138 Chemical Quantities and Aqueous Reactions feel sorry for people who don’t understand anything about chemistry They are missing an important source of happiness. —Linus Pauling (1901-1994) 4A. climate Change andthe Combustion of Foss Fuels 139 4.2 Reaction Stoichiometry: How Much Carbon Dioxide? 140 4,3 Limiting Reactant Theoretical ied, and PercentYiekd 145 4.4 Solution Concentation and Solution Sticiomety 152 4.8. ypes ot Aqueous Sohtons and Solublity 158, 4.6 Precipitation Reactions 162 4.7 - Representing Aqueous Reactions: Molecular, nlc, ‘and Compete lnie Equations 165, 4.8 Acid-Base and Gas-foluton Reactions 168 { 4,9 Onidation-Reduction Reactions 175 va ey Leaming Outeomes. 185 reactant that reacts. This concept makes sense intuitively, but how can we describe and ‘understand this relationship more fully? The first half of this chapter focuses on chemical stoichiometry—the numerical relationships between the amounts of reactants and products in ‘chemical reactions. In Chapter 3, you learned how to write balanced chemical equations for chemical reactions. Here we will examine more closely the meaning of those balanced equation In the second half ofthis chapter, we turn to describing chemical reactions that occur in water You have probably witnessed many ofthese types of reactions in your daily life because they 0 common. Have you ever mixed baking soda with vinegar and observed the subsequent bubbling or noticed the hard water deposits that form on plumbing fixtures? These reactions — and many others, including those that occur within the watery environment of living cells ae ‘aqueous chemical reactions, the subject of the second half of this chapter, T: AMOUNT OF PRODUCT FORMED IN A CHEMICAL REACTION is related to the amount ofClimate Change and the Combustion of Fossil Fuels Fede Ge lit® outside my office today is a coot 48°R, lower than normal for this time Hit yet’ California coast. However, today's “chill” pales in comparison with how act it be without the presence of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. These ct ike IX els ofa greenhouse, allowing sunlight to enter the atmosphere and Ding, ayy ute but preventing some of the heat generated by the sunlight from Bots the °° SW" in Figure 4.1». The balance berween incoming and outgoing energy Bie pt determines Earth's average temperature, a og, SeeMHOUse gases in the atmosphere were not present, more heat energy i, hand Earth's average temperature would be about 60°F colder than ‘The temperature outside of my office today would be below O°F, and # USS. cites would most likely be covered with snow, However, ifthe Bsreenhouse gases in the atmosphere were to increase, Earth's average ys, Fcttation of BPTalure would rise, ‘The molecular model on ths balance represent the reactants and products In the combustion of octane. a ‘component of ptrolewn. One ofthe ‘products, carbon dioxide, is the main {greenhouse gas implicated in global climate change, The extremly ol temperatures of Mars aro ash a esl att lk of tmesphere a ts groatr stance frm the sun than nth, Caner, Versi an infra party because ts thick atmsphore is ch In toonhouce ese, 139140 chapter 4 Chemica! uate and Aquous Reactions > FIGURE 4.1 The Groonhouse [fest Greenhouse gases in the atonosphere act asa one-way filter ‘They allow visible light to pass through and warm Earth's surface, Dat hey prevent heat energy from radiating back out into space. ‘Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide The Greenhouse Effect Sunlight passes Some of the heat radiated from through atmosphere and Greenhouse ‘Earths surface is trapped by ‘warms Earths surface pee ‘greenhouse gases, In recent years scientists have become increasingly concemed because the quanti of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO;)—Earth's most significant greenhouse gas rising, More CO; enhances the atmosphere's ability to hold heat and is believed to leat to global warming, an increase in Earth's average temperature, Since 1860, atmosphen CO, levels have risen by 38% (Figure 4.2 ¥), and Barth's average temperature has ris by 0.7°C (about 1.2°F), as shown in Figure 43 ¥ Most scientists believe thatthe primary cause of rising atmospheric CO» concent tion