SectionObjectives

Sequencetheeventsofthecellcycle.
Relatethefunctionofacelltoits
organizationintissues,organs,andorgan
systems.

CellSizeLimitations
Thecellsthatmakeupamulticellular
organismcomeinawidevarietyofsizesand
shapes.
Consideringthiswiderangeofcellssizes,
whythencantmostorganismsbejustone
giantcell?

Diffusionlimitscellsize
Althoughdiffusionisafastandefficient
processovershortdistances,itbecomesslow
andinefficientasthedistancesbecome
larger.
Becauseoftheslowrateofdiffusion,
organismscantbejustonegiantsizedcell.

DNAlimitscellsize
Thecellcannotsurviveunlessthereis
enoughDNAtosupporttheproteinneeds
ofthecell.
Inmanylargecells,morethanonenucleus
ispresent.
LargeamountsofDNAinmanynuclei
ensurethatcellactivitiesarecarriedout
quicklyandefficiently.

Surfaceareatovolumeratio
4mm
1mm

2mm

1mm
1mm

Surfacearea=6mm
Volume=8mm3
2

2mm

4mm

2mm
4mm

Surfacearea=24mm2
Volume=8mm3

Asacellssizeincreases,itsvolume
increasesmuchfasterthanitssurfacearea.

Surfaceareatovolumeratio
4mm
1mm

2mm

1mm
1mm

Surfacearea=6mm
Volume=8mm3
2

2mm

4mm

2mm
4mm

Surfacearea=24mm2
Volume=8mm3

Ifcellsizedoubled,thecellwouldrequire
eighttimesmorenutrientsandwouldhave
eighttimesmorewastetoexcrete.

Surfaceareatovolumeratio
4mm
1mm

2mm

1mm
1mm

Surfacearea=6mm
Volume=8mm3
2

2mm

4mm

2mm
4mm

Surfacearea=24mm2
Volume=8mm3

Thesurfacearea,however,wouldincrease
byafactorofonlyfour.

Surfaceareatovolumeratio
4mm
1mm

2mm

1mm
1mm

Surfacearea=6mm
Volume=8mm3
2

2mm

4mm

2mm
4mm

Surfacearea=24mm2
Volume=8mm3

Thecellwouldeitherstarvetodeathorbe
poisonedfromthebuildupofwaste
products.

CellReproduction
Celldivisionistheprocessbywhichnew
cellsareproducedfromonecell.
Celldivisionresultsintwocellsthatare
identicaltotheoriginal,parentcell.

Thediscoveryofchromosomes
Structures,whichcontainDNAandbecome
darklycoloredwhenstained,arecalled
chromosomes.
Chromosomesarethecarriersofthegenetic
materialthatiscopiedandpassedfrom
generationtogenerationofcells.
Accuratetransmissionofchromosomes
duringcelldivisioniscritical.

Thestructureofeukaryoticchromosomes
Centromere
Sister
chromatids
Supercoilwithin
chromosome

Chromosome

Continuedcoiling
withinsupercoil
HistoneH1
Nucleosome
DNA

TheCellCycle
Thecellcycleisthesequenceofgrowthand
divisionofacell.
Themajorityofa
cellslifeisspent
inthegrowth
periodknownas
interphase.
Interphase

TheCellCycle
Followinginterphase,acellentersitsperiod
ofnucleardivisioncalledmitosis.
Following
mitosis,the
cytoplasm
divides,
separatingthe
twodaughter
Mitosis
cells.

Interphase:ABusyTime
Interphase,thebusiestphaseofthecell
cycle,isdividedintothreeparts.
Interphase
DNAsynthesis
andreplication
Rapid
growth
and
metabolic
activity

Centriolesreplicate;
cellpreparesfor
division

Interphase:ABusyTime
Duringthefirstpart,thecellgrowsand
proteinproductionishigh.
Interphase
Rapid
growth
and
metabolic
activity

Interphase:ABusyTime
Inthenextpartofinterphase,thecellcopies
itschromosomes.
Interphase
DNAsynthesis
andreplication

Interphase:ABusyTime
Afterthechromosomeshavebeen
duplicated,thecellentersanothershorter
growthperiodinwhichmitochondriaand
otherorganellesaremanufacturedandcell
partsneededforcelldivisionareassembled.
Interphase

Centriolesreplicate;cell
preparesfordivision

ThePhasesofMitosis
Thefourphasesofmitosisareprophase,
metaphase,anaphase,andtelophase.

