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    A Paper by Dirac

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    312 Paper 26 THE LAGRANGIAN IN QUANTUM MECHANICS. By P. A. M. Dirac. (Received November 19, 1932). Quantum mechanics was built up on a foundation of ana- logy with the Hamiltonian theory of classical mechanics. This is because the classical notion of canonical coordinates and momenta was found to be one with a very simple quan- tum analogue, as a result of which the whole of the classi- cal Hamiltonian theory, which is just a structure built up en this notion, could be taken over in all its details into quantum mechanics, Now there is an alternative formulation for classical dynamics, provided by the Lagrangian. This requires one to work in terms of coordinates and velocities instead of co- ordinates and momenta. The two formulations are, of course, closely related, but there are reasons for believing that the Lagrangian one is the more fundamental. In the first place the Lagrangian method allows one to collect together all the equations of motion and express them as the stationary property of a certain action function. (This action function is just the time -integral of the Lagrangian). There is no corresponding action principle in terms of the coordinates and momenta of the Hamiltonian theory. Secondly the Lagrangian method can easily be expressed relativistically, on account of the action function being a relativistic invariant; while the Hamiltonian method is essentially non-relativistic in form, since it marks out a particular time variable as the canonical conjugate of the Hamiltonian function, For these reasons it would seem desirable to take up the question of what corresponds in the quantum theory to the Lagrangian method of the classical theory. A little con- sideration shows, however, that one cannet expect to be able 313 P. A. M. Dirac, The Lagrangian in Quantum Mechanics. 65 to take over the classical Lagrangian equations ia any very direct way. These equations involve partial derivatives of the Lagrangian with respect to the coordinates and velocities and no meaning can be given to such derivatives in quan- tum mechanics. The only differentiation process that can be carried out with respect to the dynamical variables of quantum mechanics is that of forming Poisson brackets and this process leads to the Hamiltonian theory.! We must therefore seek our quantum Lagrangian theory in an indirect way. We must try to take over the ideas of the classical Lagrangian theory, not the equations of the classical Lagrangian theory. Contact Transformations. Lagrangian theory is closely connected with the theory of contact transformations. We shall therefore begin with a discussion of the analogy between classical and quantum contact transformations. Let the two sets of variables be Ps G and Py, Qy (r=1, 2... 2) and suppose the g’s and Q's to be all independent, so that any function of the dyna- mical variables can be expressed in terms of them. It is well known that in the classical theory the transformation equa- tions for this case can be put in the form as as Prag? He 9g.) ay where Sis some function of the q's and Q’s. * Provesses for partial differentiation with respect to matrices have been given by Born, Heisenberg and Jordan (ZS. f. Physik 35, 561, 1926) but these processes do not give us moana of differentiation with respect to dynamical variables, since they are not independent of the representation chosen, As au example of the difficulties involved in differentiation with respect to quantum dynamical variables, consider the three components of an angular momentum, satisfying Maly — Mig = thie We have here m, expressed explicitly as a function of m, and my, but ‘we can give no meaning to its partial derivative with respect to m,, or my 314 66 P. A. M. Dirac. In the quantum theory we may take a representation in which the g's are diagonal, and a second representation in which the Q’s are diagonal. There will be a transformation function (q'| Q’) connecting the two representations, We shall now show that this transformation function is the quantum analogue of ¢fS/*, Ifa is any function of the dynamical variables in the quantum theory, it will have a mixed“ representative (g'\a!Q'), which may be defined in terms of either of the usual representatives (q’|a|q"), (Q'|2|Q") by @ \a H=faia a) dag’ a" \Q) = f 1 QQ" GQ" 1x1 Q). From the first of these definitions we obtain Cea) (2) Wir Q)=—ad, ig 1@’) (3) and from the second (1% M=8@19) (4) P= mee 1). (8) Note the difference in sign in (3) and (6). Bquations (2) and (4) may be generalised as follows. Let f(q) be any function of the g’s and g(Q) any function of the Qs. Then GIOIA M= [fai t@\a ag =f@9Q)VG|%)- Further, if f:(q) and gx(Q), (kK=1, 2 m) denoie two sets of functions of the q's and 4's respectively, (0 | Fx Fa(@)gn (2) |") = Ee Fala’) 9n(@)-(@" | 0) Thus if « is any function of the dynamical variables and we suppose it to be expressed as a function 2(gQ) of the q’s and Q's in a well-ordered“ way, that. is, so that it consists of a sum of terms of the form f(¢)g(Q), we shall have (q'\2(@2)|Q)=2(@ Qa’). (8) ")4Q" ("| 9 (Q)| 2") 315 The Lagrangian in Quantum Mechanics. 67 This is a rather remarkable equation, giving us a connection between «(qQ}, which is a function of operators, and 2(q’Q'), which is a function of numerical variables. Let us apply this result for «=p, Putting @ |=, @%) where U is a new function-of the g’s and Q’s we get. from (3) Ly @ pe] (= 2 2E®) gq). 