1.4)
F3x = S2 cos =
F cos
2 cos
1
, and nally F 3x = F ,
2
F2y
F sin
2 cos
, and nally
1
F 3y = F .
2
(6.1.12)
6.1.2 A Simple Statically Indeterminate Plane Truss

6
Fy = 2kN
4
(EA)i = const. axial rigidity
1 = 30
Fx = 10kN
I
III
h = 5, 0m
II
x1
x2
y
6
1
-
3 = 90
h
x3
Fx = 10kN
SIII
SII
F2x
-
The stresses in normal direction of the bars and the nodal displacements could be computed
with the relations described in one of the following sections, see also equations (6.1.17)-(6.1.19).
The important thing to notice here is, that there are overall 6 equations to solve, in order to
compute 6 unknown quantities F1x , F1y , F3x , F3y , S1 , and S2 . This is characteristic for a statically
determinate truss, resp. system, and the other case is discussed in the following section.
2 = 60
3
SI
and the second one implies

F3y = S2 sin =
SII
x2
(6.1.11)
x
Figure 6.5: Free-body diagrams for the nodes 2 and 4.
nodes! In order to get enough equations for computing all unknown quantities, it is necessary
to use additional equations, like the ones given in equations (6.1.17)-(6.1.19). For example the
equilibrium condition of horizontal forces at node 4 is given by
X
FH = 0 = Fx SII cos 2 SI cos 1 ,
(6.1.13)
X
FV = 0 = Fy SIII SII sin 2 SI sin 1 .
(6.1.14)
The moment equilibrium condition at this point is of no use, because all lines of action cross the
node 4 itself! The equilibrium conditions for every support contain for every node 1-3 two unknown reactive forces, one horizontal and one vertical, and one also unknown force in direction
of the bar, e.g. for the node 2,
X
FH = 0 = F2x + SII cos 2 ,
(6.1.15)
and
FV = 0 = F2y + SII sin 2 .
(6.1.16)
Finally summarizing all possible and useful equations and all unknown quantities implies, that
there are overall 9 unknown quantities but only 8 equations! This result implies, that it is necessary to take another way to solve this problem, than using the equilibrium conditions of forces!
Figure 6.4: A simple statically indeterminate plane truss.
6.1.3 Basisc Relations for bars in a Local Coordinate System

The truss given in the sketch in gure (6.4) is statically indeterminate, i.e. it is impossible to
compute all the reactive forces just with the equilibrium conditions for the forces at the different
An arbitrary bar with its local coordinate system x, y is given in gure (6.6), with the nodal forces
fix , and fiy at a point i with i = 1, 2 in the local coordiante system. The following relations hold
166

The relations between stresses and displacements, see equation (6.1.17), are given by
I f2y
S = Ax =
f2x
(6.1.23)
EA T
f =
q q u,
l
bar, with A, E, l
I f1y
EA
ux ,
l
inserting equation (6.1.23) in (6.1.21) implies
I y
167
(6.1.24)
and nally resumed as the symmetric local stiffness matrix,

1
f1x
u , with
f = K
0 1 0
0 0 0
.
0 1 0
0 0 0
(6.1.25)
An arbitrary bar with its local coordinate system x, y and a global coordinate system x, y is given
in gure (6.7). At a point i with i = 1, 2 the nodal forces f ix , fiy , and the nodal displacements uix ,
uiy are dened in the local coordiante system. It is also possible to dene the nodal forces f ix , fiy ,
and the nodal displacements vix , viy in the global coordiante system. In order to combine more
in the local coordinate system x, y of an arbitrary single bar, see gure (6.6),
S
,
A
ux
dux
kinematics x =
=
,
d
x
l
material law x = Ex .
= EA 0
K
l 1
0
6.1.4 Basic Relations for bars in a Global Coordinate System
Figure 6.6: An arbitrary bar and its local coordinate system x, y.
stresses x =
(6.1.17)
(6.1.18)
(6.1.19)
I y
In order to consider the additional relations given above, it is useful to combine the nodal displacements and the nodal forces for the two nodes of the bar in the local coordinate system. The
nodal displacements in the local coordinate system x are given by
ux = q T u = u1x + u2x ,
I f1y
6v1y
(6.1.20)
and the nodal forces are given by the equilibrium conditions of forces at the nodes of the bar,
f = q S,
(6.1.21)
6f1y
I u1y
y, vy
6
v1x
f1x
f1x
u1x
- x, v
x
with
1
0
q=
1
0
u1x
u1y
, u=
u2x
u2y
, and
f1x
f1y
f =
.
f2x
f2y
Figure 6.7: An arbitrary bar in a global coordinate system.

(6.1.22)
than one bar, it is necessary to transform the quantities given in each local coordinate system into
168
one global coordinate system. This transformation of the local vector quantities, like the nodal
load vector f , or the nodal displacement vector u, is given by a multiplication with the so called
transformation matrix Q, which is an orthogonal matrix, given by
a
= Q a , with
cos sin
Q=
.
sin cos
stiffness matrix K is assembled by summarizing relations like in equation (6.1.28)-(6.1.31) for

all used elements I-III, and all given boundary conditions, like the ones given by the supports
at the nodes 1-3,
v1x = v2x = v3x = 0,
v1y = v2y = v3y = 0.
(6.1.26)
Because it is necessary to transform the local quantities for more than one node, the transforma
v4x
f = Q f
(6.1.27)
v1x
v1y
, with v =
v2x ,
v2y

f1x
f1y
, with f =
.
f2x
f2y
(6.1.28)
v4y .
(6.1.34)
result is, that it is sufcient to consider only one submatrix K i for every element I-III. For
example the complete equilibrium conditions for bar III are given by

0
f3x
"
# v3x
. . . . . . v3y
0
f3y
= .
=
(6.1.35)
v4x

f4x
. . . K 3 v4x
f4y III
v4y III
v4y III
Finally the equilibrium conditions at node 4 with summarizing the bars i = I-III is given by
X
3 i
3 h
i v
X
f4x
F
4x
i
= x =
,
(6.1.36)
i
K
f4y
Fy
v4y
i=1
(6.1.29)
i=1
and in matrix notation given by

P = K v,
Inserting this relations in equation (6.1.25) and multiplying with the inverse of the transformation
matrix from the left-hand side yields in the global coordiante system,
Q v = K v,
f = Q1 K
(6.1.30)
with the symmetric local stiffness matrix given in the global coordinate system by
, and
This implies, that it is sufcient to determine the equilibrium conditions only at node 4. The
The local quantities f , and u in equation (6.1.25) are replaced by the following expressions,
u=Qv
(6.1.32)
(6.1.33)
With this conditions the rigid body movement is eliminated from the system of equations, resp.
the assembled global stiffness matrix, than only the unknown displacements at node 4 remain,
tion matrix Q is composed by one submatrix Q for every node,
cos sin
0
0
Q 0
sin cos
0
0
.
Q=
=
0
0
cos
sin
0 Q
0
0
sin cos
169
sin cos
cos2
sin cos
cos2
2
EA sin cos
sin
sin cos
sin2
.
K=
sin cos
cos2
sin cos
l cos2
sin cos
sin2
sin cos
sin2
(6.1.31)
6.1.5 Assembling the Global Stiffness Matrix

There are two different ways of assembling the global stiffness matrix. The rst way considers
the boundary conditions at the beginning, the second one considers the boundary conditions not
until the complete global stiffness matrix for all nodes is assembled. In the rst way the global
(6.1.37)
with the so called compatibility conditions at node 4 given by

I
II
III
v4x
= v4x
= v4x
,
(6.1.38)
I
II
III
= v4y
= v4y
.
v4y
(6.1.39)
By using this way of assembling the reduced global stiffness matrix the boundary conditions are
already implemented in every element stiffness matrix. The second way to assemble the reduced
global stiffness matrix starts with the unreduced global stiffness matrix given by

i
f1x
v1x
0
i

f1y
i
v1y 0
f2x

0 K 14
K 11 0
v2x 0
3 i
X
f2y 0 K 22 0 K 24 v2y 0
= ,
i =
(6.1.40)
f 0

0 K 33 K 34
v3x 0
i=1 3x
f i
K 41 K 42 K 43 K v3y 0
3y
i
v4x Fx
f4x
i
v4y
Fy
f4y
170
K v = P.
(6.1.41)
Each element resp. each bar could be described by a combination i, j of the numbers of nodes
used in this special element. For example for the bar (element) III the submatrices K 33 , K 34 ,
K 43 , and a part of K, like in equation (6.1.36) are implemented in the unreduced global stiffness
matrix. After inserting the submatrices K ij for the various elements and considering the boundary conditions given by equations (6.1.32)-(6.1.33) the reduced global stiffness matrix is given
by
P = K v,
(6.1.42)
resp.
Fx
Fy

EA 3 + 3 1 1 v4x
=
,
1 3 v4y
8h
(6.1.43)
see also equation (6.1.36) and (6.1.37) of the rst way. But this computed reduced global stiffness matrix is not the desired result, because the nodal displacements and forces are the desired
quantities.
6.1.6 Computing the Displacements

The nodal displacements are computed by inverting the relation (6.1.43),
v=K
P.
(6.1.44)
The inversion of a 2 2-matrix is trivial and given by

K 1 =
171
6.1.7 Computing the Forces in the bars
and in matrix notation given by
EA 3 + 3
1
(8h)2
3 1
,
K=
2
1 1
det K
8h
2 3 + 3 (EA)2
and nally the inverse of the stiffness matrix is given by
4h
3 1

K 1 =
.
EA 3 + 3 1 1
The load vector P at the node 4, see gure (6.4), is given by

10
P =
,
2
(6.1.45)
f i = K ivi.
For example for the bar III, with = 90

displacements are given by
0 0
EA
3
0 1
K =
h 0 0
0 1
(6.1.46)
(6.1.47)
(6.1.49)
, the symmetric local stiffness matrix and the nodal
0 0
0 1
0 0
0 1
v3 =
v4x ,
v4y
(6.1.50)
with sin 90 = 1, and cos 90 = 0 in equation (6.1.31). The forces in the bars are given in the
global coordinate system, see equation (6.1.30), by

0
0
f3x
8
4
= 6, 762 = f3y ,

f 3 = K 3v3 =
(6.1.51)
0
f4x
3+ 3 0
8 III
f4y III
6, 762 III
and in the local coordinate system associated to the bar III, see equation (6.1.29), by

f3x
f3y
6, 762
3
f3y f3x 0
f = Q3 f 3 =
f4x = f4y = 6, 762 .
f4y
f4x
0
(6.1.52)
Comparing this result with the relation (6.1.21) implies nally the force S III in direction of the
bar,
(6.1.53)
SIII = f3x = f4x = 6, 762kN ,
and for the bars I and II,
SI = 8, 56kN
and by inserting equations (6.1.46), and (6.1.47) in relation (6.1.44) the nodal displacements at
node 4 are given by

4h
v
28

.
(6.1.48)
v = 4x =
v4y
EA 3 + 3 8
The forces in the various bars are computed by solving the relations given by the equation
(6.1.28)-(6.1.31) for each element i, resp. for each bar,
, and
SII = 5, 17kN .
(6.1.54)
Comparing this results as a probe with the equilibirum conditions given by the equations (6.1.13)(6.1.14), in horizontal direction,
X
FH = 0 = Fx SII cos 2 SI cos 1
3
1
+ 6, 762 1 = 4, 7 103 0,
= 2, 0 8, 56 5, 17
(6.1.55)
2
2
and in vertical direction,
X
FV = 0 = Fy SIII SII sin 2 SI sin 1
3
1
5, 17 + 6, 762 0 = 1, 8 103 0.
= 10, 0 8, 56
2
2
(6.1.56)
172
6.1.8 The Principle of Virtual Work

This nal section will give a small outlook on the use of the matrix calculus described above. The
virtual work 1 for a bar under a constant line load, or also called the weak form of equilibrium,
is given by
Z
Z
W =
x+
N x d
pux d
x = 0.
It is easy to see, that the left-hand side is very similar to the stiffness matrices, and that the righthand side is very similar to the load vectors in equations (6.1.36), and (6.1.37), or (6.1.42), and
(6.1.43). This simple example shows the close relations between the principle of virtual works,
the nite element methods, and the matrix calculus described above.
(6.1.57)
The force in normal direction of a bar, see also equations (6.1.17)-(6.1.19), is given by
N = EAx .
With this relation the equation (6.1.57) is rewritten,
Z
Z
x + pux d
x = 0.
W = xT EAx d
(6.1.58)
(6.1.59)
The vectors given by the equations (6.1.22), these are the various quantities w.r.t. the local
variable x in equation (6.1.57) could be described by
displacement
strain
virtual displacement
virtual strain
,
ux = qT u
(6.1.60)
,
u,x = x = qT,x u
(6.1.61)
,
ux = qT u
(6.1.62)
,
u,x = x = qT,x u
(6.1.63)
. The vectors q are the so called shape

and the constant nodal values given by the vector u
functions, but in this very simple case, they include only constant values, too. In general this
shape functions are dependent of the position vector, for example in this case the local variable
x. This are some of the basic assumptions for nite elements. Inserting the relations given by
(6.1.60)-(6.1.63), in equation (6.1.59) the virtual work in one element, resp. one bar, is given by
Z
Z
T T
d
d
EAqT,x u
x + pqT u
x = 0.
(6.1.64)
q,x u
W =
Z
+
= 0.
=
uT
q,x EAqT,x d
x u
x u
(6.1.65)
pqT d
These integrals just describe one element, resp. one bar, but if a summation over more elements
is introduced like this,
Z
3
3
X
X
i T
i +
i = 0,
q,x EAqT,x d
u
(6.1.66)
pi qT d
W i =
x u
x u
i=1
i=1
and nally like this

Z
X
3
3 Z
X
i T
i =
i .
q,x EAqT,x d
pi qT d
u
x u
x u
i=1
(6.1.67)
i=1
See also the refresher course on strength of materials.
173
174
6.2
Calculating a Structure with the Eigenvalue Problem
6.2.1 The Problem

Establish the homogeneous system of equations for the structure, see sketch (6.8) of rigid bars,
in order to determine the critical load Fc = Fcritical ! Assume that the structure is geometrically
linear, i.e. the angles of excursion are so small that cos = 1, and sin = 0 are good
approximations. The given values are
k1 = k
1
k2 = k
2
k = 10
kN
cm
6.2. Calculating a Structure with the Eigenvalue Problem
6.2.2 The Equilibrium Conditions after the Excursion

In a rst step the relations between the variables x 1 , x2 , and the reactive forces FAy , and FBy in
the supports are solved. For this purpose the equilibrium conditions of moments are established
for two subsystems, see sketch (6.9). After that in a second step the equilibrium conditions for
the whole system are established. The moment equation w.r.t. the node D of the subsystem on
A
FAx 6
, and l = 200cm.
y
6
FAy
k1
175
3
l
2
C0
SI z
6x1
?
D
SIII
Fcritical
x2
?3
2
FBy
k2
Figure 6.9: The free-body diagrams of the subsystems left of node C, and right of node D after
the excursion.
EJ =
EJ =
x1
3
l
2
Fcritical
x2
EJ =
2l
3
l
2
x
Figure 6.8: The given structure of rigid bars.
Rewrite the system of equations so that the general eigenvalue problem for the critical load
Fc is given by
A x = Fc B x.
Transform the general eigenvalue problem into a special eigenvalue problem.
Calculate the eigenvalues, i.e. the critical loads Fc , and the associated eigenvectors.
Check if the eigenvectors are orthogonal to each other.
Transform the equation system in such a way, that it is possible to compute the Rayleigh
quotient. What quantity could be estimated with the Rayleigh quotient?
the right-hand side of node D after the excursion implies

X
3
MD = 0 = FBy l + Fc x2
2
3
MC = 0 = FAy l + FAx x1
2
FBy =
2Fc
x2 ,
3l
(6.2.1)
and the moment equation w.r.t. the node C of the subsystem on the left-hand side of node C after
the excursion implies with the following relation (6.2.3),
FAy =
2FAx
2Fc
x1 =
x1 .
3l
3l
(6.2.2)
At any time, and any possible excursion, or for any possible load F c the complete system, cf.
(6.10), must satisfy the equilibrium conditions. The equilibrium condition of forces in horizontal
direction, cf. (6.10), after the excursion is given by
X
FH = 0 = FAx Fc FAx = Fc .
(6.2.3)
The moment equation w.r.t. the node A for the complete system implies
X
7
3
MA = 0 = FBy 5l + k2 x2 l + k1 x1 l,
2
2
with (6.2.1) and k2 = 12 k
0=
2Fc
7
3
x2 5l + kx2 l + kx1 l,
3l
4
2
(6.2.4)
176
6k1 x1
6
6
?x1
FAx 6
C
y
6
FAy
3
l
2
In order to solve this general eigenvalue problem with the aid of the characteristic equation it is
necessary to transform the general eigenvalue problem into a special eigenvalue problem. Thus
the equation (6.2.9) is multiplied with the inverse of matrix B from the left-hand side,
B
6
Fcritical
x2
D
2l
177
6.2.3 Transformation into a Special Eigenvalue Problem
k 2 x2
A
-
B 1 |
FBy
?3 l
2
-
A x = Fc B x,
(6.2.10)
B 1 A x = Fc B 1 B x,
after this multiplication both terms are rewritten on one side and the vector x is factored out,
0 = B 1 A x Fc 1 x,
Figure 6.10: The free-body diagram of the complete structure after the excursion.
and nally the special eigenvalue problem is given by

C = B 1 A.
0 = (C x 1 Fc ) x , with
and nally
(6.2.11)
The inverse of matrix B is assumed by

3
7
10 Fc
kx1 + kx2 =
x2 .
2
4
3 l
(6.2.5)
The equilibrium of forces in vertical direction implies

X
(6.2.6)
and nally
1
2 Fc
(x1 + x2 ) .
kx1 + kx2 =
2
3 l
(6.2.7)
The relations (6.2.5), and (6.2.7) are combined in a system of equations, given by
7
k
4
1
k
2
x1
0
= Fc 2
x2
3l
(6.2.12)
B 1 B = 1
, resp.
a b
c d
0
2
3l
10
3l
2
3l
1 0
.
0 1
3
b = l,
2
d = 0,
2Fc
2Fc
1
x1
x2 + kx2 + kx1 ,
0=
3l
3l
2
k
k
a b
,
c d
(6.2.13)
This simple inversion implies
with (6.2.1), (6.2.2), k1 = k, and k2 = 12 k,
and the following relations must hold
FV = 0 = FAy + FBy + k2 x2 + k1 x1 ,
B 1 =
10
3l
2
3l

x1
,
x2
(6.2.8)
or in matrix notation
A x = Fc B x.
(6.2.9)
This equation system is a general eigenvalue problem, with the F ci being the eigenvalues, and
the eigenvectors xi0 .
2
1
3
10
a + b = 0 a = b a = l,
3l
3l
5
10
10
2
3
c + d = 1 c = l,
3l
3l
10
and nally the inverse B 1 is given by
3
l 3l
B 1 = 310 2 .
l 0
10
(6.2.14)
(6.2.15)
(6.2.16)
(6.2.17)
(6.2.18)
The matrix C for the special eigenvalue problem is computed by the multiplication of the two
2 2-matrices B 1 , and A like this,
3
21
9
kl 40
kl
l 3 l 32 k 74 k
C = B 1 A = 310 2
= 20
,
1
9
21
k 2k
l 0
kl 40 kl
10
20
and nally the matrix C for the special eigenvalue problem is given by
3
14 3
C = kl
.
6 7
40
(6.2.19)
178
6.2.4 Solving the Special Eigenvalue Problem

In order to solve the special eigenvalue problem, the characteristic equation is set up by computing the determinant of equation (6.2.11),
179
It is possible to choose for each eigenvalue Fci the rst component of of the associated eigenvector like this,
(6.2.27)
xi01 = 1,
and after this to compute the second components of the eigenvectors,
det (C Fc 1) = 0,
(6.2.20)
resp. in complete notation,

det
21
20
kl Fc
9
kl
20
9
kl
40
21
kl
40
Fc
Computing the determinant yields
21
21
kl Fc
kl Fc
20
40
21
441 2 2 21
k l klFc klFc + Fc2
800
20
40
= 0.
(6.2.21)
, resp.
xi02 =
C11 Fci
,
C12
(6.2.28)
xi02 =
C21
xi
C22 Fci 01
, resp.
xi02 =
C21
.
C22 Fci
(6.2.29)
Inserting the rst eigenvalue F c1 in equation (6.2.28) implies the second component x102 of the
rst eigenvector,
81 2 2
k l = 0,
800
81 2 2
k l = 0,
800
21
x102 = 20
kl 65 kl
9
kl
40
2
x102 = ,
3
(6.2.30)
and for the second eigenvalue Fc2 the second component x202 of the second eigenvector is given
by
360 2 2 63
k l klFc + Fc2 = 0.
800
40
Solving this simple quadratic equation is no problem,

s
2
63 k 2 l2 360 2 2
63
Fc1/2 = kl
k l ,
80
40
4
600
r
1089
63
Fc1/2 = kl
kl,
80
6400
63
33
Fc1/2 = kl kl,
80
80
21
(6.2.22)
x202 = 20
, and
3
Fc2 = kl = 750kN .
8
(6.2.23)
(6.2.24)
(6.2.25)
and in complete notation by