isthe burning of fossil fuels (natural gs, petroleum, and coal), which provide 9% of our society’s energy. Some people, however, have suggested that fossil fuel combus tion does not significantly contribute to global warming and climate change. They arg that the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere by natural sources, sich 1s voleani eruptions, far exceeds that from fosi uel combustion. Which group is ial ‘We can judge the validity of the naysayers? argument by calculating how much carb dioxide is emitted by fossil fuel combustion and comparing that amount tothe amount released by volcanic eruptions. ; 4.2 Reaction Stoichiometry: How Much Carbon Dioxide? ‘The balanced chemical equations for fossil-fuel combustion reactions provide the exact relationships between the amount of fossil fuel burned and the amount of carbon dioxide emitted, In this discussion, we use octane (a component of gasoline) as a reptesentatv fossil fuel. The balanced equation for the combustion of octane is: 2CyHie(D + 2503(g) > 16COxLg) + 18H,0(2) Global Temperature {baseline = 1951-2010) 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 ‘Temperature deviation (°C) 1880 2000 2010 | 1880 190019201940 Year 1960 [A.FIGURE 4.2 Carbon Dicxde Concentrations inthe Atmosphere ‘The tise in carbon dioxide levels is due largely to fossil fuel combustion. ALFIGURE4.3 Global Temperature Average temperatures worldwide have risen by about 0.7°C since 1880,‘The coefficients in a chemical equation specify the relative amounts in moles of each of the substances involved in the reaction, predict the amounts of products that will form in a chemical reaction based on the jnounts of reactants that react. Stoichiometry also allows us to determine the amount of tants necessary to form a given amount of product, These calculations are central to laking Pizza: The Relationships among ingredients Me concepts of stoichiometry are similar to those in a cooking recipe. Calculating the © noon of carbon dioxide produced by the combustion ofa given amount of fosi acl ‘analogous to calculating the numberof pizzas that can be made fom & given amount cheese. For example, suppose we use the following pizea recipe Lorust + 5 ounces tomato sauce + 2 cups cheese —> 1 pizza EThe recipe contains the numerical relationships between the pizza ingredients. It says “hat if we have 2 cups of cheese—and enough of everything else—we can make 1 pizza. We can write this relationship as a ratio between the cheese and the pizza: 2 eups cheese : 1 pizza What if we have 6 cups of cheese? Assuming that We have enough of everything else, we Hean use the ratio as a conversion factor to calculate the number of pizzas: 1 pizza 2 eups-chees 6 cups-chesse x 3 pizzas ix cups of cheese are sufficient to make 3 pizzas. The pizza recipe contains numerical i between other ingredients as well, including the crust and the tomato sauce: Lerust : 1 pizza 5 ounces tomato sauce : 1 pizza balanced chemical equation, we have a “recipe” for how reactants combine to form Inc From our balanced equation for the combustion of octane, for example, we can te the following stoichiometric ratio: 2-mol CyHys: 16 mol COz an use this ratio to determine how many moles of CO, form when a given number Of Moles of CyH,g burns. Suppose that we burn 22.0 moles of CsHg; how many moles of [0 form? We use the ratio from the balanced chemical equation in the same way that BYE Used the ratio from the pizza recipe. The rato acts as a conversion factor beoween the jount in moles of the reactant (CyHljg) and the amount in moles of the product (CO,): _ 16 mol CO, 22.0 mol Cas X 5 Gage = 176 mol COs Combustion of 22.0 moles of Cyllis adds 176 moles of CO, to the atmosphere. 