Prophase:Thefirstphaseofmitosis
Duringprophase,thechromatincoilstoform
visiblechromosomes.
Spindlefibers
Disappearing
nuclearenvelope
Doubled
chromosome

Prophase:Thefirstphaseofmitosis
Thetwohalvesofthedoubledstructureare
calledsisterchromatids.

Sister
chromatids

Prophase:Thefirstphaseofmitosis
Sisterchromatidsareheldtogetherbya
structurecalledacentromere,whichplays
aroleinchromosomemovementduring
mitosis.
Centromere

Metaphase:Thesecondstageofmitosis
Duringmetaphase,thechromosomesmove
totheequatorofthespindle.
Centromere

Sister
chromatids

Anaphase:Thethirdphaseofmitosis
Duringanaphase,thecentromeressplitand
thesisterchromatidsarepulledapartto
oppositepolesofthecell.

Telophase:Thefourthphaseofmitosis
Duringtelophase,twodistinctdaughtercells
areformed.Thecellsseparateasthecell
cycleproceedsintothenextinterphase.
Nuclear
envelope
reappears

Twodaughtercellsareformed

Cytokinesis
Followingtelophase,thecellscytoplasm
dividesinaprocesscalledcytokinesis.
Cytokinesisdiffersbetweenplantsand
animals.
Towardtheendoftelophaseinanimalcells,
theplasmamembranepinchesinalongthe
equator.

Cytokinesis
Plantcellshavearigidcellwall,sothe
plasmamembranedoesnotpinchin.
Astructureknownasthecellplateislaid
downacrossthecellsequator.
Acellmembraneformsaroundeachcell,
andnewcellwallsformoneachsideofthe
cellplateuntilseparationiscomplete.

ResultsofMitosis
Whenmitosisiscomplete,unicellular
organismsremainassinglecells.
Inmulticellularorganisms,cellgrowthand
reproductionresultingroupsofcellsthat
worktogetherastissuetoperformaspecific
function.

ResultsofMitosis
Tissuesorganizeinvariouscombinationsto
formorgansthatperformmorecomplex
roleswithintheorganism.
Multipleorgansthatworktogetherforman
organsystem.

ResultsofMitosis

Clickimagetoviewmovie.

Question1

Thestringystructuresinthecellnucleusthat
containDNAare__________.(NY:St4KI
2.1c,2.1g,2.1h)
A.centromeres
B.chromosomes
C.genes
D.chlorophylls

TheanswerisB.Chromosomesarethecarriers
ofthegeneticmaterialofthecell.Ageneisa
segmentofDNAthatcontrolstheproductionof
aprotein.

Question2

Lookatthediagramandidentifythestageof
mitosisthatisdepicted.(NY:St4KI2.1b,4.1d)
Centromere
Sister
chromatids

A.prophase

C.anaphase

B.metaphase

D.telophase

TheanswerisB.Metaphaseistheshortsecond
phaseofmitosis,duringwhichthe
chromosomesbegintolineupontheequatorof
thespindle.
Centromere
Sister
chromatids

Question3

Whatistheprocessbywhichacell's
cytoplasmdivides?(NY:ST4KI4.1d)
A.cytokinesis
B.telekinesis
C.meiosis
D.mitosis

TheanswerisA.Cytokinesisfollowstelophase
andallowsthetwonewcellstoseparate.

Question4

Inmulticellularorganisms,groupsofcellsthat
worktogethertoperformaspecificfunctionare
called__________.(NY:St4KI1.2a,1.2b,
1.2c,1.2e)
A.organsystems
B.organs
C.tissues
D.cellcycles

TheanswerisC.Tissuesorganizetoform
organs,whichworkwithotherorganstoform
organsystems.

SectionObjectives

Describetheroleofenzymesinthe
regulationofthecellcycle.
Distinguishbetweentheeventsofanormal
cellcycleandtheabnormaleventsthat
resultincancer.
Identifywaystopotentiallyreducetherisk
ofcancer.

NormalControloftheCellCycle
Proteinsandenzymescontrolthe
cellcycle
Thecellcycleiscontrolledbyproteins
calledcyclinsandasetofenzymesthat
attachtothecyclinandbecomeactivated.
Occasionally,cellslosecontrolofthecell
cycle.