C11 Fci
C12
C21
C22 Fci

xi01
0
.
=
0
xi02
x202 = 3.
(6.2.31)
(6.2.32)
6.2.5 Orthogonal Vectors
The eigenvectors x10 , x20 are computed by inserting the eigenvalues Fc1 , and Fc2 in equation
(6.2.11), given by
(C Fci 1) xi0 = 0,
kl 38 kl
9
kl
40
With this results the eigenvectors are nally given by

1
1
x10 = 2
, and x20 =
.
3
3
It is sufcient to compute the scalar product of two arbitrary vectors, in order to check, if this
two vectors are orthogonal to each other, i.e.
and nally implies the two real eigenvalues,
C11 Fci i
x01
C12
or
and nally implies the quadratic equation,
6
Fc1 = kl = 2400kN
5
xi02 =
(6.2.26)
x1 x2
, resp.
x1 x2 = 0.
In this special case the scalar product of the two eigenvectors is given by

1
1
x10 x20 = 2 x20 =
= 1 2 = 1 6= 0,
3
3
(6.2.33)
(6.2.34)
i.e. the eigenvectors are not orthogonal to each other. The eigenvectors for different eigenvalues
are only orthogonal, if the matrix C of the special eigenvalue problem is symmetric 2 . If the
matrix of a special eigenvalue problem is symmetric all eigenvalues are real, and all eigenvectors
are orthogonal. In this case all eigenvalues Fc1 , Fc2 are real, but the matrix C is not symmetric,
and for that reason the eigenvectors x10 , x20 are not orthogonal.
2
See script, section about matrix eigenvalue problems
180
6.2.6 Transformation
The special eigenvalue problem (6.2.11) includes an anti-symmetric matrix C. In order to determine the Rayleigh quotient it is necessary to have a symmetric matrix in the special eigenvalue
problem 3 ,
(C Fc 1) x = 0,
(6.2.35)
and in detail
21
9
kl
40
21
kl
40
kl
20
9
kl
20
Fc
1 0
0 1

x1
0
=
.
x2
0
(6.2.36)
The rst step is to transform the matrix C into a symmetric matrix. Because the matrices are
such simple it is easy to see, that if the second column of the matrix is multiplied with 2, the
matrix becomes symmetric,
21

9
1 0
x1
0
kl 20
kl
20
F
=
,
(6.2.37)
c
1
9
kl 21
kl
x
0 2
0
20
20
2 2
and in matrix notation with the new dened matrices D, and E 2 , and a new vector q
D Fc E 2 q = 0.
(6.2.38)
Because the matrix E 2 = E T E is a diagonal and symmetric matrix, the matrices E, and E T are
diagonal and symmetric matrices, too,
1 0
1 0
.
(6.2.39)
E2 =
E = ET =
0 2
2
0

than the whole equation is multiplied with E 1 from the left-hand side,
1
E D E 1 Fc E 1 E T E E 1 E q = 0,
and this implies nally

E 1 =
1
0
1
2
, and E 1 = E 1 .
(6.2.41)
The equation (6.2.38) is again a general eigenvalue problem, but now with a symmetric matrix
D. But in order to compute the Rayleigh quotient, it is necessary to set up a special eigenvalue
problem again. In the next step the identity 1 = E 1 E is inserted in equation (6.2.38), like this,
D Fc E 2 E 1 E q = 0,
(6.2.42)
3
See script, section about matrix eigenvalue problems
(6.2.43)
and with the relation E = E T for symmetric matrices,

1
E D E 1 Fc 1 1 E q = 0,
(6.2.44)
With relation (6.2.41) the rst term in equation (6.2.44) describes a congruence transformation,
so that the matrix F keeps symmetric 4 ,
T
F = E 1 D E 1 = E 1 D E 1 ,
(6.2.45)
and with the matrix F given by
21
1
0
kl
20
F =
9
1
kl
0 2 2 20
9
kl
20
21
kl
20
1
0
Furthermore a new vector p is dened by
1 0
x1
p = Eq =
1
0
2 2 x2
" 21
kl
0
= 20
9
1
kl
2
2
20 2
p=
9
kl
20 2
21
kl.
40
x1
.
1
2x2
2
(6.2.46)
(6.2.47)
Finally combining this results implies a special eigenvalue problem with a symmetric matrix F
and a vector p,
(F Fc 1) p = 0,
(6.2.48)
Computing the characteristic equation like in equations (6.2.20), and (6.2.21) yields
det (F Fc 1) = 0,
(6.2.49)
resp. in complete notation,
Because the matrix E is a diagonal and symmetric matrix, the inverse E is a diagonal and
symmetric matrix, too,
a b
a b 1 0
1 0
E 1 =
(6.2.40)
E 1 E =
=
= 1,
c d
c d 0
0 1
2
181
det
"
21
kl Fc
20
9
kl
20 2
9
kl
20 2
21
kl Fc
40
= 0,
and this nally implies the same characteristic equation like in (6.2.22),
21
21
81 2 2
kl Fc
kl Fc
k l = 0.
20
40
800
(6.2.50)
(6.2.51)
Having the same characteristic equation implies, that this problem has the same eigenvalues, i.e.
it is the same eigenvalue problem, but just another notation. With this symmetric eigenvalue
problem it is possible to compute the Rayleigh quotient,
h i pT p
pT F p
(6.2.52)
1 = R p = T +1 = T , with 1 Fc1 ,
p p
p p
with an approximated vector p . The Rayleigh quotient 1 is a good approximation of a lower

bound for the dominant eigenvalue.
4
See script, section about the charateristics of congruence transformations.
182
6.3
Fundamentals of Tensors in Index Notation
Like in the lectures a tensor could be described by a coefcient matrix f ij , and a basis given by
ij . First do not look at the basis, just look at the coefcient matrices. In this exercise some
of the most important rules to deal with the coefcient matrices are recapitulated. The Einstein
summation convention implies for the coefcient matrix A .ji , and an arbitrary basis i.j ,
3 X
3
X
A.ji i.j ,
i=1 j=1
The dot in the superscript index of the expression A.ji shows which one of the indices is the rst
index, and which one is the second index. This dot represents an empty space, so in this case it is
easy to see, that the subscript index i is the rst index, and the superscript index j is the second
index, i.e. the index i is the row index, and the j is the column index of the coefcient matrix!
This is important to know for the multiplication of coefcient matrices. For example, what is is
the difference between the following products of coefcient matrices,
?
T
Aij B kj = Aij B jk = Di.k
, and Aij B kj =
A11 A12 A13

A21 A22 A23
A31 A32 A33
B 11 B 12 B 13
B 21 B 22 B 23
B 31 B 32 B 33
?
C1.1 C1.2 C1.3
C2.1 C2.2 C2.3
C3.1 C3.2 C3.3
A B T = D,
T
Aij B kj Ckl = Aij B jk Ckl = Dil A B T C = D,
T lm T
A.ji Bkj Cl.k Dml = A.ji (Bjk )T C.lk
D
= Ei.m A B T C T DT = E,
T
Aij B kj uk = Aij B jk uk = vi A B T u = v,
ui B ij uj =
Aij B kj = Aim B km
Akl vl = Akj vj
, or
, etc.
6.3.2 The Kronecker Delta and the Trace of a Matrix
? .
The Kronecker delta is dened by
Aij B kj =?
j
A11 A12 A13

A21 A22 A23
A31 A32 A33
ji = ji = ij = ij =
B 11 B 12 B 13
B 21 B 22 B 23
B 31 B 32 B 33
D1.1 D1.2 D1.3
D2.1 D2.2 D2.3
D3.1 D3.2 D3.3
1
0
, iff
, iff
i=j
.
i 6= j
The Kronecker deltas ij , and ij are only dened in a Cartesian basis, where they represent the
metric coefcients. The other ones are dened in every basis, and in order to use the summation
convention, it is useful to prefer this notation with super- and subscript indices. Because the
Kronecker delta is the symmetric identity matrix, it is not necessary to differentiate the column
and row indices in index notation. As a rule of thumb, multiplication with a Kronecker delta
substitues an index in the same position,
vk jk = vj
j
.j
A.k
i k = A i
im s k
A i m = Ask
Figure 6.11: Matrix multiplication.

product. This implies the following important relations,

Aij B jk = Ci.k [Aij ] B jk = Ci.k
uT B v = .
Furthermore it is important to notice, that the dummy indices could be renamed arbitrarily,
T
[Aij ] B kj = [Aij ] B jk = Di.k
because a matrix with exchanged columns and rows is the transpose of the matrix. As a short
recap the product of a square matrix and a column matrix, resp. a (column) vector, is given by
1
u
A11 A12 A13
A11 u1 + A12 u2 + A13 u3
A u = v A21 A22 A23 u2 = A21 u1 + A22 u2 + A23 u3 Aij uj = vi .
A31 A32 A33
u3
A31 u1 + A32 u2 + A33 u3
The left-hand side of gure (6.11) sketches the rst product, and the right-hand side the second
j
Aij B jk =?
For example some products of coefcient matrices in index and matrix notation,
with the coefcient matrix A given in matrix notation by

.1
A1 A.2
A.3
1
1
.j
.
A.2
A.3
A = Ai = A.1
2
2
2
.2
.3
A.1
A
A
3
3
3
Aij B jk =
183
and
6.3.1 The Coefcient Matrices of Tensors
A.ji i.j =
6.3. Fundamentals of Tensors in Index Notation
v I = v,
A I = A,
A I I = A.
But what is described by
A B = C,
A.lk il ki = A.ii ?
184
This is the sum over all main diagonal elements, or just called the trace of the matrix,

tr A = A11 + A22 + A33 = tr Aji ,
and because the trace is a scalar quantity, it is independent of the basis, i.e. it is an invariant,
h i

, i.e. Aii = Aii .
tr A = tr Aji = tr Aji
For example in the 2-dimensional vector space E2 the Kronecker delta is dened by
g2 O
185
Something similar for the coefcients of a vector x is given by

x = x i gi = x i g i
xi gij gj = xi gi
xi gij = xj .
The
gki = gik
are called the covariant metric coefcients,
and the
g ki = g ik
are called the contravariant metric coefcients.
Finally this implies for the base vectors and for the coefcients or coordinates of vectors and
tensors, too. This implies, raising an index with the contravariant metric coefcients is given by
g2
gk = g ki gi
:
xk = g ki xi
, and
Aik = g ij A.k
j ,
and lowering an index with the covariant metric coefcients is given by

gk = gki gi
xk = gki xi
g1
, and Aik = gij Aj.k .
The relations between the co- and contravariant metric coefcients are given by
Figure 6.12: Example of co- and contravariant base vectors in E .

2
gk = g km gm
gk gi = g km gm gi
ik = g km gmi .
Comparing this with A1 A = I implies

gi gk = ik =
1
0
i=k
,
i 6= k
1 = g km [gmi ]
=0
=0
= 1,
= 1.
g1 g2 ,
g2 g1 ,

det g ik =
1
.
det [gik ]
, and
1
det g ik = .
g
The cross products of the Cartesian base vectors ei in the 3-dimensional Euclidean vector space
E3 are given by
gk = Akm gm .
Both sides of the equations are multiplied with g i , and nally the index i is renamed by m,
i
g ki = Akm m
6.3.4 Permutation Symbols
If the vectors gi and gk are in the same space V, it must be possible to describe g k by a product
of gi and some coefcient like A km ,
g km = [gmi ]1
det [gik ] = g
6.3.3 Raising and Lowering of an Index
gk gi = Akm gm gi
Than the determinants of the co- and contravariant metric coefcients are dened by
than an arbitrary co- and contravariant basis is given by

g1 g 2
g2 g 1
g1 g 1
g2 g 2
g ki = Aki
g km = Akm .
e1 e 2 = e 3 = e 3
e2 e1 = e3 = e3
, e2 e3 = e1 = e1
, e3 e2 = e1 = e1
, and
, and
e 3 e1 = e2 = e2 ,
e1 e3 = e2 = e2 .
Often the cross product is also described by a determinant,
e1 e 2 e 3
u v = u1 u2 u3 = e1 (u2 v3 u3 v2 ) + e2 (u3 v1 u1 v3 ) + e3 (u1 v2 u2 v1 ) .

v1 v2 v3
186
The permutation symbol in Cartesian coordinates is given by
+1 , iff (i, j, k) is an even permutation of (1, 2, 3),

eijk = 1 , iff (i, j, k) is an odd permutation of (1, 3, 2),
0 , if two or more indices are equal.
The cross products of the Cartesian base vectors could be described by the permutaion symbols
like this,
ei ej = eijk ek ,
and for example

e1 e2 = e121 e1 + e122 e2 + e123 e3 = 0 e1 + 0 e2 + 1 e3 = e3
e1 e3 = e131 e1 + e132 e2 + e133 e3 = 0 e1 + (1) e2 + 0 e3 = e2 .
The general permutation symbol is given by the covariant symbol,

+ g , iff (i, j, k) is an even permutation of (1, 2, 3),
ijk = g , iff (i, j, k) is an odd permutation of (3, 2, 1),
0 , if two or more indices are equal,
or by the contravariant symbol,

1

ijk
= 1g if (i, j, k) is an odd permutation of (3, 2, 1),

With this relations the cross products of covariant base vectors are given by
gi gj = ijk gk ,
j
1
, and eijk = ijk ,
g
and
1
ijk = eijk
g
, and eijk =
1. Simplify the index notation expressions and write down the matrix notation form.
(a) A.ji Bkj C.lk =
(b) Aij Bik Ckl =
.n .m
Dn =
(c) Cm
(d) Dmn E.lm ul =

(e) ui Dj.i Ek.j =
2. Simplify the index notation expressions.
(a) Aij g jk =
(b) Aij kj =
i n
k =
(c) Aij B jk m
j ml
(d) Akl ji m
g =
n
=
(e) Aij B kj g im gkn m
(f) A.lk B km gmi g in jn =

3. Rewrite these expressions in index notation w.r.t. a Cartesian basis, and describe what kind
of quantity the result is.
(a) (a b) c =
(b) a b + (a d) c =
4. Combine the base vectors of a general basis and simplify the expressions in index notation.
and the following relations between the Cartesian and the general permutation symbols hold
geijk
6.3.5 Exercises
(d) a (b c) =
ijk
g g = gk ,
ijk =
187
(c) (a b) (c d) =
and for the corresponding contravariant base vectors

i
ijk
g .
An important relation, in order to simplify expressions with permutation symbols, is given by
i j
j
.
eijk emnk = m
n ni m
(a) u v = (ui gi ) (v j gj ) =
(b) u v = (ui gi ) (vj gj ) =
(c) u v = (ui gi ) (v j gj ) =
(d) u v = (ui gi ) (vj gj ) =
(e) (u v) w = [(ui gi ) (vj gj )] wk gk =

(f) (u v) (w x) = [(ui gi ) (v j gj )] wk gk xl gl =
(g) u (v w) = (ui gi ) (vj gj ) wk gk =

(h) (u v) (w x) = [(ui gi ) (v j gj )] wk gk xl gl =
188
1. Simplify the index notation expressions and write down the matrix notation form.
A.ji Bkj C.lk
A.ji
(Bjk ) C.lk = Dil
(b) Aij Bik Ckl = (Aji )T B ik Ckl = Djl

.n .m
.m
(c) Cm
Dn = E m
=
(d)
(e)
Dmn E.lm ul
AT B C = D
T
D Eu=v
uT D T E T = v T
(b) Aij kj = Aik

j ml
(d) Akl ji m
g = A.ik
(e) Aij B g
Am
.j
j T
(B.n
)
(f) A.lk B km gmi g in jn = Al.k
n
m
Am
.j
j T
(B.m
)
B kj = C lj
3. Rewrite these expressions in index notation w.r.t. a Cartesian basis, and describe what kind
of quantity the result is.
(a) (a b) c =
(b) a b + (a d) c = v
ai bj eijk ck =
ai bj eijk + (ai di ) ck = v k
(c) (a b) (c d) =
i j
j
ai bj eijk (cm dn emnk ) = ai bj cm dn eijk emnk = ai bj cm dn m
n ni m
= a m b n c m d n a n bm c m d n =
u vj gi g = ui vj gik gk gj = uk vj kjl gl = ui vj ijk gk
wk g k = w
(e) (u v) w = [(ui gi ) (vj gj )] wk gk
ui vj wk ijl gl gk = ui vj wk ijl glk = ui vj wl ijl
ui vj wk ijk =
= ui vi wk xl klm gm = ym gm
i n
.n
(c) Aij B jk m
k = Amj B jn = Cm
n
gkn m
(f) (u v) (w x) = [(ui gi ) (v j gj )] wk gk xl gl
i j
k l
i j k l
u v gi gj w x gk gl = u v gij w x klm gm
A.k
i
kj im
2. Simplify the index notation expressions.

(a) Aij g
(d) u v = (ui gi ) (vj gj )
A BT C = D
tr (C D) = tr E =
= (Dnm ) E.lm ul = vn
T j T
E.k = vk
ui Dj.i Ek.j = ui D.ji
jk
189
(c) u v = (ui gi ) (v j gj ) = ui v j gi gj = ui v j ijk gk = wk gk = w
6.3.6 Solutions
(a)
ym g m = y
(g) u (v w) = (ui gi ) (vj gj ) wk gk
ui gi vj wk gkl gj gl = ui vj wl gi jlm gm = ui vj wl jlm imn gn
= ui vj wl ij nl nj il gn = ui vi wn gn ui wi vn gn = xn gn
(u v) w (u w) v = x

(h) (u v) (w x) = [(ui gi ) (v j gj )] wk gk xl gl

j im
ui v g (gm gj ) wk xl gln gk gn = um v j mjo go wk xn knp gp
= um v j mjo wk xn knp go gp
= um v j mjo wk xn knp po
= um v j wk xn mjp knp
k n
n k
= u m v j wk x n m
j m
j
(a c) (b d) (a d) (b c) =
(d) a (b c) = v
elkm al eijk bi cj = al bi cj elkm eijk = al bi cj il jm im jl

= a i bi c m a j bm c j = v m
= u k v n wk x n u n v k wk x n
(u w) (v x) (u x) (v w) =
(a b) c (a c) b = v
4. Combine the base vectors of a general basis and simplify the expressions in index notation.
(a) u v = (ui gi ) (v j gj ) = ui v j gi gj = ui v j gij = ui vi =
(b) u v = (ui gi ) (vj gj ) = ui vj gi gj = ui vj ij = ui vi =
190
6.4
Various Products of Second Order Tensors
6.4.1 The Product of a Second Order Tensor and a Vector

The product of a second order tensor and a vector (, i.e. a rst order tensor,) is computed by the
scalar product of the last base vector of the tensor and the base vector of the vector. For example
a product of a second order tensor and a vector is given by
scalar
p product
qk
j
g uk g
v = Tu = Tij g
= Tij uk gj gk gi
= Tij uk g jk gi
= Tij uj gi
v = Tu = vi gi
, with
vi = Tij uj .
6.4.2 The Tensor Product of Two Second Order Tensors

The tensor product of two second order tensors is computed by the scalar product of the two
inner base vectors and the dyadic product of the two outer base vectors. For example a tensor
product is given by
dyadic
product q
p
R = TS = T ij gi gj S kl gk gl
x scalar y
product
= T ij S kl (gj gk ) (gi gl )
= T ij S kl gjk gi gl
= T ij Sj.l gi gl
R = TS = Ril gi gl
, with
Ril = T ij Sj.l .
6.4.3 The Scalar Product of Two Second Order Tensors