4.2. ResctonStlciomet How Much Caybon Dixie? Steichiomety I renounced slo ke aire,142 chapter Chena! Quads and Aqueous Reston Te prentag fC, etd rv aoes eet al ssl elf ove ess than 2% because the combustion of natural gs alse emits C0, Making Molecules: Mass-to-Mass Conversions ‘According to the US. Department of Energy, the world burned 3.1 x 10° banels of! ‘petroleum in 2010, the equivalent of approximately 3.5 % 10" g of gasoline. We cans petimate the mass of CO> etnitted into the atmosphere from burning this much gasoli ‘sing the combustion of 3.5 % 10" g octane as the representative reaction. Ths calcula] tion is similar to the one we just did, except that we are now given the mass of octangs invtead of the amount of octane in moles. Consequently, we must fist convert the mass {in grams) to the amount (in moles). The general conceptual plan for calculations Wihich we are given the mass of a reactant ot product in a chemical reaction and asked find the mass ofa different reactant or product takes the form: ae Ep et} (ema where A and B are two different substances involved in the reaction, We use the Tass of A to convert from the mass of A to the amount of A (in moles), We use ttpproprate ratio from the balanced chemical equation to convert from the ammount dj iF Gin moles) to the amount of B (in moles). And finally, we use the molar mass of By to convert from the amount of B (in moles) to the mass of B, To caleulate the mass CO, emitted upon the combustion of 3.5 X 10 g of octane, we use the follow ‘conceptual plan: Ha -SD- == Relationships Used ‘2:mol CyHig + 16 mol CO; (from the chemical equation) molar mass CyHlis = 114.22 g/mol ‘molar mass CO; = 44.01 g/mol Solution We fellow the conceptual plan to solve the problem, beginning with g CeHie 400 canceling units to arrive at g COs! 15 1 mole gts 5 x 10! g Cys 35 x 10° g Cathe * Tha Getta 16mol-€O; | 44.01 g CO: fs] ee eed ‘The world's petroleum combustion produces 1.1 x 10!6 CO: (1.1 X 10) Ke) 88 Jaen comparison, voleanoes produce about 2 x 10'*kg CO, per year’ In oft veer vaeanee enit only 22-205 x 100% = 18% as much COp pet eH 3 that voleanoes emit more carbon dioxide thi petroleum combustion. The argument f stoichiometric calel Fossil fuel combustion is clearly mistaken. Additional examples of lations follow. corach, TM, Presetday CO, emissions fom voeanes, Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Uni 1991 72, 269, 254-25.42 Rescton Stlchiomety: How Much Catton Diowde? 143 of +4. Stoichiometry n eon ies plans conver carbon dioxide and water into glucose (CeHis0 x sualight SCOxG) + 61,005 °“S" 6 0,6) + CoHaOelaa) Pvphese you detemsne that a particular plant consumes 37.8 2 of CO; in one week. Assuming that there is more than enough water present to react with all of the CO, Pat mas of uss n grams) can the plant synthesize frm tne CO;? 4/908 The problem gives the | GIVEN: 378 p CO, Ber oeatbondioxideand | FIND: Calt.0, 1 5k yout find tie mec ee lose that canbe prochoed | STRATEGIZE The hn follows the he ofmass in conceptual | ConcEPruaL PLAN Seneral pattern | ——— 7 ~ amount (in | | 60, lee of amount B in| ae sate Bo soles) — mass B, From the wee a ue | cPemical equation, deduce the asd _ tions ' between moles of | RELATIONSHIPS USED 8 Per sorieadmone | no mass CO; = 44.01 g/mol ; [Bios Us the molar nacnog re | 6 m0l Cy: 1 mol CeliaOy between gran s. i ‘molar mass CsH;,0, = 180.2 g/mol mateconceptual | SOLUTION _ the probtem, LmoLEOs I mol-CyHGOE 180.2 gCyHy,Os _ EEEEWitNeCOsandasethe | 378 g.405 x LCOS. eno x aversion fctors to ave HOI ge0; <~ 6mol€O; 1 mol Get 0; atl 0, [leo sol 258 g CeHi20s er ar conect. The magnitude ofthe answer 25.8) is ‘0; (87.8 g). This is reasonable because each earbon in sociated with it, while in CsH.Og each carbon has ethan som sscinted with it and two hydrogen aon, which ar much ren St. Therefore, the mass of glucose produced shoul be less thaa the his reaction HECK The unis othe ans Gt the ial mas of 8 0 oxygen atoms 3 On ak ptt hydroxide, the active ingredient in milk of magnesia, neutralizes BSH acid, py vrimarily HCl, ‘according to the reaction: Ma(OF (aq) + 2 HeIag) +2 HO + MgC) Ht mass of ee) Clin grams, is neutralized by a dose of milk of magnesia containing iH); < PLE 4.2 Stoichiometry i i acd ,80) 1g component of acid rain that forms when SO,, a pollutant, *7een and water according tothe simplified reaction: : 2 SOx(g) + On(@) + 2 H,O() > 2 H,80,(ag) B, tton of ty used by a medium-sized home produces about 25 kg 0 : : the electricit = Soe yeun Assuming that there is more than enough O, and HO, what mass of om this much SO,? #10 kg, can form froSORT ‘The problem gives the mass of | GIVEN: 25 kg SO2 sulfur dioxide and asks you to find | FIND: kg HSOs the mass of sulfuric