Electronics

Principles & Applications

Seventh Edition

Charles A. Schuler
Chapter 13

Integrated Circuits
(student version)

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INTRODUCTION
IC fabrication
The 555 Timer
Analog ICs
Mixed-signal ICs
Troubleshooting

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Dear Student:
This presentation is arranged in segments. Each segment
is preceded by a Concept Preview slide and is followed by a
Concept Review slide. When you reach a Concept Review
slide, you can return to the beginning of that segment by
clicking on the Repeat Segment button. This will allow you
to view that segment again, if you want to.

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Concept Preview
Photolithography is the base process used in
making monolithic integrated circuits.
Impurities are diffused into the substrate to form
PN junctions.
ICs are batch processed. One wafer will yield
many devices.
A probe test identifies defective ICs before the
wafer is cut apart.
An aluminum metalization layer interconnects the
various IC components.

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The base process in making

ICs is photolithography.
Silicon wafer (the substrate) oxidized on its
surface
Coated with photoresist
Covered with a photomask
Exposed to light and developed
Etched to expose the substrate
Impurity diffusion into the substrate
Repeat eight to twenty times

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Dopant

Silicon substrate
Start
Coat
with
silicon
awith
silicon
dioxide
substrate
Coat
with
photoresist
Develop
Cover
with
photomask
Expose
light
A P-N
junction
has
been
formed.
Etch
Diffusion
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Wafer

Batch processing

Each wafer will yield dozens of ICs (or more).

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Probe
test

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During the probe test, the defective ICs are marked.

After the wafer is separated,

the defective ICs are discarded.
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1. P- type substrate

6. Boron diffusion

2. N+ diffusion layer

7. Silicon dioxide layer

3. N epitaxial layer

8. Expose and etch

4. Silicon dioxide layer

9. Boron base diffusion

5. Expose and etch

10. Emitter diffusion

Using photolithography to form an NPN BJT

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11. Coat, expose and etch

12. Aluminum metalization layer
13. Coat, expose and etch away extra aluminum
Base contact
Collector contact

Emitter contact

Using photolithography to form an NPN BJT

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IC fabrication quiz
The base process in making monolithic ICs
is _______________.
photolithography
The wafer is coated with photoresist and
exposed through a _________. photomask
Etching produces windows through which
impurities are ________.
diffused
The electrical performance of each chip on the
wafer is checked during the ____ test. probe
Individual sections are electrically connected
with a film of __________.
aluminum
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Concept Review
Photolithography is the base process used in
making monolithic integrated circuits.
Impurities are diffused into the substrate to form
PN junctions.
ICs are batch processed. One wafer will yield
many devices.
A probe test identifies defective ICs before the
wafer is cut apart.
An aluminum metalization layer interconnects the
various IC components.
Repeat Segment
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Concept Preview
The 555 timer IC has two comparators, a
discharge transistor and a digital output.
One-shot operation provides an output pulse width
controlled by an external resistor and capacitor.
Astable operation provides a continuous
rectangular waveform at the output.
Time-delay operation provides an output delay
that is RC controlled.
Pulse position modulation uses an external signal
to control the comparator trip points.

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Discharge

8 +VCC
7
5 k

Threshold

2/3 VCC
Control
1/3 VCC
Trigger

A popular timer IC

555

UTP

5 k

S Q
RQ

LTP

3
Out

2
5 k

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1 Gnd

4 Reset

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How the RS flip-flop in the 555 timer works:

S
R
Q
Q

S Q
RQ

Outputs are in
opposite states.

Once set, the Q output remains

high until the flip-flop is reset.
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+VCC
8
R

input trigger

1/3 VCC

One-shot operation
Discharge
transistor
S
R

3
output pulse

2
1

The input trigger resets the flip-flop and C then charges

until the top comparator trips and sets the flip-flop.
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+ VCC

R
C

8
7
6

555

2
1/3 VCC

4
3

Trigger
t = 1.1RC
Output pulse

The external components determine the output pulse width.

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RA

C charges through RA+ RB

and discharges through RB.