The scalar product of two second order tensors is computed by the scalar product of the rst base
vectors of the two tensors and the scalar product of the two second base vectors of the tensors,
too. For example a scalar product is given by
scalar product
p
q
= T : S = T ij gi gj : S kl gk gl
xscalar product
ij
6.4. Various Products of Second Order Tensors
6.4.4 Exercises
1. Compute the tensor products.
(a) TS = (Tij gi gj ) Skl gk gl =
(b) TS = (Tij gi gj ) S kl gk gl =
(c) TS = Ti.j gi gj Sk.l gk gl =
(d) TS = (Tij gi gj ) Sk.l gk gl =
(e) T1 = (Tij gi gj ) kl gk gl =
j i
l k
(f) 11 = i g gj k g gl =
(g) Tg = (Tij gi gj ) gkl gk gl =
(h) TT = (Tij gi gj ) Tkl gk gl =
T
(i) TTT = (Tij gi gj ) Tkl gk gl =
2. Compute the scalar products.
(a) T : S = (Tij gi gj ) : Skl gk gl =
(b) T : S = (Tij gi gj ) : S kl gk gl =
(c) T : S = Ti.j gi gj : Sk.l gk gl =
(d) T : 1 = (Tij gi gj ) : kl gk gl =
(e) 1 : 1 = ij gi gj : kl gk gl =
(f) T : g = (Tij gi gj ) : gkl gk gl =
(g) T : T = (Tij gi gj ) : Tkl gk gl =

T
(h) T : TT = (Tij gi gj ) : Tkl gk gl =
3. Compute the various products.
(a) (TS) v = TSv = Ti.j gi gj Sk.l gk gl (vm gm ) =

(b) (T : S) v = T : Sv = Ti.j gi gj : Sk.l gk gl (vm gm ) =

i
h
(c) tr TTT = ij gi gj : Tkl gk gl (Tmn gm gn )T =
kl
= T S (gi gk ) (gj gl )
= T ij S kl gik gjl
= T : S = T ij Sij .
191
192
6.4.5 Solutions
1. Compute the tensor products.
(a) TS = (Tij gi gj ) Skl gk gl

j i
jk i
l
= Tij Skl g g g = Tij S.l g gl = Ril gi gl = R
(b) TS = (Tij gi gj ) S kl gk gl = Tij S kl kj gi gl = Tij S jl gi gl = Ri.l gi gl = R

.j i
.l k
(c) TS = Ti g gj Sk g gl = Ti.j Sk.l jk gi gl = Ti.j Sj.l gi gl = Ri.l gi gl = R
(d) TS = (Tij gi gj ) Sk.l gk gl = Tij Sk.l g jk gi gl = Tij S jl gi gl = Ri.l gi gl = R
(e) T1 = (Tij gi gj ) kl gk gl = Tij kl g jk gi gl = Tij g jl gi gl = Tij gi gj = T
(f) 11 = ij gi gj kl gk gl = ij kl jk gi gl = il gi gl = ij gi gj = 1
(g) Tg = (Tij gi gj ) gkl gk gl = Tij gkl g jk gi gl = Tij lj gi gl = Tij gi gj = T
(h) TT = (Tij gi gj ) Tkl gk gl = Tij Tkl g jk gi gl = Tij T.lj gi gl = T2

T
(i) TTT = (Tij gi gj ) Tkl gk gl
= (Tij gi gj ) Tkl gl gk = Tij Tkl g jl gi gk = Tij Tk.j gi gk = Tij Tl.j gi gl , or

T
TTT = (Tij gi gj ) Tkl gk gl
i
j
k
l
= (Tij g g ) Tlk g g = Tij Tlk g jk gi gl = Tij Tl.j gi gl
6.4. Various Products of Second Order Tensors
(b) (T : S) v = T : Sv = Ti.j gi gj : Sk.l gk gl (vm gm )

.j .l ik
m
kj
m
= Ti Sk g gjl vm g = T Skj vm g = v = w
i

h
(c) tr TTT = ij gi gj : Tkl gk gl (Tmn gm gn )T

= ij gi gj : Tkl Tm.l gk gm = ij Tkl Tm.l g ik jm = ij T.li Tj.l = T.lj Tj.l = T : T
2. Compute the scalar products.
(a) T : S = (Tij gi gj ) : Skl gk gl = Tij Skl g ik g jl = Tij S ij =
(b) T : S = (Tij gi gj ) : S kl gk gl = Tij S kl ki lj = Tij S ij =
(c) T : S = Ti.j gi gj : Sk.l gk gl = Ti.j Sk.l g ik gjl = Ti.j S.ji = , or

Ti.j Sk.l g ik gjl = Til S il = , or
Ti.j Sk.l g ik gjl = T kj Skj =
(d) T : 1 = (Tij gi gj ) : kl gk gl = Tij kl g ik lj = Tij g ij = Ti.i = tr T

l k
j i
(e) 1 : 1 = i g gj : k g gl = ij kl g ik gjl = ij ji = ii = 3 = tr 1
(f) T : g = (Tij gi gj ) : gkl gk gl = Tij gkl g ik g jl = Tij li g jl = Tij g ji = Ti.i = tr T
(g) T : T = (Tij gi gj ) : Tkl gk gl = Tij Tkl g ik g jl = Tij T ij = tr TTT

T
(h) T : TT = (Tij gi gj ) : Tkl gk gl
= (Tij gi gj ) : Tkl gl gk = Tij Tkl g il g jk = Tij T ji = tr (T)2 , or

T
T : TT = (Tij gi gj ) : Tkl gk gl
= (Tij gi gj ) : Tlk gk gl = Tij Tlk g ik g jl = Tij T ji = tr (T)2

3. Compute the various products.
(a) (TS) v = TSv = Ti.j gi gj Sk.l gk gl (vm gm )

.j .l k
= Ti Sk j vm (gi gl ) gm = Ti.k Sk.l vm lm gi = Ti.k Sk.l vl gi = ui gi = u
193
194
6.5
Deformation Mappings
1. Compute the tensor products. What is represented by them?

T
(a) K1
K =
The material deformation gradient FX is given by

FX := GradX = gi Gi ,
(6.5.1)
the local geometry gradient K is given by

= G i Zi ,
K := GRAD
(6.5.2)
and the local deformation gradient F is given by

(6.5.3)
The different tangent mappings of the various tangent mappings are given by
F = g i Zi
K = G i Zi
FTX = Gi gi
i
, F1
X = Gi g
i
, FT
X = g Gi ,
(6.5.4)
FT = Zi gi
i
, F1
= Zi g
, FT
= g i Zi .
(6.5.6)
KT = Zi Gi
i
, K1
= Zi G
i
, KT
= G Zi ,
(6.5.5)
identity tensor of the undeformed space identity tensor of the deformed space
1 := Zi Zi ,
(6.5.7)
1x := gi gi .
(6.5.9)
1X := Gi Gi ,
(6.5.8)
The various metric tensors of the different tangent spaces are introduced by
local metric tensor of the undeformed body
local metric tensor of the deformed body
material metric tensor of the undeformed body
- M = KT K = Gij Zi Zj , (6.5.10)
- m = FT F
- MX = 1TX 1X
material metric tensor of the deformed body
- mX =
spatial metric tensor of the undeformed body
- Mx =
spatial metric tensor of the undeformed body
- mx =
(c) FX FTX =
T
(d) F1
X FX =
(e) 1X 1TX =
FTX FX
1
FT
X FX
T
1 x 1x
= gij Zi Zj , (6.5.11)
= Gij Gi Gj , (6.5.12)
i
= gij G G , (6.5.13)
= Gij gi gj , (6.5.14)
i
= gij g g
The local strain tensors is given by

1
1
E := (m M ) = (gij Gij ) Zi Zj ,
2
2
the material strain tensors is given by
1
1
EX := (mX MX ) = (gij Gij ) Gi Gj ,
2
2
and nally the spatial strain tensors is given by
1
1
Ex := (mx Mx ) = (gij Gij ) gi gj .
2
2
2. Compute the tensor products in index notation, and name the result with the correct name.
1
(a) KT
M K =
(b) KT MX K =
1
(c) FT
m F =
(d) FT mx F =
The identity tensors are introduced separately for the various coordinate system by
identity tensor of the parameter space
T
(b) F1
F =
(f) 1x 1Tx =
= g i Zi .
F := GRAD
,
195
6.5.2 Exercises
6.5.1 Tensors of the Tangent Mappings
FX = g i Gi
6.5. Deformation Mappings
. (6.5.15)
1
(e) FT
X EX F X =
(f) FTX Ex FX =
3. Compute the tensor and scalar products in index notation. Rewrite the results in tensor
notation.
(a) B = M1
m =
(b) BX =
(c) Bx =
(d) B : 1 =
(e) BT : B =
(f) BT BT : B =
(6.5.16)
(6.5.17)
(6.5.18)
196
6.5.3 Solutions
1. Compute the tensor products. What is represented by them?
T
1
T
1
i
j
ij
(a) K1
K = (Zi G ) (G Zj ) = G Zi Zj = M = K K
T 1
T
1
i
j
ij
(b) F1
F = (Zi g ) (g Zj ) = g Zi Zj = m = F F
T 1 1
(c) FX FTX = (gi Gi ) (Gj gj ) = Gij gi gj = M1
x = FX FX
1
T
T
1
i
j
ij
(d) F1
X FX = (Gi g ) (g Gj ) = g Gi Gj = mX = FX FX
6.5. Deformation Mappings

(e) BT : B =

= Gij gjk Zk Zi : Glm gmn Zl Zn = Gij gjk Glm gmn lk in

= Gij gjk Gkm gmi = tr B2
(f) BT BT : B =
lm
ij
pr
s
k
= (G
Zl Z n
i : G gmn
prgrs Z ij Zpk) sG gjkZ Z
lm
n
= G grs G gjk p Z Zi : G gmn Zl Z
=
= (Gpr grs Gij gjp Zs Zi ) : Glm gmn Zl Zn = Gpr grs Gij gjp Glm gmn ls in
= Gpr grs Gsm gmn Gnj gjp = tr B3
(e) 1X 1TX = (Gi Gi ) (Gj Gj ) = Gij Gi Gj = M1

X
(f) 1x 1Tx = (gi gi ) (gj gj ) = g ij gi gj = m1
x
2. Compute the tensor products in index notation, and name the result with the correct name.
1
(a) KT
M K =
= Gk Zk (Gij Zi Zj ) Zl Gl = Gij ki lj Gk Gl = Gij Gi Gj = MX
(b) KTMX K =
= Zk Gk (Gij Gi Gj ) Gl Zl = Gij ki lj Zk Zl = Gij Zi Zj = M

1
(c) FT
m F =
= gk Zk (gij Zi Zj ) Zl gl = gij ki lj gk gl = gij gi gj = mx
(d) FTmx F =
= Zk gk (gij gi gj ) gl Zl = gij ki lj Zk Zl = gij Zi Zj = m

1
(e) FT
=
X EX FX
= gk Gk (gij Gij ) (Gi Gj ) Gl gl = (gij Gij ) ki lj gk gl

i
j
= (gij Gij ) g g = Ex
(f) FTXEx FX =
= Gk gk (gij Gij ) (gi gj ) gl Gl = (gij Gij ) ki lj Gk Gl

= (gij Gij ) Gi Gj = EX
3. Compute the tensor and scalar products in index notation. Rewrite the results in tensor
notation.
(a) B = M1
m =
= (Gij Zi Zj ) glk Zl Zk = Gij gkl jl Zi Zl = Gij gjk Zi Zk
(b) BX = M1
X mX =
= (Gij Gi Gj ) glk Gl Gk = Gij gkl jl Gi Gl = Gij gjk Gi Gk

(c) Bx = M1
x mx =
= (Gij gi gj ) glk gl gk = Gij gkl jl gi gl = Gij gjk gi gk
(d) B : 1 =

= Gij gjk Zi Zk : Zl Zl = Gij gjk Zil Z kl = Gij gjk ik = Gij gji = tr B

197
198
6.6
The Moving Trihedron, Derivatives and Space Curves
6.6. The Moving Trihedron, Derivatives and Space Curves
199
6.6.2 The Base vectors

The winding up of the spiral staircase is given by the sketch in gure (6.14). With the Pythagoras
6.6.1 The Problem
A spiral staircase is given by the sketch in gure (6.13). The relation between the gradient angle
r
e1
top, height h/2
e3
0 1
bottom, xed support
?e2
angle between zero and a half rotation
r
cos
= a
?
-
Figure 6.13: The given spiral staircase.
Figure 6.14: The winding up of the given spiral staircase.
and the overall height h of the spiral staircase is given by

h
,
tan =
2r
o
if h is the height of a 360 spiral staircase, here the spiral staircase is just about 180o . The spiral
staircase has a xed support at the bottom, and the central line is represented by the variable 1 ,
which starts at the top of the spiral staircase.
theorem, see also the sketch in gure (6.14), the relationship between the variable and the
variable 1 along the central line is given by
1 =
This implies
p
a 2 2 + r 2 2
and the torsion =
Compute the Christoffel symbols
i1r
of the curve w.r.t. to the variable .
and with the denition of the cosine

cos =
, for i, r = 1, 2, 3.
Describe the forces and moments in a sectional area w.r.t. to the basis given by the moving
trihedron, with the following conditions,
i () , resp. N i = N
i ()
M = M i ai , resp. N = N i ai , with M i = M
{a1 , a2 , a3 } = {t, n, b} .
Compute the resulting forces and moments at an sectional area given by = 130 o . Consider a load vector given in the global Cartesian coordinate system by
= qr e3 ,
R
at a point S given by the angle 2 , and the radius rS . This load maybe a combination of the
self-weight of the spiral staircase and the payload of its usage.
h
.
2
1
1 ,
=
a2 + r 2
Compute the tangent t, the normal n, and the binormal vector b w.r.t. the variable .
Determine the curvature =
, and a =
r
r
=
,
1
a2 + r 2
nally the relationship between the variables , and 1 is given by

=
cos 1
= c1
r
, with
c=
1
cos
=
.
r
r 2 + a2
With this relation it is easy to see, that every expression depending on is also depending on 1 ,
this is later on important for computing some derivatives. Any arbitrary point on the central line
of the spiral staircase could be represented by a vector of position x in the Cartesian coordinate
system,

x = xi ei , and xi = xi 1 ,
or
x = x i ei
, and
xi = xi (r, ) .
200
x1 = r cos ,
x2 = r sin ,
h
1
,
x3 =
2
x = xi ei = xi (r, ) ei = (r cos ) e1 + (r sin ) e2 +

The tangent vector t = a1 is dened by
t = a1 =
and with
d
d1
b=tn
h
1
e3
2
, and = c1 .
dx
x
=
,
d1
1
= c this implies
r sin
t = a1 = r cos c
h
2
cr sin
t = a1 = cr cos .
ca
The absolute value of this vector is given by

q
|t| = |a1 | = c r2 sin2 + r2 cos2 + a2 = c r2 + a2 = 1,
dt
da1
a1
d2 x
=
=
= 2 1,
1
1
1
d
d

d

q
|b| = c a2 sin2 + a2 cos2 + r2 = c a2 + r2 = 1,
and with this the binormal vector b is already an unit vector given by
h sin
ca sin
c
h cos b = a2 = ca cos .
b = a3 =
2
2r
cr
6.6.3 The Curvature and the Torsion

The curvature =
of a curve in space is given by

=
1
= |n |
cos
n = c2 r sin .
0

q
1
|n | = c2 r cos2 + sin2 = c2 r = ,
and with this nally the normal unit vector is given by
cos
n = a2 = n = sin .
0
, and
n =
dt
da1
d2 x
=
= 2 1,
1
1
d
d
d
and in this case it implies a constant valued curvature
and this implies with the result for vector a1 ,
, resp. a3 = a1 a2 ,
and with the denition of the cross product, represented by the expansion about the rst column,
the binormal is given by

e1 cr sin cos
ca sin
b = e2 cr cos sin = ca cos .

e3
ca
0
cr
i.e. the tangent vector t is already an unit vector! For the normal unit vector n = a 2 rst the
normal vector n is computed by
n =
201
The binormal vector b = a3 is dened by
The three components of the vector of position x are given by
and the complete vector is given by
The torsion =
1
= |n | = c2 r = constant.
of a curve in space is dened by the rst derivative of the binormal vector,

b=tn
and here the derivative
implies a constant torsion, too,
, with
b,1 = n =
1
n,
c2 a cos
b,1 = c2 a sin = c2 an,
0
=
1
= c2 a = constant.
202
6.6.4 The Christoffel Symbols

The Christoffel symbols are dened by the derivatives of the base vectors, here the moving
trihedron given by {a1 , a2 , a3 } = {t, n, b},
ai,1 = i1r ar
k
ai,1 a =
i1r ar
| ak
a = i1r rk
and nally the denition of a single Christoffel symbol is given by

i1k = ai,1 ak .
This denition implies, that it is only necessary to compute the scalar products of the base vectors
and their rst derivatives, in order to determine the Christoffel symbols. For this reason in a rst
step all the rst derivatives w.r.t. the variable of the base vectors of the moving trihedron are
determined. The rst derivative of the base vector a 1 is given by
cr cos
cos
a1
2
a1,1 =
= cr sin c = c r sin = c2 ra2 ,
1
0
0
the rst derivative of the second base vector a 2 is given by
sin
a2
= c cos ,
a2,1 =
1
0
and nally the rst derivative of the third base vector a 3 is given by
ca cos
cos
a3
2
= c ca sin = c a sin = c2 aa2 .
a3,1 =
1
0
0
Because the moving trihedron ai is an orthonormal basis, it is not necessary to differentiate

between the co- and contravariant base vectors, i.e. ai = ai , and with this the denition of the
Christoffel symbols is given by
i1k
= ai,1 a = ai,1 ak .
311
312
313
c2 a cos
cr sin
= a3,1 a1 = c2 a sin cr cos = 0,
0
ca
2

c a cos
cos
2
= a3,1 a2 = c a sin sin = c2 a,

0
0

2
ca sin
c a cos
2
= a3,1 a3 = c a sin ca cos = 0.
0
cr
With this results the coefcient matrix of the Christoffel symbols could be represented by
0
0
c2 r
[i1r ] = c2 r 0 c2 a .
0
c2 a
0
6.6.5 Forces and Moments at an Arbitrary sectional area

An arbitrary line element of the spiral staircase is given by the points P , and Q. These points
are represented by the vectors of position x, and x + dx. At the point P the moving trihedron is
given by the orthonormal base vectors t, n, and b. The forces N, N + dN, and the moments
M, M+dM at the sectional areas are given like in the sketch of gure (6.15). The line element
is load by a vector f d1 . The equilibrium of forces in vector notation is given by
N + dN N + f d1 = 0
dN =
dN + f d1 = 0,
with the rst derivative of the force vector w.r.t. to the variable 1 represented by
= a1,1 a1 = c ra2 a1 = 0,
= a1,1 a2 = c2 ra2 a2 = c2 r,
= a1,1 a3 = c2 ra2 a3 = 0,
203
sin
cr sin
211 = a2,1 a1 = c cos cr cos = c2 r,
0
ca
sin
cos
2
21 = a2,1 a2 = c cos sin = 0,

0
0
sin
ca sin
3
21 = a2,1 a3 = c cos ca cos = c2 a,
0
cr
The various Christoffel symbols are computed like this,

111
112
113
N
d1 = N,1 d1 ,
1
the equilibrium condition becomes

(N,1 + f ) d1 = 0.
204
N,11 + N 1 111 + N 2 211 + N 3 311 + f 1 = 0,
b = a3 (1 )
*
n = a2 (1 )
with the computed values for the Christoffel symbols from above,
t = a1 (1 )
N,11 + 0 + N 2 c2 r + 0 + f 1 = 0,
dx = a1 d1
x = x (1 )
e3 6
R
1
f d
Q
q
e1
x-+ dx = x (1 ) + a1 d1
e2
N + dN
M + dM
Figure 6.15: An arbitrary line element with the forces, and moments in its sectional areas.
This equation rewritten in index notation, with the force vector N = N i ai given in the basis of
the moving trihedron at point P , implies
N i ai ,1 + f i ai d1 = 0,
with the chain rule,
+ f i ai = 0
+ f i ai = 0
and after renaiming the dummy indices,
and nally
N,11 c2 rN 2 + f 1 = 0.
N,1i ai + N i ai,1
i
N,1 ai + N i i1k ak
205
This equation system represents three component equations, one for each direction of the basis
of the moving trihedron, rst for i = 1, and k = 1, . . . , 3,
The second case for i = 2, and k = 1, . . . , 3 implies

N,12 + N 1 112 + N 2 212 + N 3 312 + f 2 = 0,

N,12 + N 1 c2 r + 0 + N 3 c2 a + f 2 = 0,
N,12 + c2 rN 1 + c2 aN 3 + f 2 = 0.
The third case for i = 3, and k = 1, . . . , 3 implies

N,13 + N 1 113 + N 2 213 + N 3 313 + f 3 = 0,
N,13 + 0 + N 2 c2 a + 0 + f 3 = 0,
N,13 c2 aN 2 + f 3 = 0.
All together the coefcient scheme of the equilibrium of forces in the basis of the moving trihedron is given by