4, By comparing this with (6) we obtain p= 20149) Gr as an equation between operators or dynamical variables, which holds provided 6Ujdg, is well-ordered. Similarly, by applying the result (6) for «=P, and using (5), we get P= UG) dQ,” provided dU/0Q, is well-ordered. These equations are of the same form as (1) and show that the U defined by (7) is the analogue of the classical function S, which is what we had to prove. Incidentally, we have obtained another theorem at the same time, namely that equations (1) hold also in the quan- tum theory provided the right-hand sides are suitably inter- preted, the variables being treated classically for the pur- pose of the differentiations and the derivatives being then well-ordered. This theorem has been previously proved by Jordan by a different method.? The Lagrangian and the Action Principle. The equations of motion of the classical theory cause the dynamical variables to vary in such a way that their values q, pe at any time ¢ are connected with their values qr, pr.at any other time 7 by a contact transformation, which may be put into the form (1) with q pgs pi Q, P=ar, pr and Sequal to the time integral of the Lagrangian over the range + Jordan, ZS. f Phys, 38, 513, 1926. 316 68 P. A. M. Dirac, T to t. In the quantum theory the ge, p will still be con- nected with the q7, pr by a contact transformation and there will be a transformation function (g¢|g7) connecting the two representations in which the q and the gr are diagonal re- spectively. The work of the preceding section now shows that t (q\@r) corresponds to exp [i f tatn | , (8) 7 where Z is the Lagrangian. If we take T to differ only infin- itely little from ¢, we get the result (qeyat| qe) corresponds to exp [iL dt/h]. (9) The transformation functions in (8) and (9) are very fun- damental things in the quantum theory and it is satisfactory to find that they have their classical analogues, expressible simply in terms of the Lagrangian. We have here the na- tural extension of the well-known result that the phase of the wave function corresponds to Hamilton’s principle func- tion in classical theory. The analogy (9) suggests that we ought to consider the classical Lagrangian, not as a function of the coordinates and velocities, but rather as a function of the coordinates at time ¢ and the coordinates at time t+ dt. For simplicity in the further discussion in this section we shall take the case of a single degree of freedom, although the argument applies also to the general case. We shall use the notation exp [+f eau] =A(tT), 80 that A(¢T) is the Classical analogue of (q:|¢7). Suppose we divide up the time interval 7 — ¢ into a large number of small sections Tt, tito -.5 tmimtns tm—t bY the introduction of a sequence of intermediate times ¢,, ty +++ bm. Then A(ET)=A (Hm) A (ttt)... A (tats) A (4.7). (10) Now in the quantum theory we have (ae| a1) =f Qe] dm) A n{ Ql Gont) dont oo+ (We) 92) 494 (Gs U7)- (24) 317 ‘The Lagrangian in Quantam Mechanies. 6o where gx denotes q at the intermediate time f, (t#—=1, 2... m). Equation (11) at first sight does not seem to correspond pro- perly to equation (10), since on the right-hand side of (11) we must integrate after doing the multiplication while on the right-hand side of (10) there is no integration. Let us examine this discrepancy by seeing what becomes of (11) when we regard ¢ as extremely small. From the re- sults (8) and (9) we see that the integrand in (11) must be of the form e' where F is a function of g7, dy, dy--- Gm» Gt which remains finite as A tends to zero. Let us now pic- ture one of the intermediate g’s, say qx, as varying conti- nuously while the others are fixed. Owing to the smallness of k, we shall then in general have Fiz varying extremely rapidly. This means that e” will vary periodically with a very high frequency about the value zero, as a result of which its integral will be practically zero. The only impor- tant part in the domain of integration of q, is thus that for which a comparatively large variation in q, produces only a very small variation in 7. This part is the neighbourhood of a point for which F is stationary with respect to small variations in gy. We can apply this argument to each of the variables of integration in the right-hand side of (11) and obtain. the result that the only important part in the domain of integ- ration is that for which F is stationary for small variations in all the intermediate q’s. But, by applying (8) to each of the small time sections, we see that F has for its classical analogue t tn b ty i [eae t fiat. fiat + [Lan faa, bn fees & f which is just the action function which classical mechanics requires to be stationary for small variations in all the in- termediate g’s. This shows the way in which equation (11) goes over into classical results when h becomes extremely small. We now return to the general case when / is not small. We seo that, for comparison with the quantum theory, equa- 318 70 P. A. M. Dirac, tion (10) must be interpreted in the following way. Each of the quantities 4 must be considered as a function of the q’s at the two times to which it refers. The right-hand side is then a function, not only of gr and q, but also of q, @., +++ @m, and in order to get from it a function of grand g: only, which we can equate to the left-hand side, we must substitute for gq. G2... Qm their values given by the action principle. This process of substitution for the intermediate qs then corrésponds to the process of integration over all values of these g’s in (11). Equation (11) contains the quantum analogue of the action principle, as may be seen more explicitly from the following argument. From equation (11) we can extract the statement (a rather trivial one) that, if we take specified values for gr and gq, then the importance of our