+VCC
8

Free-running or
astable operation

7
RB

S
R

2
C

1
2/3 VCC
1/3 VCC

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+ VCC

RA
RB
C

8
7
6
2

555

Astable
mode duty
cycle > 50%
3

RA + RB
x 100%
Duty Cycle =
RA + 2RB
1.45
f =
(RA + 2RB)C
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+ VCC
C charges
RA
through RA
and discharges
through RB. R
B

8
7
6
2

555

Astable
mode duty
cycle < 50%
3

RA
x 100%
Duty Cycle =
RA + RB
1.45
f =
(RA + RB)C
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+ VCC

8
6
2

555

Time-delay
mode
3

Trigger
Output
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Time delay = 1.1 RC

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Pulse-position modulation

Modulation

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555 timer quiz

The voltage of the trigger signal must be
less than 1/3 _________.
VCC
The threshold and trigger comparators
control the ___________.
RS flip-flop
The Q output of the RS flip-flop controls
the __________ transistor.
discharge
In one-shot mode, the external R and C set
the _______ of the output pulse. width
In astable mode, the 555 timer acts as an
____________.
oscillator
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Concept Review
The 555 timer IC has two comparators, a
discharge transistor and a digital output.
One-shot operation provides an output pulse width
controlled by an external resistor and capacitor.
Astable operation provides a continuous
rectangular waveform at the output.
Time-delay operation provides an output delay
that is RC controlled.
Pulse position modulation uses an external signal
to control the comparator trip points.
Repeat Segment
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Concept Preview
There are three IC categories: analog, digital and
mixed signal.
The most widely applied analog ICs are amplifiers
and voltage regulators.
Phase locked loops can be used for FM detection
and for frequency synthesis.
A sample and hold circuit is usually required for
analog to digital conversion.
The number of bits sets the output resolution for
digital to analog converters.
Switched capacitor ICs can provide voltage
conversion and integration.
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Analog ICs include:

Linear voltage regulators
Differential amps
High-speed amps
Op amps
RF and IF amps
Modulators and mixers
Demodulators
Power amps

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The LM3876 delivers up to 56W of audio output power to an 8 load.

11-lead TO220
plastic package

0.1% THD
20 Hz 20 kHz

95 dB SNR
Load, voltage
and temperature
protected
100 W peak
output

VIN+
V+

VINOut

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V-

Mute
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Mixed signal ICs contain or use both

digital and analog circuit functions.
VCC 1

6 H

GND 2

5 W

U/D 3 MAX5468

4 CS

This Maxim digital potentiometer is an example. It

provides 32 output levels from pin 5 for volume
control applications. It is adjusted by applying
digital pulses to pin 3. Pin 4, along with pin 3, selects
either a volume up or a volume down mode.
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Phase-locked loops are mixed signal ICs.

Phase
detector

LPF

Error
Amplifier

VCO
The phase detector
is usually digital.

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Phase-locked loop
In

Phase
detector

LPF

Error
Amplifier

VCO
The VCO locks onto the input phase.

In

VCO
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The VCO also locks onto the input frequency.

In

Phase
detector

LPF

Error
Amplifier

Out

Output voltage

VCO

Lock range

Input frequency
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PLLs can serve as FM detectors.

In

Phase
detector

LPF

Error
Amplifier

Out

VCO

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PLL frequency synthesizer

fREF

Phase
detector

LPF

Digital
divide by N

Error
Amplifier

fOUT = N(fREF)

VCO

fOUT
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A sample and hold can be a separate circuit

or part of an analog to digital converter.
A/D occurs when signal
voltage is not changing

switch

analog input

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to A/D
hold capacitor

clock

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4-bit D/A converter

Output states = 2N = 24 = 16
0V

5V
R

5V
8

2R
4R
8R

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Vout
-9.375 V

N=4

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Switched capacitor voltage inverter

volts

-10

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time

1 ms

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Switched capacitor voltage doubler

volts

20

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time

1 ms

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Conventional and switched capacitor integrators

C
Slope of Vout = -Vin x

1
RC

C2
10

volts

C1

Slope of Vout = -Vin x

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C1x fclock 0 0
C2

time

1 ms

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Mixed signal IC quiz

When a PLL is locked, the VCO tracks the
input _________.
signal
PLLs can be used as FM _________.
detectors
With a divide by N, a PLL serves as a
frequency _____________.
synthesizer
The output of a 6-bit D/A converter has
_______ possible output levels. 64
The output slope of a switched capacitor
_______ depends on the clock frequency.
integrator
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Troubleshooting

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Be sure to take a system point of view.

Is there any software involved?
Supply voltages may be critical.
Waveform analysis is often used.
Check clock frequency.

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Concept Review
There are three IC categories: analog, digital and
mixed signal.
The most widely applied analog ICs are amplifiers
and voltage regulators.
Phase locked loops can be used for FM detection
and for frequency synthesis.
A sample and hold circuit is usually required for
analog to digital conversion.
The number of bits sets the output resolution for
digital to analog converters.
Switched capacitor ICs can provide voltage
conversion and integration.
Repeat Segment
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REVIEW
IC fabrication
The 555 Timer
Analog ICs
Mixed-signal ICs
Troubleshooting

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