N,11 c2 rN 2 + f 1
0
N,12 + c2 rN 1 + c2 aN 3 + f 2 = 0 .
0
N,13 c2 aN 2 + f 3
The equilibrium of moments in vector notation w.r.t. the point P is given by
1
M + M + dM + a1 d1 (N + dN) + a1 d1 f d1 = 0,
2
1
dM + a1 d1 N + a1 dNd1 + a1 f d1 d1 = 0,
2
N,1i + N k k1i ai + f i ai = 0.
and in linear theory, i.e. neglecting the higher order terms, e.g. terms with dNd 1 , and with
d1 d1 , the equilibrium of moments is given by
N,1i + N k k1i = N i |1 ,
dM + a1 d1 N = 0.
With the covariant derivative dened by
the equilibrium condition could be rewritten in index notation only for the components,
N i |1 +f i = N,1i + N k k1i + f i = 0.
With the rst derivative of the moment vector w.r.t. to the variable 1 given by
dM =
M 1
d = M,1 d1 ,
1
206
6.6.6 Forces and Moments for the Given Load
the equilibrium condition becomes

1
(M,1 + a1 N) d = 0.
The unkown forces N and moments M w.r.t. the natural basis a i should be computed, i.e.
The cross product of the rst base vector a 1 of the moving trihedron and the force vector N is
given by
a1 N = a 1 N i ai = N 1 a1 a 1 + N 2 a1 a 2 + N 3 a1 a 3
= 0 + N 2 a3 + N 3 a2 = N 2 a3 N 3 a2 ,
a1 N = N 2 a3 N 3 a 2 ,
because the base vectors ai form an orthonormal basis. The following steps are the same as the
ones for the force equilibrium equations,
M,1 + N 2 a3 N 3 a2 d1 = 0,
N = N i ai
and is acting at a point S, given by an angle 2 , and a radius rS , see also the free-body diagram given by gure (6.16). The free-body diagram and the load vector are given in the global
r
e1
M,11 + M 1 111 + M 2 211 + M 3 311 = 0,
M,11 + 0 + M 2 c2 r + 0 = 0,
M,11 c2 rM 2 = 0,
in direction of the base vector a2 , i.e. for i = 2, and k = 1, . . . , 3,

M,12 + M 1 112 + M 2 212 + M 3 312 N 3 = 0,

M,12 + M 1 c2 r + 0 + M 3 c2 a N 3 = 0,
?e2
1
R
M,13
+M
113
213
2
313
M,13 c2 aM 2 + N 2 = 0.
All together the coefcient scheme of the equilibrium of moments in the basis of the moving
trihedron is given by

M,11 c2 rM 2
0
2
2
1
2
3
3
M,1 + c rM + c aM N = 0 .
0
M,13 c2 aM 2 + N 2
bottom, xed support
2
N
1
3 N
?N
1
M
3 2
R
R
?
Figure 6.16: The free-body diagram of the loaded spiral staircase.
Cartesian basis, i.e. the load vector is given by

=R
i ei
R
+M
+M
+ N = 0,
M,13 + 0 + M 2 c a + 0 + N 2 = 0,
?
?
3
M
rS
M,12 + c2 rM 1 + c2 aM 3 N 3 = 0.
and nally in the direction of the third base vector a 3 , i.e. i = 3, and k = 1, . . . , 3,
2
M
e3
M,1i + M k k1 ai + N 2 a3 N 3 a2 = M i |1 ai + N 2 a3 N 3 a2 = 0.
Again this equation system represents three equations, one for each direction of the basis of the
moving trihedron, rst for i = 1, i.e. in the direction of the base vector a 1 , and k = 1, . . . , 3,
M = M i ai .
f = fi ei ,
top, height h/2
and nally
, and
The load f is given in the global, Cartesian coordinate system by
M,1i ai + M i ai,1 + N 2 a3 N 3 a2 = 0,
207
, with

1
R
0
2 = 0 .
R
3
R
qr
First the equilibrium conditions of forces in the directions of the base vectors e i of the global
Cartesian coordinate system are established,
X
1 + R
1 = 0 N
1 = 0,
F e1 = 0 N
3 + R
3 = 0 N
3 = R
3.
F e3 = 0 N
2 + R
2 = 0 N
2 = 0,
F e2 = 0 N
208
Than the equilibrium conditions of moments in the directions of the base vectors e i of the global
Cartesian coordinate system w.r.t. the point T are established
X
3 r sin + rS sin + M
1 = 0
Me(T1 ) = 0 R
2
1 = R
3 r sin
M
rS sin
,
2
2
(T )
3
rS cos + r cos
2 = 0
R
Me 2 = 0
+M
2
2
2 = R
3 rS cos r cos ,
M
2
2
X
3 = 0.
Me(T3 ) = 0 M
Finally the resulting equations of equilibrium are given by
3
r sin rS sin
0
R
2
2
3 rS cos r cos
= 0 , and M
= R
.
N
2
2
3
R
0
Now the problem is, that the equilibrium conditions are given in the global Cartesian coordinate
system, but the results should be descirbed in the basis of the moving trihedron. For this reason it
i ei , into N = N i ai ,
i ei , and M = M
is necessary to transform the results from above, i.e. N = N
and M = M i ai ! The Cartesian basis ei should be transformed by a tensor S into the basis ai ,
S = S rs er es
ai = Sei = S rs si er = S.ir er ,
i.e. in matrix notation

[ai ] =
[S.ir ]T
[er ]
, with
cr sin cos ca sin

[S.ir ] = cr cos sin ca cos ,
ca
0
cr
see also the denitions for the base vectors of the moving trihedron in the sections above! Then
the retransformation from the basis of the moving trihedron into the global Cartesian basis should
be given by S1 = T, with
ei = Tai , with T = T.sr ar as ,
ei = (T.sr ar as ) ai = T.sr is ar = T.ir ar .
Comparing this transformation relations implies
ai = S.ir er = S.ir T.rm am
k
,
ik = S.ir T.rm m
| ak ,
ik = T.rk S.ir ,
209
and in matrix notation

k k r
i = T.r [S.i ]
T.rk = [S.ir ]1 .
Because both basis, i.e. ei , and ai , are orthonormal basis, the tensor T must describe an orthonormal rotation! The tensor of an orthonormal rotation is characterized by
T1 = TT
, resp.
T = S1 = ST ,
i.e. in matrix notation

[T.ir ]
[S.ir ]1
[S.ir ]T
cr sin cr cos ca
0 .
= cos sin
ca sin ca cos cr
With this the relations between the base vectors of the different basis could be given by
ai = S.ir er
, resp. er = T.rk ak ,
and e.g. in detail

[er ] =
or
T
T.rk

cr sin cos ca sin
a1
[ak ] = cr cos sin ca cos a2 ,
a3
ca
0
cr
e1 = cr sin a1 cos a2 ca sin a3

e2 = cr cos a1 sin a2 + ca cos a3
e3 = ca a1
+ cr a3 .
i ei , into
i ei , and M = M
With this it is easy to compute the nal results, i.e. to transform N = N
N = N i ai , and M = M i ai . With the known transformation ei = T.ik ak the force vector could
be represented by
i T k ak = N k ak .
i ei = N
N=N
.i
Comparing only the coefcients implies
i,
N k = T.ik N
and with this the coefcients of the force vector N w.r.t. the basis of the moving trihedron in the
sectional area at point T are given by
1 3
1
ca
R
cr sin cr cos ca
0
N
N
N 2 = cos sin
0 0 N 2 = 0 .
3 cr
3
R
ca sin ca cos cr
R
N3
N3
By the analogous comparison the coefcients of the moment vector M w.r.t. the basis of the
moving trihedron in the sectional area at point T are given by
1
1
1
1 sin + M
2 cos
cr M
cr sin cr cos ca
M
M
M
2
2
2
1
2
M = M
cos + M
sin .
M = cos sin
0 M
2 cos
1 sin + M
ca sin ca cos cr
M3
0
M3
ca M
210
6.7
Tensors, Stresses and Cylindrical Coordinates
6.7. Tensors, Stresses and Cylindrical Coordinates
211
the stress tensor (, for the geometrically linear theory,) is given by
6.7.1 The Problem
ij
The given cylinderical shell is described by the parameter lines i , with i = 1, 2, 3. The relations
= gi g j
, with
ij
6 0 2
= 0 0 0 .
2 0 5
The vector of position x in the Cartesian coordinate system is given by

x = x i ei ,
and the normal vector n in the Cartesian coordinate system at the point P is given by
g3
g2
n=
n
g1
Compute the covariant base vectors gi and the contravariant base vectors g i at the point P .
e1
(0, 0, 0)
(8, 0, 4)
x
-
e3
e2
(0, 2, 0)
3
(8, 2, 0)
3
(8, 0, 0)
2
g1 + g 3
= n r er .
|g1 + g3 |
[cm]
Figure 6.17: The given cylindrical shell.
between the Cartesian coordinates and the parameters, i.e. the curvilinear coordinates, are given
by the vector of position x,

x1 = 5 2 sin
1 ,
a
x2 = 3 , and

x3 = 5 2 cos
1 ,
a
Work out the physical components from the contravariant stress tensor.
Determine the invariants,
Determine the coefcients of the tensor w.r.t. the basis in mixed formulation, gi gk ,
and w.r.t. the Cartesian basis, (ei ek ).
I = tr ,
1
II =
(tr )2 tr ()2 ,
2
III = det ,
for the three different representations of the stress tensor .
Calculate the principal stresses and the principal stress directions.
Compute the specic deformation energy W spec = 12 : at the point P , with
=
1
(gik ik ) gi gk .
100
where a = 8.0 is a constant length. At the point P dened by

P =P
8
2
1 = ; 2 = ; 3 = 2 ,
10
10
Determine the stress vector tn at the point P w.r.t. the sectional area given by the normal
vector n. Furthermore calculate the normal stress t , and the resulting shear stress tk for
this direction.
212

The contravariant base vectors g i are dened by
6.7.2 Co- and Contravariant Base Vectors

The vector of position x is given w.r.t. the Cartesian base vectors e i . The covariant base vectors
gi of the curvilinear coordinate system are dened by the rst derivatives of the vector of position
w.r.t. the parameters i of the curvilinear coordinate lines in space, i.e.
gi = g ik gk ,
and for i = 1, . . . , 3 the relations between co- and contravariant base vectors are given by
x
x
=
ei .
k
k
With this denition the covariant base vectors are computed by

x
cos
1 e1 + 0 e 2
sin
1 e3 ,
g1 =
= 5 2
+ 5 2
1
a
a
a
a

x
= sin
+ 0 e2
+ cos
1 e1
1 e3 ,
g2 =
2
a
a
x
g3 =
= 0 e1
+ (1) e2 + 0 e3 ,
3
and nally the covariant base vectors of the curvilinear coordinate system are given by

cos a
sin a 1
0
1 ,
0
0
,
g
,
and
g
=
=
g1 = 5
2
3
a
0
sin a 1
cos a 1
g 1 = b 2 g1
gk =
or by
cos c
1
0
g1 =
b
sin c
with the abbreviations
b=
, g2 =
5
a
=
(5 2 )
3
sin c
0
cos c
213
, and g3 = 1 ,
0
, and c =
= .
a
10
In order to determine the contravariant base vectors of the curvilinear coordinate system, it is
necessary to multiply the covariant base vectors with the contravariant metric coefcients. The
contravariant metric coefcients g ik could be computed by the inverse of the covariant metric
coefcients g ik ,
1
[gik ] = g ik
.
So the rst step is to compute the covariant metric coefcients g ik ,
1
0 0
b2
gik = gi gk , i.e. [gik ] = 0 1 0 .
0 0 1
The relationship between the co- and contravariant metric coefcients is used in its inverse form,
in order to compute the contravariant metric coefcients,
2
b 0 0
ik
ik
1
g = [gik ]
, resp.
g = 0 1 0 .
0 0 1
and nally with abbreviations
cos c
g1 = b 0
sin c
or in detail
, g 2 = g2
, and g3 = g3 ,
sin c
, g2 = 0
cos c
1
cos a
(5 2 )
g =
0
a
sin a 1
1
g =
0
g3 = 1 ,
0
, and
sin
cos
0
a
0
, and g = 1 .
0
3
At the given point P the co- and contravariant base vectors g i , and gi , are given by

cos 10
cos 10
3
5
0 ,
0 , g1 =
g1 =
5
3
sin 10
sin 10
sin 10
2
0 , and
g2 = g =
cos 10

0
g3 = g3 = 1 .
0
6.7.3 Coefcients of the Various Stress Tensors

The stress tensor is given by the covariant basis gi of the curvilinear coordinate system, and
the contravariant coefcients ij . The stress tensor w.r.t. to the mixed basis is determined by
= im gi gm
, and
gm = gmk gk ,
= im gmk gi gk = ik gi gk ,
i.e. the coefcient matrix is given by
ik
im
1
0 0
6 0 2
b2
[gmk ] = 0 0 0 0 1 0 .
0 0 1
2 0 5
214
215
Solving this matrix product implies the coefcient matrix [ ik ] w.r.t. the basis gi gk , i.e. the
stress tensor w.r.t. to the mixed basis is given by
6
0 2
b2
i
i
k
= k gi g , with
k = 0 0 0 ,
2
0 5
b2
Solving this matrix product implies the coefcient matrix of the stress tensor w.r.t. the Cartesian
basis, i.e. the stress tensor w.r.t. the Cartesian basis is given by
6
cos2 c
2b cos c b62 sin c cos c
b2
5
2b sin c ,
=
ik ei ek , with [
rs ] = 2b cos c
6
2
6
sin
c
cos
c
sin
c
sin2 c
2
b
b
b2
The relationships between the Cartesian coordinate system and the curvilinear coordinate system
are described by
6.7.4 Physical Components of the Contravariant Stress Tensor
and nally at the point P the stress tensor w.r.t. the mixed basis is given by
542
0 2
25
i
i
k
0 0 0 .
= k gi g , with
k =
18 2
0 5
25
gi = Bei , and B = Bmn em en ,

gi = (Bmn em en ) ei = Bmn in em = Bmi em ,
and because of the identity of co- and contravariant base vectors in the Cartesian coordinate
system,
gi = Bki ek = Bki ek .
This equation represented by the coefcient matrices is given by
1
cos c sin c 0
b
T k
0
1 ,
, with [Bki ] = 0
[gi ] = [Bki ] e
1
sin c cos c
0
b
see also the denition of the covariant base vectors above. The stress tensor w.r.t. the Cartesian
basis is computed by
ik
= gi g k
, and gi = Bri e
, resp. gk = Bsk e ,
= ik Bri Bsk er es ,
The physical components of a tensor are dened by
g(k)(k)
ik = ik p
,
g (i)(i)
see also the lecture notes. The physical components ik of a tensor = ik gi gk consider,
that the base vectors of an arbitrary curvilinear coordinate system do not have to be unit vectors!
In Cartesian coordinate systems the base vectors ei do not inuence the physical value of the
components of the coefcient matrix of a tensor, because the base vectors are unit vectors and
orthogonal to each other. But in general coordinates the base vectors do inuence the physical
value of the components of the coefcient matrix, because they are in general no unit vectors,
and not orthogonal to each other. Here the contravariant stress tensor is given by
6 0 2
ik = 0 0 0 .
= ij gi gk , with
2 0 5
In order to compute the physical components of the stress tensor , it is necessary to solve the
denition given above. The numerator and denominator of this denition are given by the square
roots of the co- and contravariant metric coefcients g (i)(i) , and g (i)(i) , i.e.
and with the abbreviation
ik
rs = Bri Bsk ,
the coefcient matrix of the stress tensor w.r.t. the Cartesian basis is dened by
1
1
cos c sin c 0
cos c 0
6 0 2
b
b
ik
T
0
1 0 0 0 sin c 0
[
rs ] = [Bri ] [Bsk ] = 0
1
0
1
2 0 5
sin c cos c
0
b
and nally at the point P the stress tensor w.r.t. the Cartesian basis is given by
542
54 2
cos2 10
6
cos 10
sin 10
cos 10
25
5
25
6
5 cos 10
5
5 sin 10 .
rs ] =
=
ik ei ek , with [
54 2
54 2
sin 10 cos 10 5 sin 10
sin2 10
25
25
sin c
cos c .
0
1
b
1
b
=b
g11 =
g 11
g22 = 1
p
g 22 = 1
g33 = 1,
p
g 33 = 1.
Finally the coefcient matrix of the physical components of the contravariant stress tensor =
ik gi gk is given by
6
0 2b
h i
b2
g(k)(k)
ik
ik
ik
= p
, and
= 0 0 0 .
2
g (i)(i)
0 5
b
216
6.7.5 Invariants
217
or in just one step
tr 2 = T : = ki gi gk : ( rs gr gs ) = ki rs gir gks = kr rk .
The stress tensor could be described w.r.t. the three following basis, i.e.
= ik gi gk , w.r.t. the covariant basis of the curvilinear coordinate system,
= ik gi gk , w.r.t. the mixed basis of the curvilinear coordinate system, and
=
ik ei ek , w.r.t. the basis of the Cartesian coordinate system.
The rst invariant I of the stress tensor is dened by the trace of the stress tensor, i.e.
I = tr = : 1.
The rst invariant w.r.t. the covariant basis of the curvilinear coordinate system is given by

I = tr = ik gi gk : gml gl gm = ik gml il km = ik gki = ii ,

6
I = tr = ii = 2 + 5.
b
The rst invariant w.r.t. the mixed basis of the curvilinear coordinate system is given by

I = tr = ik gi gk : gml gl gm = ik gml il g km = ik il kl = ii ,
6
I = tr = ii = 2 + 5.
b
Finally the second invariant w.r.t. the covariant basis of the curvilinear coordinate system
is given by
1
(tr )2 tr 2
2"
2
#
36
8
1 36 60
36
8
1
6
+
5
+
+
25
=
+
+
25
25
,
=
2
b2
b4
b2
2 b4
b2
b4
b2
II =
II =
Again rst in order to determine tr 2 it is necessary to compute 2 , i.e.
2 = ik gi gk ( rs gr gs ) = ik rs rk gi gs = ik ks gi gs ,
and then
tr 2 = 2 : 1 = ik ks gi gs : gml gl gm = ik ks gml il g sm = ik ki ,
or in just one step
The rst invariant w.r.t. the mixed basis of the Cartesian coordinate system is given by
I = tr = (
ik ei ek ) : (ml em el ) =
ik ml im kl =
ii ,
6
ii = 2 + 5.
I = tr =
b
The second invariant II of the stress tensor is dened by the half difference of the trace to the
second of the stress tensor, and the trace of the stress tensor to the second, i.e.
First in order to determine tr 2 it is necessary to compute 2 , i.e.
2 = ik gi gk ( rs gr gs ) = ik rs gkr gi gs ,
and then
tr = : 1 = gkr gi gs : gml gl gm
2
ik rs
ik rs
gkr gml il sm =
2
6
tr 2 =
b2
2
+2 2 2
b
ik rs
gkr gsi =
+ 25 =
tr 2 = T : = ki gi gk : ( rs gr gs ) = ki rs gir g ks = sr rs .
This intermediate result is the same like above, and the rst invariants, i.e. the trace tr
and (tr )2 , too, are equal for the different basis, i.e. all further steps will be the same like
above. Combining all this nally implies, that the second invariant w.r.t. the mixed basis
of the curvilinear coordinate system is given by
II =
1
II =
(tr )2 tr 2 .
2
26
.
b2
ir ri
36
8
+ 2 + 25,
b4
b
26
b2
, too.
Again rst in order to determine tr 2 it is necessary to compute 2 , i.e.