considering any set of values for the intermediate q's is determined by the impor- tance of this set of values in the integration on the right- hand side of (11). If we now make h tend to zero, this state- ment goes over into the classical statement that, if we take specified values for qr and qt, then the importance of our considering any set of values for the intermediate q's is zero unless these values make the action function stationary. This statement is one way of formulating tho classical action principle. Application to Field’Dynamics. ‘We may treat the problem of a vibrating medium in the classical theory by Lagrangian methods which form a natu- ral generalisation of those for particles. We choose as our coordinates suitable field quantities or potentials. Each co- ordinate is then a function of the four space-time variables «, y, 2, t, corresponding to the fact that in particle theory it is a function of just the one variable ¢. Thus the one in- dependent variable ¢ of particle theory is to be generalised to four independent variables a, y, 2, t.! 1 jt is customary in field dynamics to regard the values of a field quantity for two different values of (@, y, 2) but the same value of ¢ as two different coordinates, instead of as two values of the same coordi- 319 ‘The Lagrangian in Quantum Mechanics. cre We introduce at each point of space-time a Lagrangian density, which must be 2 function of the coordinates and their first derivatives with respect to a, y, 2 and ¢, corre- sponding to the Lagrangian in particle theory being a func- tion of coordinates and velocities. The integral of the La- grangian density over any (four-dimensional) region of space- time must then be stationary for all small variations of the coordinates inside the region, provided the coordinates on the boundary remain invariant. It is now easy to see what the quantum analogue of all this must be. If 8 denotes the integral of the classical La- grangian density over a particular region of space-time, we should expect there to be a quantum analogue of ¢!5’* cor- responding to the (g:|gr) of particle theory. This (g:|¢7) is a function of the values of the coordinates at the ends of the time interval to which it refers and so we should expect the quantum analogue of ¢*5* to be a function (really a func- tional) of the values of the coordinates on the boundary of the space-time region. This quantum analogue will be a sort of ,generalized transformation functicen*. It cannot in general be interpreted, like (g:| gr), as giving a transformation between one set of dynamical variables and another, but it is a four- dimensional generalization of (g:|qr) in the following sense. Corresponding to the composition law for (g¢|q@7) (a\ ar) = f (ae\ 41) 44.41 |r), (12) the generalized transformation function (g.tf.) will have the following composition law. Take a given region of space- time and divide it up into two parts. Then the g.tf. for the whole region will equal the product of the g.tf’s for the two parts, integrated cver all values for the coordinates on the common boundary of the two parts, Repeated application of (12) gives us (11) and repeated application of the corresponding law for g.t.f.’s will enable nate for two different points In the domain of Independent variables, and in this way to keep to the Idea of a single independent variable ¢. This point of view is necessary for the Hamiltonian treatment, but for the Lagrangian treatment the point of view adopted in the text seems pre- ferable on account of its greater space - time symmetry. 320 ee 72 P. A.M. Dirac. The Lagrangian in Quantum Mechanics. us in a similar way to connect the g.tf. for any region with the g.tf’s for the very small sub-regions into which that region may be divided. This connection will contain the quantum analogue of the action principle applied to fields, The square of the modulus of the transformation function (qt|@7) can be interpreted as the probability of an observa- tion of the coordinates at the later time ¢ giving the result @ for a state for which an observation of the coordinates at the earlier time T is certain to give the result qp. A cor- responding meaning for the square of the modulus of the gtf. will exist only when the gtf. refers to a region of space-time bounded by two separate (three - dimensional) surfaces, each extending to infinity in the space directions and lying entirely outside any light-cone having its vertex on the surface. The square of the modulus of the g. t. f. then gives the probability of the coordinates having speci- fied values at all points on the later surface for a state for which they are given to have definite values at all points on the earlier surface. The g.t.f. may in this case be con- sidered as a transformation function connecting the values of the coordinates and momenta on one of the surfaces with their values on the other. We can alternatively consider |(¢:|q7){? as giving the relative a priori probability of any state yielding the re- sults qr and gq; when observations of the q’s are made at. time T and at time ¢ (account being taken of the fact that the earlier observation will alter the state and affect the later observation). Correspondingly we can consider the square of the modulus of the g.tf. for any space-time region as giving the relative a priori probability of specified results being obtained when observations are made of the coordina- tes at all points on the boundary. This interpretation is more general than the preceding one, since it does not re- quire a restriction on the shape of the space-time region. St John’s College, Cambridge. 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