acid i STRATEGIZE ‘The conceptual plan | CONCEPTUAL PLAN inkg, you must first convert (0 os e _ ‘grams. You can deduce the (Goats, al 5,50, Jom kets, felationship between moles of sulfur 7m —< 280.) dioxide and moles of sulfuric acid aoe or from the chemical equation, Since the mel SO a final quantity i requested in kg, convert to kg atthe end | RELATIONSHIPS USED ke = 1000 g 2 mol SO, : 2 mol HS! | molar mass SO, = 64.07 g/mot molar mass H,SO, = 98.09 g/mol | SOLVE Follow the conceptual plan to | SOLUTION sev te problem Bein wibibe 9c 1000 yA mOBOE 2 mot Hs$0j | given amount of SO» in kilograms AX Tee * Gore: = and use the conversion factors to Teg ™ G407 {80; * 2 motSO; arrive at kg H,SOy 4c 28:09- Ha8Ox 1 mol FSO, LSS = 38 kg H,SO. joo ge F-GNEGK ‘The units of the final answer ae comet. The magaitade ofthe final answer - {G8 kg H,S0,) is larger than the amount of SO, given (25 kg). This is reasonable | boeause inthe eaction each $0; molecule “gains weight” by reacting with O; and H,0. FOR PRACTICE 4.2 ‘Another component of acid rain is nitric acid, which forms when NOp, also a pollutant, reacts with oxygen and water according to the simplified equation: ANO,(g) + Os(g) + 21,01) > 4 HNO3(aq) “The generation ofthe electricity used by a medium-sized home produces about 16 kg ‘of NO» per year. Assuming that there is adequate ©, and H,O, what mass of HNO, | in kg, can form from this amount of NOp pollutant? 7 | Conce| re) . HI Co fection 4.1 stoichiometry ‘Under certain conditions sodium can react with oxygen to form sodium oxide according /e \ tothe reaction: @ 4Na(s) + On(g)—> 2 Na,0(s) e@ ‘A flask contains the amount of oxygen represented by the diagram at lft ‘Which image below best represents the amount of sodium required to completely react with all of the oxygen in the flask according to the equation? 383) ( gee | re. concen 4.2 stoichiometry i Consider the generic chemical equation A+ 3B ~> 2C. Let circles represent molecules of A, squares represent molecules of B, and triangles represent molecules of C. If the diagram at right represents the amount of B available for reaction, raw similar diagrams showing (a) the amount of A necessary to completely reac with B, and (b) the amount of FC that forms ifB completely react. 4.3 ‘ing Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield _ Let's ret to our pizza analogy to understand three more important concepts in reaction stoichiometry: limiting reactant, theoretical yield, and percent yield. Recall our pizza | ecipe from Section 4.2: Lerust + S ounces tomato sauce -+ 2 cups cheese —> I pizza ‘Suppose that we have 4 crusts, 10 cups of cheese, and 15 ounces of tomato sauce, How _ many pizzas can we make? ‘We have enough crusts to make: L pizza _ 4 ons x Pog 4 pizzas ‘We have enough cheese to make: 1 pizza Wepre x 5 LPM = 5 peas ‘Wehave enough tomato sauce to make: 5. ex — 5 bias ements Saar Untng oct be nbs ps ‘We have enough crusts for four pizzas and enough cheese for five pizzas, but enough | tomato sauce for only three pizzas. Consequently, unless we get more ingredients, we an make only three pizzas, The tomato sauce limits how many pizzas we can make. If | the pizza recipe were a chemical reaction, the tomato sauce would be the limiting | reactant, the reactant that limits the amount of product in a chemical reaction, Notice a the Timiting reactants the reactant that makes the east amount of product. Te reac- tants that do not limit the amount of produet—such as the crusts and the cheese inthis example—are said tobe in excess I this were a chemical reaction, tree pizzas would be © theoretical yield, the maximum amount of product that can be made in a chemical "action based on the amount of limiting reactant. > LD ES > ders pines Giasa, , > EZ ED GGGGG ES LZ 43) Liming Reactant, Theoretical Vil, and Percentile 145, | The term ntng reagent is sometine wed {in place of imiting reactant. 