ik ei ek ) (
rs er es ) =
ik
rs kr ei es =
ik
ks ei es ,
2 = (
and then
tr 2 = 2 : 1 = (
ik
ks ei es ) : (lm el em ) =
ik
ks lm il sm =
ik
ki ,
or in just one step
ik ei ek ) : (
rs er es ) =
ki
rs ir ks =
sr
rs .
tr 2 = T : = (
218
Solving this implies the same intermediate results,
36
4
36 2
4
36
2
2
sin
c
cos
c
+
sin
c
+ 4 sin4 c + 25
tr 2 = 4 cos4 c + 2 2 cos2 c + 2
b
b
b4
b2
b
8 2
36 4
2
2
4
2
= 4 cos c + 2 sin c cos c + sin c + 2 cos c + sin c + 25
b
b
36
8
tr 2 = 4 + 2 + 25,
b
b
i.e. the further steps are the same like above. And with this nally the second invariant
w.r.t. the basis of the Cartesian coordinate system is given by
II =
26
b2
, too.
The third invariant III of the stress tensor is dened by the determinant of the stress tensor, i.e.
III = det =
1 T T
1
1
(tr )3 (tr ) tr 2 +
: .
6
2
3
In order to compute the third invariant it is necessary to solve the three terms in the summation of the denition of the third invariant. The rst term is given by
1
1 6
1 216 540 450
(tr )3 =
+
5
=
+
+
+
125
6
6 b2
6 b6
b4
b2
36
90
75
125
1
(tr )3 = 6 + 4 + 2 +
,
6
b
b
b
6
and the second term is given by
1
36
8
1 6
(tr ) tr 2 =
+
5
+
+
25
2
2 b2
b4
b2
1
108
114
95
125
(tr ) tr 2 =
.
+
+
+
2
b6
b4
b2
2
The third term is not so easy to compute, because it does not include the trace, but a scalar
product and a tensor product with the transpose of the stress tensor, i.e.
1
1 T T
: = T :
3
3
, with
T = T T = ()T .
or in index notation
T T
: = ki gi gk ( sr gr gs ) : lm gl gm
lm
ki s

ki sr
= gkr gi gs : gl gm = k gi gs : lm gl gm
= ki sk lm gil gsm = kl sk ls ,
: = kl ls sk .
219
In order to solve this equation, rst the new tensor T is computed by
T = T T = ki gi gk ( sr gr gs ) = ki sr gkr gi gs
si gi gs = ki sk gi gs = sk ki gi gs ,
and the coefcient matrix of this new tensor is given by

si is T

=
= [ sk ] ki ,
36
6
0 2
+4 0
6 0 2
b2
b2
0
[si ] = 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 0
2
12
0 5
+ 10 0
2 0 5
b2
b2
12
b2
4
b2
+ 10
0 .
+ 25
In order to solve the scalar product T : , given by
T : = T T : = si gi gs : lm gl gm ,
T : = si lm gil gsm = si gil ls = sl ls ,
rst the coefcient matrix of the tensor w.r.t. the mixed basis is computed by

[ sl ] = si [gil ] ,
1
36
36
+ 4 0 12
+ 10
0 0
+ b42 0 12
+ 10
b2
b2
b2
b4
b2
s
0
0 0 1 0 = 0
0
0 ,
[ l ] = 0
12
12
+ 10 0 b42 + 25
+ 10
0 b42 + 25
0 0 1
b2
b4
b2
and then the nal result for the third term is given by
1
1
1 T T
1
: = T : = kl ls sk = sl ls
3
3
3
3
36
4
1
4 6
12
2
12 10
+
5
=
+
+
+
10
+
2
+
+
25
3
b4
b2 b2
b2
b2
b4
b2
b2
1 T T
72 24 20 125
.
:= 6 + 4 + 2 +
3
b
b
b
3
Then the complete third invariant w.r.t. the covariant basis of the curvilinear coordinate
system is given by
1 T T
1
1
:
III = det = (tr )3 (tr ) tr 2 +
6
2
36 90 75 125
108 114 95 125
=
+
+
+
+
+
+
b6
b4
b2
6
b6
b4
b2
2
72 24 20 125
+ 4 + 2 +
+
b6
b
b
3
1
1
1
= 6 (36 108 + 72) + 4 (90 114 + 24) + 2 (75 95 + 20)
b
b
b
125 125 125

+
+
6
2
3
III = det = 0.
220
For the third invariant w.r.t. the mixed basis of the curvilinear coordinate system the rst
and second term are already known, because all scalar quantities, like tr , are still the
same, see also the rst case of determining the third invariant. It is only necessary to have
a look at the third term given by
T T
: = ik gk gi ( rs gs gr ) : lm gl gm
i r s k
l
= k s i g gr : m gl gm = sk rs gk gr : lm gl gm
= sk rs lm lk rm = sl ms lm ,
T T : = sl lm ms ,
i.e. this scalar product is the same like above. With all three terms of the summation given
by the same scalar quantities like above, the third invariant w.r.t. the mixed basis of the
curvilinear coordinate system is given by
6.7.6 Principal Stress and Principal Directions

Starting with the stress tensor w.r.t. the Cartesian basis, and a normal unit vector, i.e.
=
ik ei ek
The third invariant w.r.t. the basis of the Cartesian coordinate system is given by
III = det = 0.
The nal result is, that the invariants of every arbitrary tensor could be computed w.r.t. any
basis, and still keep the same, i.e.
6
I = tr
=:1
= 2 + 5,
b
1
1
26
II =
(tr )2 tr 2 =
( : 1)2 T :
= 2,
2
2
b
1 T T
1
1
= (tr )3 (tr ) tr 2 +
III = det
:
6
2
3
1 T T
1
1
= ( : 1)3 ( : 1) T : +
: = 0.
6
2
3
, and
n 0 = n r er = n r er ,
the eigenvalue problem is given by

n0 = n0 ,
and the left-hand side is rewritten in index notation,
ik nr ei kr =
ir nr ei .
(
ik ei ek ) nr er =
The eigenvalue problem in index notation w.r.t. the Cartesian basis is given by
III = det = 0.
The third case, i.e. the third invariant w.r.t. to the basis of the Cartesian coordinate system,
is very easy to solve, because in a Cartesian coordinate system it is sufcient to compute
the determinant of the coefcient matrix of the tensor! For example the determinant of the
coefcient matrix
rs is expanded about the rst row
6
2 cos2 c
2b cos c b62 sin c cos c
b 2
5
2b sin c
det = det [
rs ] = b cos c
6
62 sin c cos c 2 sin c
sin2 c
b
b2
b
30 2
4
2
12
6
12
sin c 2 sin2 c + cos c 3 sin2 c cos c + 3 sin2 c cos c
= 2 cos2 c
2
b
b
b
b
b
b
6
4
30
+ 2 sin c cos c 2 sin c cos c 2 sin c cos c
b
b
b
156 2
156 2
2
= 4 sin c cos c 0 4 sin c cos2 c
b
b
det = det [
rs ] = 0.
221
ik nk ei = nk ek | el ,
ik nk il = nk kl ,
lk nk = nk lk ,
and nally the characteristic equation is given by
(
lk lk ) nk = 0,
det (
ik ik ) = 0.
The characteristic equation of the eigenvalue problem could be rewritten with the already known
invariants, i.e.
det (
ik ik ) = III II + I 2 3 = 0,
I + II III = 0,
6
26
3
2 + 5 2 + 2 0 = 0,
b
b
6
26
2 2 + 5 + 2 = 0,
b
b
3
this implies the rst eigenvalue, i.e. the rst principal stress,
1 = 0.
The other eigenvalues are computed by solving the quadratic equation
6
26
2 2 + 5 + 2 = 2 d + e = 0,
b
b
r
s
2
1 6
26
1
1 6
d2
+
5
+
5
=
2/3 =
d
e,
2
2
2
2 b
4 b
b
2
4
222
this implies the second and third eigenvalue, i.e. the second and third principal stress,
r
r
d2
d2
6
1
1
26
e , and 3 = d
e , with d = 2 + 5 , and e = 2 .
2 = d +
2
4
2
4
b
b

The principal stress 1 = 0 implies
n13 = 0 n11 = 0 n12 = R,
n1 = n1 g1 + n2 g2 + n3 g3 = 0 + g2 + 0 = g2 ,
sin c
n1 = 0 .
cos c
In order to compute the principal directions the stress tensor w.r.t. the curvilinear basis, and a
normal unit vector, i.e.
= ik gi gk , and n = nr gr ,
are used, then the eigenvalue problem is given by
n = n,
and the left-hand side is rewritten in index notation,
The principal stress 2 = 12 d +
The eigenvalue problem in index notation w.r.t. the curvilinear basis is given by
and in matrix notation
ik nk gi = ni gi = nk ki gi ,
i
i
k k nk gi = 0,
i
k ik nk = 0,
b2

i 0
2
ni1
0 ni2 = 0.
0
i
2
0 5 i
ni3
b2
Combining the rst and the last row of this system of equations yields an equation to determine
the coefcient n i3 depending on the associated principal stress i , i.e.
4
6
6
26
(5 i ) 2 i 2 ni3 = 2 i 5 + 2 + 2i ni3 = e i d + 2i ni3 = 0.
b
b
b
b
The coefcient n i2 could be computed by the second line of this system of equations, i.e.
i ni2 = 0,
and then the coefcient n i1 depending on the associated principal stress i and the already known
coefcient n i3 is given by
2ni3
ni1 = 6
.
i
2
b
The associated principal direction to the principal stresses are computed by inserting the values
i in the equations above.
d2
4
e implies
1
n11 = b2 (5 2 ) = ,
2
n2 = n1 g1 + n2 g2 + n3 g3 = g1 + 0 + g3 ,
b cos c
1
1 , with = b2 (5 2 ) .
n2 =
2
b sin c
n13 = R
n = ik gi gk nr gr = ik nr gkr gi = ir nr gi .
223
The principal stress 3 = 12 d
n12 = 0
d2
4
e implies
b cos c
n3 = 1
b sin c
, with
1
= b2 (5 3 ) .
2
6.7.7 Deformation Energy

The specic deformation energy is dened by
1
Wspec = :
2
, with
= ik gi gk
, and
1
(gik ik ) gi gk ,
100
and solving this product yields
1
1 lm
1
(gik ik ) gi gk
gl g m :
Wspec = : =
2
2
100
1 ik
1 lm
i k
(gik ik ) l m =
(gik ik )
=
200
200
1 ik
=
gik ik ,
200
1 i
1
Wspec = : =
i ii ,
2
200
because the Kronecker delta ik is given w.r.t. to the Cartesian basis, i.e.
ik = i k = ik = ik .
224
With the trace of the stress tensor w.r.t. to the mixed basis of the curvilinear coordinate system,
and the trace of the stress tensor w.r.t. to the covariant basis of the curvilinear coordinate system
given by
6
ii = 2 + 5 , and ii = 11,
b
the specic deformation energy is given by
1
6
1
Wspec = : =
6
,
2
200 b2
implies nally the stress vector t n at the point P ,
(6 + 2b2 ) cos c
+ 2 cos c
b2
1
1
2
5b =
2b 5b3 .
tn =
b2 + 1 6 +b 2 sin c
b2 b2 + 1 (6 + 2b2 ) sin c
and nally at the point P ,
and the shear stress vector is dened by

Wspec =
1
200
54 2
6
25
n=
and this implies with
cos c
g1 + g3 = 1
1
sin c
b
1
nally
, and
t = n
= tn n =
|g1 + g3 | =
, with
= |t | = tn n,
The absolute value of the normal stress vector t is computed by
(6 + 2b2 ) cos c
cos c
1
1
3
b
2b 5b
= tn n =
b2 b2 + 1 (6 + 2b2 ) sin c
b2 + 1 sin c
g1 + g 3
,
|g1 + g3 |
The normal stress vector is dened by
tk = t n t .
0.0766.
6.7.8 Normal and Shear Stress

The normal vector n is dened by
b2
1
+ 1,
b2
cos c
1
b = nr er = nr er .
n=
b2 + 1 sin c
With the stress tensor w.r.t. the Cartesian basis,
=
ik ei ek ,
the stress vector tn at the point P is given by
ik ei ek nr er =
ik nr kr ei =
ik nk ei ,
tn = n =
5b4 + 4b4 + 6
.
b2 (b2 + 1)
This implies the normal stress vector
and the shear stress vector
cos c
5b4 + 4b2 + 6
b ,
t = n =
b2 (b2 + 1) b2 + 1 sin c
(6 + 2b2 ) cos c
cos c
4
2
+
4b
+
6
5b
1
3
2b 5b
b ,
tk = t n t =
b2 b2 + 1 (6 + 2b2 ) sin c
b2 (b2 + 1) b2 + 1 sin c
cos c
4 3b2
1
.
tk =
(b2 + 1) b2 + 1 sinb c
and in index notation

tn = t i ei =
ik nk ei
The matrix multiplication of the coefcient matrices,

6
cos2 c
2b cos c
b2
5
[ti ] = [
ik ] [nk ] = 2b cos c
6
sin c cos c 2b sin c
b2
ti =
ik nk .
6
b2
cos c
sin c cos c
1
2
b ,
b sin c
b2 + 1 sin c
6
sin2 c
b2
225
226
Appendix A
Formulary
A.1
Formulary Tensor Algebra
A.1.1 Basis
ei orthonormal cartesian base vectors En
gi covariant base vectors
En
gi contravariant base vectors
En
A.1.2 Metric Coefcients, Raising and Lowering of Indices

raising and lowering of indices
metric coefcients
gik = gi gk
gi = gik gk
g ik = gi gk
ki
ki
(ik
gi = g ik gk
gi = ki gk
ei = ki ek
(ei = ik ek )
= g gk
= e ek
= ei ek )
A.1.3 Vectors in a General Basis

v = v i gi = v i g i
A.1.4 Second Order Tensors in a General Basis

T = T ik gi gk = Tik gi gk
= T ik gi gk = Ti k gi gk
227
Appendix A. Formulary
228
A.1.5 Linear Mappings with Tensors
A.1. Formulary Tensor Algebra
A.1.9 Transpose of a Tensor
for the tensor A of rank 1

A=uv
A w = (u v) w = (v w) u
= ui gi v k gk wm gm = v k gk wm gm ui gi
k m
i
= v w gk m u g i = v k w k u i g i
for the general tensor T of rank n det T ik 6= 0
T = T ik gi gk
T w = T ik gi gk wm gm = T ik wk gi
A.1.6 Unit Tensor (Identity, Metric Tensor)
mit
u=1u
1 = gi gi = gj gj = ij gj gi
= g ij gi gj = gij gi gj
u = gi gi uk gk = uk g ik gi = uk gk = ui gi = u
u=Aw
u (T v) = v TT u
T = T ik gi gk
with
TT = T ik gk gi = T ki gi gk
and
(u v)T = v u
(A B)T = BT AT
w =Bv u=ABv =Cv
C = A B = Aik gi gk (Bmn gm gn )
und
= Aik Bmn km gi gn = Aik Bkn gi gk
A.1.8 Scalar Product or Inner Product
with
A.1.10 Computing the Tensor Components
T ik = gi T gk
T
ik
im kn
= g g Tmn
Tik = gi (T gk )
Tki
im
= g Tmk
AT
=A
Tki = gi (T gk )
;
;
etc.
A.1.11 Orthogonal Tensor, Inverse of a Tensor

orthonormal tensor
QT = Q1
;
QT Q = Q1 Q = 1 = Q QT
k 1
i
;
Qmi Q0mk = ki
Qk = Qi
v = Q u (Q u) (Q u) = u u
;
i.e.
det Q = 1
vv =uu
A.1.12 Trace of a Tensor

tr (a b) = ai gi bk gk = ai bi
tr T = T : 1 = T ik gi gk : (gm gm ) = T ik gim km
tr (a b) := a b
A.1.7 Tensor Product
229
resp.
= T ik gik = Tii
tr (A B) = A : BT
or
A B = tr A BT = tr BT A
tr (A B) = tr (B A) = B : AT
tr (A B) = tr Aik gi gk [Bmn gm gn ] = tr aik Bkn gi gn

= Aik Bkn gi gn = Aik Bki
etc.
A.1.13 Changing the Basis

=A:B
= Aik gi gk : (B mn gm gn ) = Aik B mn (gi gm ) (gk gn )

= Aik B mn gim gkn = Aik Bik
transformation gi gi ; gk gk
gi = 1 gi = gk gk gi = gk gi gk = Aki gk
230
g i = A gi
with
A = gk gm gk gm = Akm gk gm
k
gi = g gi gk = Aki gk
g i = A gi
with
gi = (gk gi ) gk = Aki gk
i
A = (gk gm ) g g = Akm g g
A.1. Formulary Tensor Algebra

etc.
BB=1
Ami Bmk = ik
Bki gk
gi = B gi
with
B = (gk gm ) gk gm = Bkm gk gm
k
i
i
i k
g = gk g g = B k g
The components of a vector transform with the following rules of transformation

vi = Aki vk = Aki vk
gi = A g i
with
k
k
gi = g g i g k = A i g k
gi = A g i
A = (gm gk ) g g = Amk g g
gi = B gi
with
B = (gk gm ) gk gm = B k gk gm
i
gi = gk gi gk = B k gk
km
gi = B gi
with
B = gk gm gk gm = B gk gm
ki
gi = gk gi gk = B gk
The following relations between the transformation tensors hold

k
Bki vk
v =
ki
= B vk
vi = A i vk = Aki vk
ki
vi = B k vk = B vk
i.e. the coefcients of the vector components transform while changing the coordinate systems
like the base vectors themselves.
A.1.15 Transformation Rules for Tensors
i
gi = 1 gi = gk gk gi = gk gi gk = B k gk
Ami A m = ik
k
A = g k gm g k g m = A m g k g m
k
Bmk = A m
etc.
k
gi = 1 g i = g k g k g i = g k g i g k = A i g k
Bmk = A m
v = v i g i = v i gi = v i g i = v i g i
inverse relations gi gi ; gk gk
AA=1
B m Bkm = ki
etc.
A.1.14 Transformation of Vector Components
gi = B gi
with
B = gk gm gk gm = B km gk gm
gi = gk gi gk = B ki gk
with
BB=1
or
Bmi B k = ki
Furthermore
g = 1 g = g g k g = gk g g =
gi = (gk gi ) gk = Aki gk
231
or
etc.
AA=1
m
A i Akm = ik
T = T ik gi gk = T ik gi gk = Tik gi gk = Ti k gi gk
ik
= T gi gk = T k gi gk = T ik gi gk = T i gi gk
the transformation relations between base vectors imply

T
T
ik
i
k
= A m A n T mn
=
T ik =
A m Ank T m
n
Ami Ank Tmn
,
,
,
i.e. the coefcients of the tensor components transform like the tensor basis. The tensor basis
transform like the base vectors.
232
A.1.16 Eigenvalues of a Tensor in Euclidean Space

EWP :
conditions for non-trivial results
T ik
(T 1) = 0
ki xi = 0
!
characteristic polynomial
det (T 1) = 0
det T ik ki xi = 0
A.2. Formulary Tensor Analysis
A.2
233
Formulary Tensor Analysis
A.2.1 Derivatives of Vectos and Tensors

scalars, vectors and tensors as functions of a vector of position
= (x)
f () = I3 I2 + 2 I1 3 = 0
If T = TT ; Tki R, then the eigenvectors are orthogonal and the eigenvalues are real. invariants
of a tensor
I1 = 1 + 2 + 3 = tr T = T ik
1
I2 = 1 2 + 2 3 + 3 1 =
(tr T)2 tr T2
2
1 i k
=
T i T k T ik T ki
2

I3 = 1 2 3 = det T = det T ik
v = v (x)
T = T (x)
A vector eld v = v (x) is differentiable in x, if a linear mapping L (x) exists, such that

, if |y| 0.
v (x + y) = v (x) + L (x) y + O y2
The mapping L (x) is called the gradient or Frechet derivative v 0 (x), also represented by the
operator
L (x) = grad v (x) .
Analogous for a scalar valued vector function (x)

(x + y) = (x) + grad (x) y + O y2
rules
grad () = grad + grad

grad (v w) = (grad v)T w + (grad w)T v
grad (v) = v grad + grad v
grad (v w) = [(grad v) w] grad w
The gradient of a scalar valued vector function leads to a vector valued vector function. The
gradient of a vector valued vector function leads analogous to a tensor valued vector function.
divergence of a vector
div = tr (grad v) = grad v : 1
divergence of a tensor
div T = div TT = grad TT : 1
rules
div (v) = v grad + grad v
div (T v) = v div TT + TT : grad v
div (grad v)T = grad (div v)
A.2.2 Derivatives of Base Vectors

Chirtoffel tensors
(k) := grad (gk )
components
(k) = ikm gi gm
ikm = i(k)m = gi (k) gm
cartesian orthogonal coordinate systems the Christoffel tensors vanish.