NormalControloftheCellCycle
Thisuncontrolleddividingofcellscanresult
fromthefailuretoproducecertainenzymes,
theoverproductionofenzymes,orthe
productionofotherenzymesatthewrong
time.
Cancerisamalignantgrowthresultingfrom
uncontrolledcelldivision.

NormalControloftheCellCycle
Enzymeproductionisdirectedbygenes
locatedonthechromosomes.
AgeneisasegmentofDNAthat
controlstheproductionofaprotein.

Cancer:AmistakeintheCellCycle
Currently,scientistsconsidercancertobea
resultofchangesinoneormoreofthegenes
thatproducesubstancesthatareinvolvedin
controllingthecellcycle.
Cancerouscellsformmassesoftissuecalled
tumorsthatdeprivenormalcellsofnutrients.

Cancer:AmistakeintheCellCycle
Inlaterstages,cancercellsenterthe
circulatorysystemandspreadthroughoutthe
body,aprocesscalledmetastasis,forming
newtumorsthatdisruptthefunctionof
organs,organsystems,andultimately,the
organism.

Thecausesofcancer
Thecausesofcanceraredifficulttopinpoint
becausebothgeneticandenvironmental
factorsareinvolved.

Thecausesofcancer

Environmental
factors,suchas
cigarettesmoke,air
andwaterpollution,
andexposureto
ultravioletradiation
fromthesun,areall
knowntodamagethe
genesthatcontrolthe
cellcycle.

Thecausesofcancer
Cancermayalsobecausedbyviral
infectionsthatdamagethegenes.

Cancerprevention
Physiciansanddietaryexpertsagreethatdiets
lowinfatandhighinfibercontentcanreduce
theriskofmanykindsofcancer.
Vitaminsandmineralsmayalsohelpprevent
cancer.

Cancerprevention
Inadditionto
diet,otherhealthy
choicessuchas
dailyexerciseand
notusingtobacco
alsoareknownto
reducetheriskof
cancer.

Question1

Explaincancerintermsofcellgrowth.
(NY:St4KI1.2d,5.2h,5.2i)
Answer

Cancerisamalignantgrowthresultingfrom
uncontrolledcelldivision.Thelossofcontrol
maybecausedbyenvironmentalfactorsor
changesinenzymeproductionthatresultfrom
defectiveorchangedgeneticmaterial.
Cancerouscellsformmassesoftissuecalled
tumorsthatdeprivenormalcellsofnutrients.

Question2

A(n)__________isasegmentofDNA
thatcontrolstheproductionofaprotein.
(NY:St4KI1.2d,2.1g,2.1h,5.2h,5.2i)
A.gene
B.cyclin
C.enzyme
D.chromosome

TheanswerisA.Genescontroltheproduction
ofproteins.Scientiststhinkthatcancerresults
fromchangesinoneormoreofthegenesthat
producesubstancescontrollingthecellcycle.

Question3

Whichofthefollowingisthoughttoreducethe
riskofdevelopingcancer?(NY:St4KI1.2h,
5.2h,5.2i)
A.increasedietaryfat
B.increasedietaryfiber
C.decreasedietaryfiber
D.decreasedietaryminerals

TheanswerisB.Healthprofessionalsbelieve
thatdietslowinfatandhighinfibercontent
canreducetheriskofmanytypesofcancer.

CellularTransport

Osmosisisthediffusionofwaterthrougha
selectivelypermeablemembrane.
Passivetransportmovesasubstancewiththe
concentrationgradientandrequiresnoenergy
fromthecell.

CellularTransport

Activetransportmovesmaterialsagainstthe
concentrationgradientandrequiresenergyto
overcometheflowofmaterialsoppositethe
concentrationgradient.
Largeparticlesmayenteracellbyendocytosis
andleavebyexocytosis.

CellGrowthandReproduction
Cellsizeislimitedlargelybythediffusionrate
ofmaterialsintoandoutofthecell,theamount
ofDNAavailabletoprogramthecells
metabolism,andthecellssurfaceareato
volumeratio.
Thelifecycleofacellisdividedintotwo
generalperiods:aperiodofactivegrowthand
metabolismknownasinterphase,andaperiod
thatleadstocelldivisionknownasmitosis.

CellGrowthandReproduction

Mitosisisdividedintofourphases:prophase,
metaphase,anaphase,andtelophase.
Thecellsofmostmulticellularorganismsare
organizedintotissues,organs,andorgan
systems.