234
A.2.3 Derivatives of Base Vectors in Components Notation
A.2. Formulary Tensor Analysis
A.2.6 Integral Theorems, Divergence Theorems

Z
( )k
= ( )k,i
with
(k) = grad (gk ) = gk,i gi
i
s
gi,k = (i) gk = il gs gl gk = sik gs
;
gi,k gs = sik
ikl =
i
g,k
= isk gs
1
etc.
= (gkl,i + gil,k gik,l )
2
ZA
etc.
gls sik
ei,k = 0
A.2.4 Components Notation of Vector Derivatives
235
u nda =
ui ni da =
T nda =
Ti k nk gi da =
with n
A
V
div udV
ZV
ZV
ZV
V
ui |i dV
div TdV
Ti k |k gi dV
normal vector of the surface element
surface
volume
v
(v i gi )
gk =
gk
k
k
v i
gi
= k gi g k + v i k g k
| {z }
grad v (x) =
(i)
i
= v,k
gi gk + v i (i)
i
= v,k
gi gk + v i gi,k gk
i
grad v (x) = v,k + v s isk gi gk = v i |k gi gk
div v (x) = tr (grad v) = v,ii + v s isi = v i |i
A.2.5 Components Notation of Tensor Derivatives
T k (T ij gi gj ) k
g =
g
k
k
gi
gj
= T,kij (gi gj ) gk + T ij
gj gk + T ij gi k gk
k
= T,kik gi + T ik sik gs + T ij gi sjk gs gk
= T,kik + T mk imk + T ij kjk gi = T ik |k gi

i
k
m k
k
i
= T i,k T km m
ik + T i km g = T i |k g
div T (x) =
236
Appendix B
Nomenclature
Notation
, , , . . .
a, b, c, . . .
aT , bT , cT , . . .
A, B, C, . . .
a, b, c, . . .
A,
3 C,
3 ...
3 B,
A, B, C, . . .
A, B, C, . . .
Notation
tr
det
sym
skew
dev
grad =
div
rot
Description
scalar quantities in R
column matrices or vectors in Rn
row matrices or vectors in Rn
matrices in Rn Rn
vectors or rst order tensors in E n
second order tensors in En En
third order tensors in En En En
fourth order tensors in En En En En
Description
the trace operator of a tensor or a matrix
the determinant operator of a tensor or a matrix
the symmetric part of a tensor or a matrix
the antisymmetric or skew part of a tensor or a matrix
the deviator part of a tensor or a matrix
the gradient operator
the divergence operator
the rotation operator
the laplacian or the Laplace operator
237
Appendix B. Nomenclature
238
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Notation
R
R3
E3
E3 E 3
{e1 , e2 , e3 }
{g1 , g2 , g3 }
{g1 , g2 , g3 }
gij
g ij
g = g ij gi gj
Description
the set of the real numbers
the set of real-valued triples
the 3-dimensional Euclidean vector space
the space of second order tensors over the Euclidean vector space
3-dimensional Cartesian basis
3-dimensional arbitrary covariant basis
3-dimensional arbitrary contravariant basis
covariant metric coefcients
contravariant metric coefcients
metric tensor
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San Diego, 1995.
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Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, 1974.
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[8] Klaus Jnich. Lineare Algebra. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, 1998.
[9] Wilhelm Klingenberg. Lineare Algebra und Geometrie. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, second edition, 1992.
[10] Allan D. Kraus. Matrices for Engineers. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York,
1987.
[11] Paul C. Matthews. Vector Calculus. Undergraduate Mathematics Series. Springer-Verlag,
Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, 1998.
[12] James G. Simmonds. A Brief on Tensor Analysis. Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics.
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, second edition, 1994.
[13] Erwin Stein. Unterlagen zur Vorlesung Mathematik V fr konstr. Ingenieure Matrizenund Tensorrechnung SS 94. Institut fr Baumechanik und Numerische Mechanik, Universitt Hannover, 1994.
239
240
Bibliography
[14] Rudolf Zurmhl. Matrizen und ihre technischen Anwendungen. Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
Heidelberg, New York, fourth edition, 1964.

L1-norm
- Integralnorm, L1-Norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
L2-norm
- L2-Norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
l1-norm
- Summennorm, l1-Norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
l2-norm, Euclidian norm
- l2-Norm, euklidische Norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
n-tuple
- n-Tupel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
p-norm
- Maximumsnorm, p-Norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
absolute norm
- Gesamtnorm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
absolute value
- Betrag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
absolute value of a tensor
- Betrag eines Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111, 113
additive
- additiv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
additive identity
- additionsneutrales Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 42
additive inverse
- inverses Element der Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 42
afne vector
- afner Vektor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
afne vector space
- afner Vektorraum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28, 54
antisymmetric
- schiefsymmetrisch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
antisymmetric matrix
- scheifsymmetrische Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
antisymmetric part
- antisymmetrischer Anteil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
antisymmetric part of a tensor - antisymmetrischer Anteil eines Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

area vector
- Flchenvektor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
associative
- assoziativ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
associative rule
- Assoziativgesetz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
associative under matrix addition assoziativ bzgl. Matrizenaddition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
base vectors
- Basisvektoren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31, 87
basis
- Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
241
242
243
basis of the vector space
- Basis eines Vektorraums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
complex conjugate eigenvalues - konjugiert komplexe Eigenwerte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
bijective
- bijektiv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
complex numbers
bilinear
- bilinear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
bilinear form
- Bilinearform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
- komplexe Zahlen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
binormal unit
- Binormaleneinheitsvektor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
binormal unit vector
- Binormaleneinheitsvektor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
components
- Komponenten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31, 65
components of the Christoffel symbol Komponenten des Christoffel-Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
components of the permutation tensor Komponenten des Permutationstensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Cartesian base vectors
- kartesische Basisvektoren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
composition
- Komposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34, 54, 106
congruence transformation
- Kongruenztransformation, kontragrediente Transformation

56, 63
Cartesian basis
- kartesische Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Cartesian components of a permutation tensor kartesische Komponenten des Permutationstensor . . . . . . 87
congruent
- kongruent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56, 63
Cartesian coordinates
- kartesische Koordinaten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78, 82, 144
continuum
- Kontinuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Cauchy stress tensor
- Cauchy-Spannungstensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96, 120
contravariant symbol
- kontravariantes -Symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Cauchys inequality
- Schwarzsche oder Cauchy-Schwarzsche Ungleichung . . 21
Cayley-Hamilton Theorem
- Cayley-Hamilton Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
characteristic equation
- charakteristische Gleichung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
contravariant base vectors

- kontravariante Basisvektoren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81, 139
contravariant base vectors of the natural basis kontravariante Basisvektoren der natrlichen Basis . . . . 141
characteristic matrix
- charakteristische Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
characteristic polynomial
- charakteristisches Polynom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56, 65, 123
contravariant coordinates
- kontravariante Koordinaten, Koefzienten . . . . . . . . . 80, 84
contravariant metric coefcients kontravariante Metrikkoefzienten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82, 83
Christoffel symbol
- Christoffel-Symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
coordinates
- Koordinaten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
cofactor
- Kofaktor, algebraisches Komplement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
covariant symbol
- kovariantes -Symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
column
- Spalte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
column index
- Spaltenindex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
column matrix
- Spaltenmatrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28, 40, 46
covariant base vectors

- kovariante Basisvektoren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80, 138
covariant base vectors of the natural basis kovariante Basisvektoren der natrlichen Basis . . . . . . . 140
column vector
- Spaltenvektor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28, 40, 46, 59
covariant coordinates
- kovariante Koordinaten, Koefzienten . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81, 84

- kovariante Ableitung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146, 149
combination
- Kombination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 34, 54
covariant derivative
commutative
- kommutativ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
covariant metric coefcients
- kovariante Metrikkoefzienten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80, 83
commutative matrix
- kommutative Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
cross product
- Kreuzprodukt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87, 90, 96
commutative rule
- Kommutativgesetz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
commutative under matrix addition kommutativ bzgl. Matrizenaddition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
compatibility of vector and matrix norms Vertrglichkeit von Vektor- und Matrix-Norm . . . . . . . . . . 22
compatible
- vertrglich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
complete fourth order tensor
- vollstndiger Tensor vierter Stufe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
curl
- Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
curvature
- Krmmung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
curvature of a curve
- Krmmung einer Kurve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
curved surface
- Raumche, gekrmmte Oberche . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
curvilinear coordinate system
- krummliniges Koordinatensystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
curvilinear coordinates
- krummlinige Koordinaten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139, 144
complete second order tensor
- vollstndige Tensor zweiter Stufe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
denite metric
- denite Metrik. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
complete third order tensor
- vollstndiger Tensor dritter Stufe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
denite norm
- denite Norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
244
245
deformation energy
- Formnderungsenergie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
dot product
- Punktprodukt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
deformation gradient
- Deformationsgradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
dual space
- Dualraum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36, 97
derivative of a scalar
- Ableitung einer skalaren Gre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
dual vector space
- dualer Vektoraum, Dualraum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
derivative of a tensor
- Ableitung eines Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
dummy index
- stummer Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
derivative of a vector
- Ableitung eines Vektors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
derivative w.r.t. a scalar variable Ableitung nach einer skalaren Gre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
dyadic product
- dyadisches Produkt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9496
eigenvalue
- Eigenwert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65, 120
derivatives
- Ableitungen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
eigenvalue problem
- Eigenwertproblem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22, 65, 122, 123
derivatives of base vectors
- Ableitungen von Basisvektoren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141, 145
eigenvalues
- Eigenwerte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22, 56
determinant
- Determinante . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50, 65, 89
determinant expansion by minors Determinantenentwicklungssatz mit Unterdeterminanten51
eigenvector
- Eigenvektor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65, 120
eigenvector matrix
- Eigenvektormatrix, Modalmatrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
determinant of a tensor
- Determinante eines Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
determinant of the contravariant metric coefcients Determinante der kontravarianten Metrikkoefzienten . . 83
determinant of the contravariant metric coefcients Determinante der kovarianten Metrikkoefzienten. . . . . .83
determinant of the Jacobian matrix Determinante der Jacobimatrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
elastic
- elastisch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
elasticity tensor
- Elastizittstensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
elasticity theory
- Elastizittstheorie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
elements
- Elemente . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
empty set
- leere Menge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
diagonal matrix
- Diagonalmatrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41, 43
equilibrium conditions
- Gleichgewichtsbedingungen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
equilibrium conditon of moments Momentengleichgewichtsbedingung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
equilibrium system of external forces Gleichgewicht der ueren Krfte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
differential element of area
- differentielles Flchenelement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
equlibirum system of forces
- Krftegleichgewicht . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
dimension
- Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13, 14
Euclidean norm
- euklidische Norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22, 30, 85
- direkte Methode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Euclidean space
- Euklidischer Raum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
direct product
- direktes Produkt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Euclidean vector
- euklidische Vektoren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
directions of principal stress
- Hauptspannungsrichtungen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
deviator matrix
- Deviatormatrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
deviator part of a tensor
- Deviator eines Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
direct method
discrete metric
- diskrete Metrik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
distance
- Abstand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Euclidean vector space
- euklidischer Vektorraum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26, 29, 143
Euklidian matrix norm
- Euklidische Matrixnorm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
even permutation
- gerade Permutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
exact differential
- vollstndiges Differential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133, 135

- Feld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
distributive
- distributiv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
distributive law
- Distributivgesetz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
eld
distributive w.r.t. addition
- Distributivgesetz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
eld
- Krper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
divergence of a tensor eld
- Divergenz eines Tensorfeldes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
nite
- endlich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
divergence of a vector eld
- Divergenz eines Vektorfeldes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
nite element method
- Finite-Element-Methode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
divergence theorem
- Divergenztheorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
rst order tensor
- Tensor erster Stufe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
domain
- Denitionsbereich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
fourth order tensor
- Tensor vierter Stufe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
246
247
Frechet derivative
- Frechet Ableitung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
inner product
- inneres Produkt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25, 85
free indices
- freier Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
inner product of tensors
- inneres Produkt von Tensoren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

- innerer Produktraum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26, 27
function
- Funktion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
inner product space
fundamental tensor
- Fundamentaltensor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150
integers
- ganze Zahlen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
integral theorem
- Integralsatz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
intersection
- Schnittmenge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Gauss transformation
- Gausche Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Gausss theorem
- Gaussscher Integralsatz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155, 158
general eigenvalue problem
- allgemeines Eigenwertproblem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
general permutation symbol
- allgemeines Permutationssymbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
gradient
- Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
gradient of a vector of position - Gradient eines Ortsvektors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
invariance
- Invarianz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
invariant
- Invariante . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120, 123, 148
invariant
- invariant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
inverse
- Inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 34
inverse of a matrix
- inverse Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
higher order tensor
- Tensor hherer Stufe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
inverse of a tensor
- inverser Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
homeomorphic
- homomorph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30, 97
inverse relation
- inverse Beziehung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
homeomorphism
- Homomorphismus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
inverse transformation
- inverse Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101, 103
inverse w.r.t. addition
- inverses Element der Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
inverse w.r.t. multiplication
- inverses Element der Multiplikation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
homogeneous
- homogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
homogeneous linear equation system homogenes lineares Gleichungssystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
homogeneous norm
- homogene Norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
inversion
- Umkehrung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
invertible
- invertierbar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
homomorphism
- Homomorphismus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Hookes law
- Hookesche Gesetz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
isomorphic
- isomorph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29, 35
Hlder sum inequality
- Hldersche Ungleichung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
isomorphism
- Isomorphimus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
identities for scalar products of tensors Rechenregeln fr Skalarprodukte von Tensoren . . . . . . . 110
identities for tensor products
- Rechenregeln fr Tensorprodukte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
isotropic
- isotrop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
isotropic tensor
- isotroper Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
iterative process
- Iterationsvorschrift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
identity element w.r.t. addition - neutrales Element der Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

identity element w.r.t. scalar multiplication neutrales Element der Multiplikation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Jacobian
- Jacobi-Determinante . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Kronecker delta
- Kronecker-Delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52, 79, 119
identity matrix
- Einheitsmatrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41, 45
l-innity-norm, maximum-norm -
identity matrix
- Einheitsmatrix, Identitt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
identity tensor
- Einheitstensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Maximumnorm, -Norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Laplace operator
- Laplace-Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
- Laplace-Operator eines Skalarfeldes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
image set
- Bildbereich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
laplacian of a scalar eld
innitesimal
- innitesimal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
laplacian of a tensor eld
- Laplace-Operator eines Tensorfeldes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
innitesimal tetrahedron
- innitesimaler Tetraeder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
laplacian of a vector eld
- Laplace-Operator eines Vektorfeldes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
injective
- injektiv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
left-hand Cauchy strain tensor - linker Cauchy-Strecktensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
inner prodcut space
- innerer Produktraum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
line element
- Linienelement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
248
249
linear
- linear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
linear algebra
- lineare Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
metric space
- metrischer Raum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
metric tensor of covariant coefcients Metriktensor mit kovarianten Koefzienten . . . . . . . . . . . 102
linear combination
- Linearkombination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15, 49, 71
linear dependence
- lineare Abhngigkeit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23, 30, 62
linear equation system
- lineares Gleichungssytem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
linear form
- Linearform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
moment equilibrium conditon
- Momentengleichgewichtsbedingung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
linear independence
- lineare Unabhngigkeit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23, 30
moving trihedron
- begleitendes Dreibein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
linear manifold
- lineare Mannigfaltigkeit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
multiple roots
- Mehrfachnullstellen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
linear mapping
- lineare Abbildung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32, 54, 97, 105, 121
multiplicative identity
- multiplikationsneutrales Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
linear operator
- linearer Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
multiplicative inverse
- inverses Element der Multiplikation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
linear space
- linearer Raum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
linear subspace
- linearerUnterraum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
linear transformation
- lineare Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
linear vector space
- linearer Vektorraum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
linearity
- Linearitt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32, 34
linearly dependent
- linear abhngig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15, 23, 49
linearly independent
- linear unabhngig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15, 23, 48, 59, 66
lowering an index
- Senken eines Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
main diagonal
mixed components
- gemischte Komponenten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
mixed formulation of a second order tensor gemischte Formulierung eines Tensors zweiter Stufe . . . 99
n-tuple
- n-Tupel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
nabla operator
- Nabla-Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
natural basis
- natrliche Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
natural numbers
- natrliche Zahlen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
naturals
negative denite
- negativ denit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Newtons relation
- Vietaschen Wurzelstze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
non empty set
- nicht leere Menge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
- Hauptdiagonale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41, 65
non-commutative
- nicht-kommutativ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
map
- Abbildung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
noncommutative
- nicht kommutativ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69, 106
mapping
- Abbildung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
nonsingular
- regulr, nicht singulr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48, 59, 66
matrix
- Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
nonsingular square matrix
- regulre quadratische Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
matrix calculus
- Matrizenalgebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
nonsymmetric
- unsymmetrisch, nicht symmetrisch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
matrix multiplication
- Matrizenmultiplikation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42, 54
nontrivial solution
- nicht triviale Lsung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
matrix norm
- Matrix-Norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21, 22
norm
- Norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18, 65
norm of a tensor
- norm eines Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
normal basis
- normale Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
matrix transpose
- transponierte Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
maximum absolute column sum norm Spaltennorm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
maximum absolute row sum norm Zeilennorm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
maximum-norm
- Maximumsnorm, p-Norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
mean value
- Mittelwert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
metric
- Metrik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
metric coefcients
- Metrikkoefzienten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
normal unit
- Normaleneinheitsvektor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
normal unit vector
- Normaleneinheitsvektor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121, 136, 138
normal vector
- Normalenvektor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96, 135
normed space
- normierter Raum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
null mapping
- Nullabbildung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
odd permutation
- ungerade Permutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
250
251
one
- Einselement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
principal axes problem
- Hauptachsenproblem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
operation
- Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
principal axis
- Hauptachse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
operation addition
- Additionsoperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
principal stress directions
- Hauptspannungsrichtungen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
operation multiplication
- Multplikationsoperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
principal stresses
- Hauptspannungen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
order of a matrix
- Ordnung einer Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
product
- Produkt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
origin
- Ursprung, Nullelement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
proper orthogonal tensor
- eigentlich orthogonaler Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
orthogonal
- orthogonal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
orthogonal matrix
- orthogonalen Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
quadratic form
- quadratische Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26, 57, 62, 124
quadratic value of the norm
- Normquadrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
- Heben eines Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
orthogonal tensor
- orthogonaler Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
orthogonal transformation
- orthogonale Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
raising an index
orthonormal basis
- orthonormale Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
range
- Bildbereich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
- Urbild . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
- Rang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
outer product
- ueres Produkt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
range
overlined basis
- berstrichene Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
rank
parallelepiped
- Parallelepiped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
partial derivatives
- partielle Ableitungen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
partial derivatives of base vectors partielle Ableitungen von Basisvektoren . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
rational numbers
- rationale Zahlen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Rayleigh quotient
- Rayleigh-Quotient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67, 68
real numbers
- reelle Zahlen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
rectangular matrix
- Rechteckmatrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
- Rangabfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
permutation symbol
- Permutationssymbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87, 112, 128
reduction of rank
permutation tensor
- Permutationstensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
permutations
- Permutationen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
point of origin
- Koordinatenursprung, -nullpunkt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Riesz representation theorem - Riesz Abbildungssatz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

right-hand Cauchy strain tensor rechter Cauchy-Strecktensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Poissons ratio
- Querkontraktionszahl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
polar decomposition
- polare Zerlegung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
polynomial factorization
- Polynomzerlegung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
polynomial of n-th degree
- Polynom n-ten Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
position vector
- Ortsvektor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135, 152
positive denite
- positiv denit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25, 61, 62, 111
positive metric
- positive Metrik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
positive norm
- positive Norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
post-multiplication
- Nachmultiplikation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
potential character
- Potentialeigenschaft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
roots
- Nullstellen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
rotated coordinate system
- gedrehtes Koordiantensystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
rotation matrix
- Drehmatrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
rotation of a vector eld
- Rotation eines Vektorfeldes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
rotation transformation
- Drehtransformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
rotator
- Rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
row
- Zeile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
row index
- Zeilenindex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
row matrix
- Zeilenmatrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40, 45
row vector
- Zeilenvektor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40, 45
- Skalarfeld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
power series
- Potenzreihe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
scalar eld
pre-multiplication
- Vormultiplikation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
scalar function
- Skalarfuntkion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
principal axes
- Hauptachsen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
scalar invariant
- skalare Invariante . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
252
scalar multiplication
253
- skalare Multiplikation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 12, 42
square
- quadratisch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
- quadratische Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
- multiplikationsneutrales Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
square matrix
scalar product
- Skalarprodukt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 25, 85, 96
Stokes theorem
scalar product of tensors
- Skalarprodukt von Tensoren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
- Stokescher Integralsatz, Integralsatz fr ein Kreuzprodukt

157
scalar product of two dyads
- Skalarprodukt zweier Dyadenprodukte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
strain tensor
- Verzerrungstensor, Dehnungstensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
scalar triple product

- Spatprodukt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88, 90, 152
scalar-valued function of multiple variables skalarwertige Funktion mehrerer Vernderlicher . . . . . . 134
stress state
- Spannungszustand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
scalar-valued scalar function

scalar-valued vector function
scalar multiplication identity
stress tensor
- Spannungstensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96, 129
stress vector
- Spannungsvektor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
- skalarwertige Skalarfunktion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
subscript index
- untenstehender Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
- skalarwertige Vektorfunktion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
subset
- Untermenge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Schwarz inequality
- Schwarzsche Ungleichung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26, 111
summation convention
- Summenkonvention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
second derivative
- zweite Ableitung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
superscript index
- obenstehender Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
second order tensor
- Tensor zweiter Stufe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96, 97, 127
superset
- Obermenge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
second order tensor product
- Produkt von Tensoren zweiter Stufe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
supremum
- obere Schranke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
section surface
- Schnittche . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
surface
- Oberche . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
semidenite
- semidenit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
surface element
- Oberchenelement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Serret-Frenet equations
- Frenetsche Formeln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
surface integral
- Oberchenintegral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
set
- Menge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
surjective
- surjektiv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
- Mengenlehre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
symbols
- Symbole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
shear stresses
- Schubspannungen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
symmetric
- symmetrisch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25, 41
similar
- hnlich, kogredient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55, 69
symmetric matrix
- symmetrische Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
similarity transformation
- hnlichkeitstransformation, kogrediente Transformation55
symmetric metric
- symmetrische Metrik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
- einfacher Tensor vierter Stufe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
symmetric part
- symmetrischer Anteil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
simple second order tensor
- einfacher Tensor zweiter Stufe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94, 99
symmetric part of a tensor
- symmetrischer Anteil eines Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
simple third order tensor
- einfacher Tensor dritter Stufe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
tangent unit
- Tangenteneinheitsvektor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
skew part of a tensor
- schief- oder antisymmetrischer Anteil eines Tensors . . . 115
tangent unit vector
- Tangenteneinheitsvektor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
smmetric tensor
- symmetrischer Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
tangent vector
- Tangentenvektor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
space
- Raum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Taylor series
- Taylor-Reihe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133, 153
space curve
- Raumkurve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
tensor
- Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
space of continuous functions
- Raum der stetige Funktionen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
tensor axioms
- Axiome fr Tensoren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
space of square matrices
- Raum der quadratischen Matrizen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
tensor eld
- Tensorfeld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
set theory
simple fourth order tensor
span
- Hlle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
tensor product
- Tensorprodukt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105, 106
special eigenvalue problem
- spezielles Eigenwertproblem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
tensor product of two dyads
- Tensorprodukt zweier Dyadenprodukte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
spectral norm
- Spektralnorm, Hilbert-Norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
tensor space
- Tensorraum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
254
tensor with contravariant base vectors and covariant coordinates Tensor mit kontravarianten Basisvektoren und kovaranten
Koefzienten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
tensor with covariant base vectors and contravariant coordinates Tensor mit kovarianten Basisvektoren und kontravaranten
Koefzienten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
tensor-valued function of multiple variables tensorwertige Funktion mehrerer Vernderlicher . . . . . . 134
255
vector
- Vektor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 28, 127
vector eld
- Vektorfeld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
vector function
- Vektorfunktion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
vector norm
- Vektor-Norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18, 22
vector of associated direction
- Richtungsvektoren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
vector of position
- Ortsvektoren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
tensor-valued scalar function
- tensorwertige Skalarfunktion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
vector product
- Vektorprodukt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
tensor-valued vector function
- tensorwertige Vektorfunktion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
vector space
- Vektorraum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 49
third order fundamental tensor - Fundamentaltensor dritter Stufe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
vector space of linear mappings - Vektorraum der linearen Abbildungen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
third order tensor
vector-valued function
- vektorwertige Funktion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
vector-valued function of multiple variables vektorwertige Funktion mehrerer Vernderlicher . . . . . . 134
- Tensor dritter Stufe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
topology
- Topologie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
torsion of a curve
- Torsion einer Kurve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
total differential
- vollstndiges Differential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
trace of a matrix
- Spur einer Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
trace of a tensor
transformation matrix
- Spur eines Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

- Transformationsmatrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
vector-valued scalar function
- vektorwertige Skalarfunktion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
vector-valued vector function
- vektorwertige Vektorfunktion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
visual space
- Anschauungsraum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
volume
- Volumen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
transformation of base vectors - Transformation der Basisvektoren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

transformation of the metric coefcients Transformation der Metrikkoefzienten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
volume element
- Volumenelement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
volume integral
- Volumenintegral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
volumetric matrix
- Kugelmatrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
transformation relations
volumetric part of a tensor
- Kugelanteil eines Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
von Mises iteration
- von Mises Iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
whole numbers
Youngs modulus
- Elastizittsmodul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
zero element
- Nullelement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
zero vector
- Nullvektor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
zeros
- Nullstellen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
- Transforamtionsformeln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
transformation tensor
- Transformationstensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
transformed contravariant base vector transformierte kontravarianter Basisvektor . . . . . . . . . . . 103
transformed covariant base vector transformierte kovarianter Basisvektor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
transpose of a matrix
- transponierte Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
transpose of a matrix product
- transponiertes Matrizenprodukt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
transpose of a tensor
- Transponierter Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
triangle inequality
- Dreiecksungleichung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16, 19
trivial solution
- triviale Lsung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
union
- Vereinigungsmenge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
unit matrix
- Einheitsmatrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
unitary space
- unitrer Raum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
unitary vector space
- unitrer Vektorraum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
usual scalar product
- bliches Skalarprodukt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
256

L2-Norm
- L2-norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
l2-Norm, euklidische Norm
- l2-norm, Euclidian norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
n-Tupel
- n-tuple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Abbildung
- map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Abbildung
- mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Ableitung einer skalaren Gre - derivative of a scalar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Ableitung eines Tensors
- derivative of a tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Ableitung eines Vektors

- derivative of a vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Ableitung nach einer skalaren Gre derivative w.r.t. a scalar variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Ableitungen
- derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Ableitungen von Basisvektoren - derivatives of base vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141, 145

Abstand
- distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
additionsneutrales Element
- additive identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 42
Additionsoperation
- operation addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
additiv
- additive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
hnlich, kogredient
- similar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55, 69
hnlichkeitstransformation, kogrediente Transformation similarity transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

ueres Produkt
- outer product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
afner Vektor
- afne vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
afner Vektorraum
- afne vector space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28, 54
allgemeines Eigenwertproblem - general eigenvalue problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

allgemeines Permutationssymbol general permutation symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Anschauungsraum
- visual space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
257
258
antisymmetrischer Anteil
- antisymmetric part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
antisymmetrischer Anteil eines Tensors antisymmetric part of a tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
assoziativ
- associative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
assoziativ bzgl. Matrizenaddition associative under matrix addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Assoziativgesetz
- associative rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Axiome fr Tensoren
- tensor axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Basis
- basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Basis eines Vektorraums
259
Determinante der kontravarianten Metrikkoefzienten determinant of the contravariant metric coefcients . . . . . 83

Determinante der kovarianten Metrikkoefzienten determinant of the contravariant metric coefcients . . . . . 83
Determinante eines Tensors
- determinant of a tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Determinantenentwicklungssatz mit Unterdeterminanten determinant expansion by minors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Deviator eines Tensors
- deviator part of a tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Deviatormatrix
- deviator matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Diagonalmatrix
- diagonal matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41, 43
- basis of the vector space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
differentielles Flchenelement
- differential element of area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Basisvektoren
- base vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31, 87
Dimension
- dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13, 14
begleitendes Dreibein
- moving trihedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
direkte Methode
- direct method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
Betrag
- absolute value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
direktes Produkt
- direct product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Betrag eines Tensors
- absolute value of a tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111, 113
diskrete Metrik
- discrete metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
bijektiv
- bijective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
distributiv
- distributive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Bildbereich
- image set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Distributivgesetz
- distributive law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Bildbereich
- range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Distributivgesetz
- distributive w.r.t. addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
bilinear
- bilinear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Divergenz eines Tensorfeldes
- divergence of a tensor eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Bilinearform
- bilinear form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Divergenz eines Vektorfeldes
- divergence of a vector eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Binormaleneinheitsvektor
- binormal unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Divergenztheorem
- divergence theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Binormaleneinheitsvektor
- binormal unit vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Drehmatrix
- rotation matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Drehtransformation
- rotation transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Dreiecksungleichung
- triangle inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16, 19
dualer Vektoraum, Dualraum
- dual vector space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Cauchy-Spannungstensor
- Cauchy stress tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96, 120
Cayley-Hamilton Theorem
- Cayley-Hamilton Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
charakteristische Gleichung
- characteristic equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
charakteristische Matrix
- characteristic matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
charakteristisches Polynom
- characteristic polynomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56, 65, 123
Christoffel-Symbol
- Christoffel symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
eigentlich orthogonaler Tensor - proper orthogonal tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

Eigenvektor
- eigenvector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65, 120
Eigenvektormatrix, Modalmatrix eigenvector matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Dualraum
- dual space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36, 97
dyadisches Produkt
- dyadic product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9496
denite Metrik
- denite metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
denite Norm
- denite norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Denitionsbereich
- domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Eigenwert
- eigenvalue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65, 120
Deformationsgradient
- deformation gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Eigenwerte
- eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22, 56
Determinante
- determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50, 65, 89
Eigenwertproblem
- eigenvalue problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22, 65, 122, 123
einfacher Tensor dritter Stufe
- simple third order tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Determinante der Jacobimatrix - determinant of the Jacobian matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

TU Braunschweig, CSE Vector and Tensor Calculus 22. Oktober 2003
260
einfacher Tensor vierter Stufe
- simple fourth order tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
einfacher Tensor zweiter Stufe - simple second order tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94, 99
261
gemischte Formulierung eines Tensors zweiter Stufe mixed formulation of a second order tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
gemischte Komponenten
- mixed components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
gerade Permutation
- even permutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Einheitsmatrix
- identity matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41, 45
Einheitsmatrix
- unit matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Einheitsmatrix, Identitt
- identity matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Einheitstensor
- identity tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Gesamtnorm
- absolute norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Gleichgewicht der ueren Krfte equilibrium system of external forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Einselement
- one . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Gleichgewichtsbedingungen
- equilibrium conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
elastisch
- elastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Gradient
- gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Elastizittsmodul
- Youngs modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Gradient eines Ortsvektors
- gradient of a vector of position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Elastizittstensor
- elasticity tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Elastizittstheorie
- elasticity theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Hauptachse
- principal axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Elemente
- elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
endlich
- nite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Euklidische Matrixnorm
- Euklidian matrix norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
euklidische Norm
- Euclidean norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22, 30, 85
euklidische Vektoren
- Euclidean vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Euklidischer Raum
- Euclidean space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
euklidischer Vektorraum
- Euclidean vector space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26, 29, 143
Feld
- eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Finite-Element-Methode
- nite element method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Flchenvektor
- area vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Formnderungsenergie
- deformation energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Frechet Ableitung
- Frechet derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
freier Index
- free indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Frenetsche Formeln
- Serret-Frenet equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Fundamentaltensor
- fundamental tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Fundamentaltensor dritter Stufe third order fundamental tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Funktion
- function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Hauptachsen
- principal axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Hauptachsenproblem
- principal axes problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Hauptdiagonale
- main diagonal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41, 65
Hauptspannungen
- principal stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Hauptspannungsrichtungen
- directions of principal stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Hauptspannungsrichtungen
- principal stress directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Heben eines Index
- raising an index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
homogen
- homogeneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
homogene Norm
- homogeneous norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
homogenes lineares Gleichungssystem homogeneous linear equation system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Homomorphismus
- homomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
homomorph
- homeomorphic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30, 97
Homomorphismus
- homeomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Hookesche Gesetz
- Hookes law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Hldersche Ungleichung
- Hlder sum inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Hlle
- span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
innitesimal
- innitesimal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
innitesimaler Tetraeder
- innitesimal tetrahedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
ganze Zahlen
- integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
injektiv
- injective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Gaussscher Integralsatz
- Gausss theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155, 158
innerer Produktraum
- inner prodcut space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Gausche Transformation
- Gauss transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
innerer Produktraum
- inner product space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26, 27
gedrehtes Koordiantensystem
- rotated coordinate system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
inneres Produkt
- inner product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25, 85
262
263
inneres Produkt von Tensoren
- inner product of tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
kommutative Matrix
- commutative matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Integralnorm, L1-Norm
- L1-norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Kommutativgesetz
- commutative rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Integralsatz
- integral theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
komplexe Zahlen
- complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
invariant
- invariant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Invariante
- invariant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120, 123, 148
Invarianz
- invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Inverse
- inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 34
Komponenten
- components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31, 65
Komponenten des Christoffel-Symbols components of the Christoffel symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Komponenten des Permutationstensors components of the permutation tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
inverse Beziehung
- inverse relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Komposition
inverse Matrix
- inverse of a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
inverse Transformation
- inverse transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101, 103
inverser Tensor
- inverse of a tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
kongruent
- congruent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56, 63
Kongruenztransformation, kontragrediente Transformation congruence transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56, 63
konjugiert komplexe Eigenwerte complex conjugate eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
inverses Element der Addition - additive inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 42

inverses Element der Addition - inverse w.r.t. addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
inverses Element der Multiplikation inverse w.r.t. multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
inverses Element der Multiplikation multiplicative inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
invertierbar
- invertible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
isomorph
- isomorphic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29, 35
Isomorphimus
- isomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
isotrop
- isotropic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
isotroper Tensor
- isotropic tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Iterationsvorschrift
- iterative process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Jacobi-Determinante
- Jacobian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
kartesische Basis
- Cartesian basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
kartesische Basisvektoren
- Cartesian base vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
kartesische Komponenten des Permutationstensor Cartesian components of a permutation tensor . . . . . . . . . 87
Kontinuum
- composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34, 54, 106
- continuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
kontravariante Basisvektoren - contravariant base vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81, 139

kontravariante Basisvektoren der natrlichen Basis contravariant base vectors of the natural basis . . . . . . . . . 141
kontravariante Koordinaten, Koefzienten contravariant coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80, 84
kontravariante Metrikkoefzienten contravariant metric coefcients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82, 83
kontravariantes -Symbol
- contravariant symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Koordinaten
- coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Koordinatenursprung, -nullpunkt point of origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
kovariante Ableitung
- covariant derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146, 149
kovariante Basisvektoren
- covariant base vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80, 138
kovariante Basisvektoren der natrlichen Basis covariant base vectors of the natural basis . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
kovariante Koordinaten, Koefzienten covariant coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81, 84
kovariante Metrikkoefzienten - covariant metric coefcients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80, 83
kartesische Koordinaten
- Cartesian coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78, 82, 144
Kofaktor, algebraisches Komplement cofactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Kreuzprodukt
- cross product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87, 90, 96
Kombination
Kronecker-Delta
- Kronecker delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52, 79, 119
- combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 34, 54
kovariantes -Symbol
- covariant symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
kommutativ
- commutative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
kommutativ bzgl. Matrizenaddition commutative under matrix addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
krummlinige Koordinaten
- curvilinear coordinates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139, 144
krummliniges Koordinatensystem curvilinear coordinate system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
264
265
Krftegleichgewicht
- equlibirum system of forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Matrix-Norm
- matrix norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21, 22
Krmmung
- curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Matrizenalgebra
- matrix calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Krmmung einer Kurve
- curvature of a curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Matrizenmultiplikation
- matrix multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42, 54
Kugelanteil eines Tensors
- volumetric part of a tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Kugelmatrix
- volumetric matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Maximumnorm, -Norm
Krper
- eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Laplace-Operator
- Laplace operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Laplace-Operator eines Skalarfeldes laplacian of a scalar eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Laplace-Operator eines Tensorfeldes laplacian of a tensor eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Laplace-Operator eines Vektorfeldes laplacian of a vector eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
- l-innity-norm, maximum-norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Maximumsnorm, p-Norm
- p-norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Maximumsnorm, p-Norm
- maximum-norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Mehrfachnullstellen
- multiple roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Menge
- set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Mengenlehre
- set theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Metrik
- metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Metrikkoefzienten
- metric coefcients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Metriktensor mit kovarianten Koefzienten metric tensor of covariant coefcients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
leere Menge
- empty set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
metrischer Raum
- metric space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
linear
- linear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
von Mises Iteration
- von Mises iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
linear abhngig
- linearly dependent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15, 23, 49
linear unabhngig
- linearly independent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15, 23, 48, 59, 66
Mittelwert
- mean value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Momentengleichgewichtsbedingung equilibrium conditon of moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Momentengleichgewichtsbedingung moment equilibrium conditon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
multiplikationsneutrales Element multiplicative identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
multiplikationsneutrales Element scalar multiplication identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
lineare Abbildung
- linear mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32, 54, 97, 105, 121
lineare Abhngigkeit
- linear dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23, 30, 62
lineare Algebra
- linear algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
lineare Mannigfaltigkeit
- linear manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
lineare Transformation
- linear transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
lineare Unabhngigkeit
- linear independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23, 30
linearer Operator
- linear operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
linearer Raum
Multplikationsoperation
- operation multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
- linear space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
n-Tupel
- n-tuple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
linearer Vektorraum
- linear vector space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Nabla-Operator
- nabla operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
linearerUnterraum
- linear subspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Nachmultiplikation
- post-multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
lineares Gleichungssytem
- linear equation system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
natrliche Basis
- natural basis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
Linearform
- linear form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
natrliche Zahlen
- natural numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Linearitt
- linearity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32, 34
natrliche Zahlen
- naturals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Linearkombination
- linear combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15, 49, 71
natrliche Zahlen
- whole numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
- negative denite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Linienelement
- line element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
negativ denit
linker Cauchy-Strecktensor
- left-hand Cauchy strain tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Matrix
- matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
neutrales Element der Addition - identity element w.r.t. addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

neutrales Element der Multiplikation identity element w.r.t. scalar multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
266
nicht kommutativ
- noncommutative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69, 106
nicht leere Menge
- non empty set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
nicht triviale Lsung
- nontrivial solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
nicht-kommutativ
- non-commutative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Norm
- norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18, 65
norm eines Tensors
- norm of a tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
normale Basis
- normal basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Normaleneinheitsvektor
- normal unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Normaleneinheitsvektor
- normal unit vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121, 136, 138
Normalenvektor
- normal vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96, 135
normierter Raum
- normed space. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Normquadrate
- quadratic value of the norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Nullabbildung
- null mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Nullelement
- zero element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Nullstellen
- roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
267
partielle Ableitungen
- partial derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
partielle Ableitungen von Basisvektoren partial derivatives of base vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Permutationen
- permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Permutationssymbol
- permutation symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87, 112, 128
Permutationstensor
- permutation tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
polare Zerlegung
- polar decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Polynom n-ten Grades
- polynomial of n-th degree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Polynomzerlegung
- polynomial factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
positiv denit
- positive denite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25, 61, 62, 111
positive Metrik
- positive metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
positive Norm
- positive norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Potentialeigenschaft
- potential character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Potenzreihe
- power series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Nullstellen
- zeros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Produkt
- product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Produkt von Tensoren zweiter Stufe second order tensor product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Nullvektor
- zero vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Punktprodukt
obenstehender Index
- superscript index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
quadratisch
- square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
obere Schranke
- supremum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
quadratische Form
- quadratic form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26, 57, 62, 124
- dot product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Oberche
- surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
quadratische Matrix
- square matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Oberchenelement
- surface element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Querkontraktionszahl
- Poissons ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Oberchenintegral
- surface integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Obermenge
- superset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Rang
- rank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Operation
- operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Rangabfall
- reduction of rank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
rationale Zahlen
- rational numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Ordnung einer Matrix
- order of a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
orthogonal
- orthogonal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
orthogonale Transformation
- orthogonal transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
orthogonalen Matrix
- orthogonal matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
orthogonaler Tensor
- orthogonal tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
orthonormale Basis
- orthonormal basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Raum der stetige Funktionen - space of continuous functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Raumche, gekrmmte Oberche curved surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Ortsvektor
- position vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135, 152
Raumkurve
Ortsvektoren
- vector of position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Parallelepiped
- parallelepiped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Rayleigh-Quotient
- Rayleigh quotient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67, 68
Rechenregeln fr Skalarprodukte von Tensoren identities for scalar products of tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Raum
- space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Raum der quadratischen Matrizen space of square matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
- space curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
268
Rechenregeln fr Tensorprodukte identities for tensor products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Rechteckmatrix
- rectangular matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
rechter Cauchy-Strecktensor
- right-hand Cauchy strain tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
reelle Zahlen
- real numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
regulr, nicht singulr
- nonsingular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48, 59, 66
regulre quadratische Matrix
- nonsingular square matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Richtungsvektoren
- vector of associated direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Riesz Abbildungssatz
- Riesz representation theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Rotation
- curl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Rotation eines Vektorfeldes
- rotation of a vector eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Rotor
- rotator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
scheifsymmetrische Matrix
- antisymmetric matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
schief- oder antisymmetrischer Anteil eines Tensors skew part of a tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
269
skalarwertige Vektorfunktion
- scalar-valued vector function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Spalte
- column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Spaltenindex
- column index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Spaltenmatrix
- column matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28, 40, 46
Spaltennorm
- maximum absolute column sum norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Spaltenvektor
- column vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28, 40, 46, 59
Spannungstensor
- stress tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96, 129
Spannungsvektor
- stress vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Spannungszustand
- stress state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Spatprodukt
- scalar triple product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88, 90, 152
Spektralnorm, Hilbert-Norm
- spectral norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
spezielles Eigenwertproblem
- special eigenvalue problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Spur einer Matrix
- trace of a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Spur eines Tensors