ControloftheCellCycle

Thecellcycleiscontrolledbykeyenzymes
thatareproducedatspecificpointsinthe
cellcycle.
Canceriscausedbygeneticand
environmentalfactorsthatchangethe
genesthatcontrolthecellcycle.

Question1
Whichofthefollowingisafactorthatcontrols
osmosis?(NY:St4KI1.2g)

A.prophase
B.concentrationgradient
C.conditioning
D.carrierproteins

TheanswerisB.Osmosisisthediffusionofwater
acrossaselectivelypermeablemembrane.
Concentrationgradients,unequaldistributionsof
particles,resultinwaterdiffusingtothesideof
themembranewherethewaterconcentrationis
lower.

Question2
Predicttheresultofplacingafreshstalkofceleryina
jarofsaltwater.(NY:St4KI5.3b,6.1e)

Answer

Saltwaterwouldbeahypertonicsolutionforthe
celery.Waterwillleavethecellsbyosmosis.As
aresult,thecellswilllosepressureastheplasma
membraneshrinksawayfromthecellwalland
thecelerywillprobablywilt.

Question3
Magnificationofaplantcellrevealscentromeresthat
havesplitandsisterchromatidsbeingpulledto
oppositepolesofthecell.Thiscellisinwhichphase
ofmitosis?(NY:St4KI4.1d)

A.prophase
B.metaphase
C.anaphase
D.telophase

TheanswerisC.Theseparationofsister
chromatidsmarksthebeginningofanaphase,
andthefinalphase,telophase,beginsasthe
chromatidsreachtheoppositepolesofthecell.

Question4
Whichphaseofmitosisisdepictedinthis
diagram?(NY:St4KI4.1d)
SpindleFibers
Doubled
chromosome

Disappearing
nuclearenvelope

A.prophase

C.anaphase

B.metaphase

D.telophase

TheanswerisA.Prophaseisthefirstandlongest
phaseofmitosis,duringwhichthelong,stringy
chromatincoilsupintovisiblechromosomes.
Sisterchromatidshaveformed,butarenotyet
linedupalongtheequatorofthespindle.
SpindleFibers
Doubled
chromosome

Disappearing
nuclearenvelope

Question5
Whatisthetermusedfortheperiodofthecellcyclerepresented
bytheredarrowinthisgraph?(NY:St4KI4.1d)

A.prophase
B.metaphase
C.centrophase
D.interphase

DNAsynthesis
andreplication
Centrioles
replicate;cell
preparesfor
division

Rapidgrowth
andmetabolic
activity
Mitosis

Cytokinesis

TheanswerisD.Mostofthetimespentin
thecellcycleisininterphase.

Interphase

Question6
Thestructuredepictedinthisdiagramformsduring
prophaseofmitosis.Duringmetaphase,doubled
chromosomeswillbecomeattachedtothisbytheir
centromeres.Whatisthisstructure?(NY:St4KI4.1d)

A.spindle
B.centriole
C.chromatid
D.chromatin

Microtubule

TheanswerisA.Thiscagelikestructureisa
spindle,consistingofthinfibersmadeof
microtubules.Thechromosomeswillbecome
attachedtothespindlefibersbytheir
centromeres,andwillbepulledtothemidline
ofthespindle.

Microtubule

Question7
Whatistheleveloforganizationthatismissinginthisdiagram?
(NY:St4KI1.2a,1.2e,1.2f,2.1f,2.1g,2.1i,2.1k)

Cell
(musclecell)

Organ
(stomach)

OrganSystem
(digestivetissue)

A.mass

C.tissue

B.cluster

D.cycle

Organism
(FloridaPanther)

TheanswerisC.Inmulticellularorganisms,
groupsofcellsthatworktogetheraretissues.
Tissuesareformedfromdifferenttypesofcells
thatarecodedforbydifferentpartsofthe
originalcell'sgeneticmaterial.

Tissue
Cell
(musclecell) (muscletissue)

Organ
(stomach)

OrganSystem
(digestivetissue)

Organism
(FloridaPanther)

Question8
Whichstructurerepresentsacellinprophaseof
mitosis?(NY:St4KI4.1d)

A.A

C.C

B.B

D.D

TheanswerisC.Thechromosomeshave
doubledbutarestillcontainedwithinthe
nucleus.

Photo Credits

Digital Stock
KS Studios/Bob Mullenix
Alton Biggs

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