- trace of a tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Stokescher Integralsatz, Integralsatz fr ein Kreuzprodukt Stokes theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
schiefsymmetrisch
- antisymmetric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Schnittche
- section surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
stummer Index
- dummy index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
- intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Summenkonvention
- summation convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Schnittmenge
Schubspannungen
- shear stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Schwarzsche oder Cauchy-Schwarzsche Ungleichung Cauchys inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Summennorm, l1-Norm
- l1-norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
surjektiv
- surjective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Symbole
- symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Schwarzsche Ungleichung
- Schwarz inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26, 111
symmetrisch
- symmetric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25, 41
semidenit
- semidenite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
symmetrische Matrix
- symmetric matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Senken eines Index
- lowering an index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
symmetrische Metrik
- symmetric metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
skalare Invariante
- scalar invariant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
skalare Multiplikation
- scalar multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 12, 42
Skalarfeld
- scalar eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
symmetrischer Anteil
- symmetric part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
symmetrischer Anteil eines Tensors symmetric part of a tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Skalarfuntkion
- scalar function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
symmetrischer Tensor
- smmetric tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Skalarprodukt
- scalar product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 25, 85, 96
Tangenteneinheitsvektor
- tangent unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Skalarprodukt von Tensoren

- scalar product of tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Skalarprodukt zweier Dyadenprodukte scalar product of two dyads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
skalarwertige Funktion mehrerer Vernderlicher scalar-valued function of multiple variables . . . . . . . . . . 134
Tangenteneinheitsvektor
- tangent unit vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Tangentenvektor
- tangent vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Taylor-Reihe
- Taylor series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133, 153
skalarwertige Skalarfunktion
- scalar-valued scalar function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Tensor
- tensor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Tensor dritter Stufe
- third order tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
270
Tensor erster Stufe
- rst order tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Tensor hherer Stufe

- higher order tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Tensor mit kontravarianten Basisvektoren und kovaranten Koefzienten tensor with contravariant base vectors and covariant coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Tensor mit kovarianten Basisvektoren und kontravaranten Koefzienten tensor with covariant base vectors and contravariant coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
271
berstrichene Basis
- overlined basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
bliches Skalarprodukt
- usual scalar product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Umkehrung
- inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
ungerade Permutation
- odd permutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
unitrer Raum
- unitary space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Tensor vierter Stufe
- fourth order tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
unitrer Vektorraum
- unitary vector space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
unsymmetrisch, nicht symmetrisch nonsymmetric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Tensor zweiter Stufe
- second order tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96, 97, 127
untenstehender Index
- subscript index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Tensorfeld
- tensor eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Untermenge
- subset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Urbild
- range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Ursprung, Nullelement
- origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Vektor
- vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 28, 127
Vektor-Norm
- vector norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18, 22
Tensorprodukt
- tensor product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105, 106
Tensorprodukt zweier Dyadenprodukte tensor product of two dyads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Tensorraum
- tensor space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
tensorwertige Funktion mehrerer Vernderlicher tensor-valued function of multiple variables . . . . . . . . . . 134
Vektorfeld
- vector eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
tensorwertige Skalarfunktion
- tensor-valued scalar function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Vektorfunktion
- vector function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
tensorwertige Vektorfunktion
- tensor-valued vector function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Vektorprodukt
- vector product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Topologie
- topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Torsion einer Kurve
- torsion of a curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Vektorraum
- vector space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 49
Vektorraum der linearen Abbildungen vector space of linear mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Transforamtionsformeln
- transformation relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Transformation der Basisvektoren transformation of base vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Transformation der Metrikkoefzienten transformation of the metric coefcients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Transformationsmatrix
- transformation matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Transformationstensor
- transformation tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
transformierte kontravarianter Basisvektor transformed contravariant base vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
transformierte kovarianter Basisvektor transformed covariant base vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
transponierte Matrix
- matrix transpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
transponierte Matrix
- transpose of a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Transponierter Tensor
- transpose of a tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
transponiertes Matrizenprodukt transpose of a matrix product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
triviale Lsung
- trivial solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
vektorwertige Funktion
- vector-valued function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
vektorwertige Funktion mehrerer Vernderlicher vector-valued function of multiple variables . . . . . . . . . . 134
vektorwertige Skalarfunktion
- vector-valued scalar function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
vektorwertige Vektorfunktion
- vector-valued vector function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Vereinigungsmenge
- union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
vertrglich
- compatible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Vertrglichkeit von Vektor- und Matrix-Norm compatibility of vector and matrix norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Verzerrungstensor, Dehnungstensor strain tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Vietaschen Wurzelstze
- Newtons relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
vollstndige Tensor zweiter Stufe complete second order tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
vollstndiger Tensor dritter Stufe complete third order tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
272
vollstndiger Tensor vierter Stufe complete fourth order tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

vollstndiges Differential
- exact differential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133, 135
vollstndiges Differential
- total differential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Volumen
- volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Volumenelement
- volume element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Volumenintegral
- volume integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Vormultiplikation
- pre-multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Zeile
- row . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Zeilenindex
- row index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Zeilenmatrix
- row matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40, 45
Zeilennorm
- maximum absolute row sum norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Zeilenvektor
- row vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40, 45
zweite Ableitung
- second derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Index
L1-norm, 19
L2-norm, 19
l1-norm, 19
l2-norm, Euclidian norm, 19
n-tuple, 28
p-norm, 19
Cartesian basis, 149

Cartesian components of a permutation tensor, 87
Cartesian coordinates, 78, 82, 144
Cauchy, 96
Cauchy stress tensor, 96, 120
Cauchys inequality, 21
Cayley-Hamilton Theorem, 71
characteristic equation, 65
characteristic matrix, 70
characteristic polynomial, 56, 65, 123
Christoffel symbol, 142
cofactor, 51
column, 40
column index, 40
column matrix, 28, 40, 46
column vector, 28, 40, 46, 59
combination, 9, 34, 54
commutative, 43
commutative matrix, 43
commutative rule, 10, 12
commutative under matrix addition, 42
compatibility of vector and matrix norms, 22
compatible, 22
complete fourth order tensor, 129
complete second order tensor, 99
complete third order tensor, 129
complex conjugate eigenvalues, 124
complex numbers, 7
components, 31, 65
components of the Christoffel symbol, 142
components of the permutation tensor, 87
composition, 34, 54, 106
congruence transformation, 56, 63
congruent, 56, 63
absolute norm, 22
absolute value, 85
absolute value of a tensor, 111, 113
addition, 12, 13
additive, 32
additive identity, 10, 12, 42
additive inverse, 10, 12, 42
afne vector, 28
afne vector space, 28, 54
antisymmetric, 41
antisymmetric matrix, 41
antisymmetric part, 44
antisymmetric part of a tensor, 115
area vector, 152
associative, 42
associative rule, 10, 12
associative under matrix addition, 42
base vectors, 31, 87
basis, 31
basis of the vector space, 15
bijective, 8
bilinear, 25
bilinear form, 26
binormal unit, 137
binormal unit vector, 137
Cantor, 6
Cartesian base vectors, 88
273
Index
274
continuum, 96
contravariant symbol, 93
contravariant base vectors, 81, 139
contravariant base vectors of the natural basis, 141
contravariant coordinates, 80, 84
contravariant metric coefcients, 82, 83
coordinates, 31
covariant symbol, 92
covariant base vectors, 80, 138
covariant base vectors of the natural basis,
140
covariant coordinates, 81, 84
covariant derivative, 146, 149
covariant metric coefcients, 80, 83
cross product, 87, 90, 96
curl, 150
curvature, 135
curvature of a curve, 136
curved surface, 138
curvilinear coordinate system, 139
curvilinear coordinates, 139, 144
denite metric, 16
denite norm, 18
deformation energy, 129
deformation gradient, 118
derivative of a scalar, 133
derivative of a tensor, 134
derivative of a vector, 133
derivative w.r.t. a scalar variable, 133
derivatives, 133
derivatives of base vectors, 141, 145
determinant, 50, 65, 89
determinant expansion by minors, 51
determinant of a tensor, 112
determinant of the contravariant metric coefcients, 83
determinant of the Jacobian matrix, 140
deviator matrix, 46
deviator part of a tensor, 113
diagonal matrix, 41, 43
differential element of area, 139
dimension, 13, 14
direct method, 68
direct product, 94
directions of principal stress, 120
discrete metric, 17
distance, 17
distributive, 42
distributive law, 10, 13
distributive w.r.t. addition, 10
distributive w.r.t. scalar addition, 13
distributive w.r.t. vector addition, 13
divergence of a tensor eld, 147
divergence of a vector eld, 147
divergence theorem, 156
domain, 8
dot product, 85
dual space, 36, 97
dual vector space, 36
dummy index, 78
dyadic product, 9496
eigenvalue, 65, 120
eigenvalue problem, 22, 65, 122, 123
eigenvalues, 22, 56
eigenvector, 65, 120
eigenvector matrix, 70
Einstein, 78
elastic, 129
elasticity tensor, 129
elasticity theory, 129
elements, 6
empty set, 7
equilibrium conditions, 96
equilibrium conditon of moments, 120
equilibrium system of external forces, 96
equlibirum system of forces, 96
Euclidean norm, 22, 30, 85
Euclidean space, 17
Euclidean vector, 143
Euclidean vector space, 26, 29, 143
Euklidian matrix norm, 60
even permutation, 50
exact differential, 133, 135
Index
275
eld, 10, 12, 143

nite, 13
nite element method, 57
rst order tensor, 127
fourth order tensor, 129
Frechet derivative, 143
free indices, 78
function, 8
fundamental tensor, 150
Gauss, 60
Gauss transformation, 59
Gausss theorem, 155, 158
general eigenvalue problem, 69
general permutation symbol, 92
gradient, 143
gradient of a vector of position, 144
higher order tensor, 127
homeomorphic, 30, 97
homeomorphism, 30
homogeneous, 32
homogeneous linear equation system, 65
homogeneous norm, 18
homomorphism, 32
Hookes law, 129
Hlder sum inequality, 21
identities for scalar products of tensors, 110
identities for tensor products, 106
identity, 12
identity element w.r.t. addition, 10
identity element w.r.t. scalar multiplication,
10, 12
identity matrix, 41, 45, 80
identity tensor, 112
image set, 8
innitesimal, 96
innitesimal tetrahedron, 96
injective, 8
inner prodcut space, 29
inner product, 25, 85
inner product of tensors, 110
inner product space, 26, 27
integers, 7
integral theorem, 156
intersection, 7
invariance, 57
invariant, 57, 120, 123, 148
inverse, 8, 34
inverse of a matrix, 48
inverse of a tensor, 115
inverse relation, 103
inverse transformation, 101, 103
inverse w.r.t. addition, 10, 12
inverse w.r.t. multiplication, 10
inversion, 48
invertible, 48
isomorphic, 29, 35
isomorphism, 35
isotropic, 129
isotropic tensor, 119
iterative process, 68
Jacobian, 140
Kronecker delta, 52, 79, 119
l-innity-norm, maximum-norm, 19
Laplace operator, 150
laplacian of a scalar eld, 150
laplacian of a tensor eld, 151
laplacian of a vector eld, 150
left-hand Cauchy strain tensor, 117
Leibnitz, 50
line element, 139
linear, 32
linear algebra, 3
linear combination, 15, 49, 71
linear dependence, 23, 30, 62
linear equation system, 48
linear form, 36
linear independence, 23, 30
linear manifold, 15
linear mapping, 32, 54, 97, 105, 121
linear operator, 32
linear space, 12
linear subspace, 15
Index
276
linear transformation, 32
linear vector space, 12
linearity, 32, 34
linearly dependent, 15, 23, 49
linearly independent, 15, 23, 48, 59, 66
lowering an index, 83
main diagonal, 41, 65
map, 8
mapping, 8
matrix, 40
matrix calculus, 28
matrix multiplication, 42, 54
matrix norm, 21, 22
matrix transpose, 41
maximum absolute column sum norm, 22
maximum absolute row sum norm, 22
maximum-norm, 20
mean value, 153
metric, 16
metric coefcients, 138
metric space, 17
metric tensor of covariant coefcients, 102
mixed components, 99
mixed formulation of a second order tensor,
99
moment equilibrium conditon, 120
moving trihedron, 137
multiple roots, 70
multiplicative identity, 45
multiplicative inverse, 10
n-tuple, 35
nabla operator, 146
natural basis, 140
natural numbers, 6, 7
naturals, 7
negative denite, 62
Newtons relation, 66
non empty set, 13
non-commutative, 45
noncommutative, 69, 106
nonsingular, 48, 59, 66
nonsingular square matrix, 55

nonsymmetric, 69
nontrivial solution, 65
norm, 18, 65
norm of a tensor, 111
normal basis, 103
normal unit, 136
normal unit vector, 121, 136, 138
normal vector, 96, 135
normed space, 18
null mapping, 33
odd permutation, 50
one, 10
operation, 9
operation addition, 10
operation multiplication, 10
order of a matrix, 40
origin, 12
orthogonal, 66
orthogonal matrix, 57
orthogonal tensor, 116
orthogonal transformation, 57
orthonormal basis, 144
outer product, 87
overlined basis, 103
parallelepiped, 88
partial derivatives, 134
partial derivatives of base vectors, 145
permutation symbol, 87, 112, 128
permutation tensor, 128
permutations, 50
point of origin, 28
Poissons ratio, 129
polar decomposition, 117
polynomial factorization, 66
polynomial of n-th degree, 65
position vector, 135, 152
positive denite, 25, 61, 62, 111
positive metric, 16
positive norm, 18
post-multiplication, 45
Index
277
potential character, 129

power series, 71
pre-multiplication, 45
principal axes, 120
principal axes problem, 65
principal axis, 65
principal stress directions, 122
principal stresses, 122
product, 10, 12
proper orthogonal tensor, 116
quadratic form, 26, 57, 62, 124
quadratic value of the norm, 60
raising an index, 83
range, 8
rank, 48
rational numbers, 7
Rayleigh quotient, 67, 68
real numbers, 7
rectangular matrix, 40
reduction of rank, 66
Riesz representation theorem, 36
right-hand Cauchy strain tensor, 117
roots, 65
rotated coordinate system, 119
rotation matrix, 58
rotation of a vector eld, 150
rotation transformation, 58
rotator, 116
row, 40
row index, 40
row matrix, 40, 45
row vector, 40, 45
scalar eld, 143
scalar function, 133
scalar invariant, 149
scalar muliplicative identity, 12
scalar multiplication, 9, 12, 13, 42
scalar multiplication identity, 10
scalar product, 9, 25, 85, 96
scalar product of tensors, 110
scalar product of two dyads, 111
scalar triple product, 88, 90, 152

scalar-valued function of multiple variables,
134
scalar-valued scalar function, 133
scalar-valued vector function, 143
Schwarz inequality, 26, 111
second derivative, 133
second order tensor, 96, 97, 127
second order tensor product, 105
section surface, 121
semidenite, 62
Serret-Frenet equations, 137
set, 6
set theory, 6
shear stresses, 121
similar, 55, 69
similarity transformation, 55
simple fourth order tensor, 129
simple second order tensor, 94, 99
simple third order tensor, 129
skew part of a tensor, 115
smmetric tensor, 124
space, 12
space curve, 135
space of continuous functions, 14
space of square matrices, 14
span, 15
special eigenvalue problem, 65
spectral norm, 22
square, 40
square matrix, 40
Stokes theorem, 157
strain tensor, 129
stress state, 96
stress tensor, 96, 129
stress vector, 96
subscript index, 78
subset, 7
summation convention, 78
superscript index, 78
superset, 7
supremum, 22
surface, 152
Index
278
surface element, 152
surface integral, 152
surjective, 8
symbols, 6
symmetric, 25, 41
symmetric matrix, 41
symmetric metric, 16
symmetric part, 44
symmetric part of a tensor, 115
tangent unit, 135
tangent unit vector, 135
tangent vector, 135
Taylor series, 133, 153
tensor, 96
tensor axioms, 98
tensor eld, 143
tensor product, 105, 106
tensor product of two dyads, 106
tensor space, 94
tensor with contravariant base vectors and
covariant coordinates, 100
tensor with covariant base vectors and contravariant coordinates, 99
tensor-valued function of multiple variables,
134
tensor-valued scalar function, 133
tensor-valued vector function, 143
third order fundamental tensor, 128
third order tensor, 127
topology, 30
torsion of a curve, 137
total differential, 133
trace of a matrix, 43
trace of a tensor, 112
transformation matrix, 55
transformation of base vectors, 101
transformation of the metric coefcients, 84
transformation relations, 103
transformation tensor, 101
transformed contravariant base vector, 103
transformed covariant base vector, 103
transpose of a matrix, 41
transpose of a matrix product, 44

transpose of a tensor, 114
triangle inequality, 16, 18, 19
trivial solution, 65
union, 7
unit matrix, 80
unitary space, 27
unitary vector space, 29
usual scalar product, 25
vector, 12, 28, 127
vector eld, 143
vector function, 135
vector norm, 18, 22
vector of associated direction, 120
vector of position, 143
vector product, 87
vector space, 12, 49
vector space of linear mappings, 33
vector-valued function, 138
vector-valued function of multiple variables,
134
vector-valued scalar function, 133
vector-valued vector function, 143
visual space, 97
volume, 152
volume element, 152
volume integral, 152
volumetric matrix, 46
volumetric part of a tensor, 113
von Mises, 68
von Mises iteration, 68
whole numbers, 7
Youngs modulus, 129
zero element, 10
zero vector, 12
zeros, 65

2003 - Introduction To Continuum Mechanics - Vector and Tensor Calculus - Franz-Joseph Barthold

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2003 - Introduction To Continuum Mechanics - Vector and Tensor Calculus - Franz-Joseph Barthold

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Technische Universitt

CSE Computational Sciences in Engineering

Vector and Tensor Calculus

Winter Semester 2002 / 2003

22nd October 2003

++49-(0)531-391-2240, Fax ++49-(0)531-391-2242, email fj.barthold@tu-bs.de

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Franz-Joseph Barthold, M.Sc.

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Franz-Joseph Barthold, M.Sc.

Braunschweig, 22nd October 2003

Franz-Joseph Barthold and Jrg Stieghan

Basics on Linear Algebra

Vector and Tensor Algebra

Special Tensors and Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

Vector and Tensor Analysis

Glossary English German

Glossary German English

TU Braunschweig, CSE Vector and Tensor Calculus 22nd October 2003

Example of co- and contravariant base vectors in E2 . . . . . . .

The tangent vector in a point P on a space curve. . . . .

A simple statically determinate plane truss. . . . . .

The given structure of rigid bars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

TU Braunschweig, CSE Vector and Tensor Calculus 22nd October 2003

TU Braunschweig, CSE Vector and Tensor Calculus 22nd October 2003

TU Braunschweig, CSE Vector and Tensor Calculus 22nd October 2003

Chapter 2. Basics on Linear Algebra

Chapter Table of Contents

Chapter Table of Contents

Denotations and Symbols of Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Subset, Superset, Union and Intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Injective, Surjective and Bijective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Denition of a Linear Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Examples of Linear Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Linear Subspace and Linear Manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Linear Combination and Span of a Subspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

A Basis of a Vector Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Compatibility of Vector and Matrix Norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Vector and Matrix Norms in Eigenvalue Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Linear Dependence and Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Inner Product Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Denition of a Scalar Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Examples of Scalar Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Denition of an Inner Product Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Examples of Inner Product Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Afne Vector Space and the Euclidean Vector Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Denition of an Afne Vector Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

The Euclidean Vector Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Linear Independence, and a Basis of the Euclidean Vector Space . . . . 30

Linear Mappings and the Vector Space of Linear Mappings . . . . . . . . . 32

Denition of a Linear Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

The Vector Space of Linear Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

The Basis of the Vector Space of Linear Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Denition of a Composition of Linear Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

The Attributes of a Linear Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

The Representation of a Linear Mapping by a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . 35

The Isomorphism of Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

2.10 Linear Forms and Dual Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Denition of a Metric Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Examples of a Metric Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Denition of a Normed Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Examples of Vector Norms and Normed Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . 18

Hlder Sum Inequality and Cauchys Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

TU Braunschweig, CSE Vector and Tensor Calculus 22nd October 2003

TU Braunschweig, CSE Vector and Tensor Calculus 22nd October 2003