1Weupschese plas > LD LD — oneal 4 The ingen tat mast ast iting aa > Least amount amount of pizza determines how many recat Ofprodictpirss you can make.146 chapter 4 Chale! uate and Aqueous Reactors Let us carty this analogy one step further. Suppose we go on to cook our pizzal and accidentally burn one of them. Even though we theoretically have enough ingredy tents for three pizzas, we end up with only two. If this were a chemical reaction, th two pizzas would be our actual yield, the amount of product actually produced by chemical reaction. (The actual yield is always equal to or less than the theoreti yield because a small amount of product is usually lost to other reactions or does nil form during a reaction.) Finally, our percent yield, the percentage of the theoretial yield that was actually attained, is calculated as the ratio of the actual yield to tha theoretical yield _ ‘Actual yield f swyiedd = SPREE x 1003 = 67 Spier Theoretical yield ‘Since one of our pizzas bumed, our percent yield for pizzas is 67%. Summarizing Limiting Reactant and Yielé > The limiting reactant (or limiting reagent) is the reactant that is completely. consumed in a chemical reaction and limits the amount of product. D> ‘The reactant in excess is any reactant that occurs in a quantity greater than is requited to completely react withthe limiting reactant > The theoretical yield is the amount of product that can be made in & chemical reaction based on the amount of limiting reactant > ‘The actual yield is the amount of product actually produced by a chemical reaction. actual yield theoretical yield D> The percent yield is calculated as X 100%. ‘We can apply these concepts to a chemical reaction. Recall from Section 3.11 ot balanced equation for the combustion of methane: CHAg) + 203g) —> COxg) + 21,000 aS @2 If we start out with five CH, molecules and eight 02 molecules, what is our limiting reactant? What is our theoretical yield of carbon dioxide molecules? First we calculate the number of CO, molecules that can be made from five CH, molecules: 1002 SC x Taeijen calculate the number of CO, molecules that can be made from eight 0, molecules: 10, 205 @e %@ Limiting 7 Least amount reactant cf prodiet 80; x 4c ye enough CH, to make five CO; molecules and enough Oto make four CO, es: therefore, Oy isthe limiting reactant, and four COy molecules she roe fold. The CH, is in exces [hn alternative way to calculate the iting reactant (which we mention here but do fyse in this book) isto pik any reactant and decrmine how much ofthe other weston jecessary to completely react with it. For the reaction we just examined, we have |CH, molecules and eight O, molecules, Let's pick the Eve Cy molecules and ine how many Oy molecules are necessary to completely react wit thew 20, io Bice we need ten O; molecules to completely react with the five CH, molecules, and we have only eight O; molectles, we know that th Os the limiting recta The Eine method can be applied by comparing the amounts of reactants in nace, 5 CH x 100 Nag) + 3HX(@) > 2 NHA(@) Sk contains a mixture of reactants represented by the image at right, which image Eliw best represents the mixture in the flask afer the reactants have reacted a5 Smpletely as possible? What is the limiting reactant? Which reactant isin excess? | Fi Gy BB & ~ fa) 7 o) - © Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield ‘om Initial Reactant Masses ‘Working in the laboratory, we normally measure the inital quantes of reactants in notin numberof molecules, To find the limiting reactant and theoreti ye fom %uasses, we must fist conver the masses 0 amounts in moles. Consider the reaction, 2Mg(s) + Ox(g)—>2 Mg0(s) f esction mixture contains 42.5 g Mg and 338 g O3; what isthe limiting reactant and bretical yield? ‘To solve this problem, we must determine which of the reactants makes the least unt of product, 43 Liming Reactant Theoret! il, and Perent Veo 147148, crater 4 Chica Quan 4255ME Limiting reactant 338203 Conceptual Plan Saeed the Limiting resctant by calculating how much product 6 bbe made from wr ereactant, However, we are given the intial quantities in Bram, and stoichiometric ah pea between mols, so We must fist convert to males, We ‘6% ‘convert from. relations pe reaceant to Totes of product. The reactant that makes the least amount of products te limiting reactant. The conceptual pan is sig, = ate | salest amount \G 5 determines limiting reactant 031g Me. Aloe rat eo veo, ror In this conceptual plan, we compare the number of moles of MgO made by each reactant vee om only the smaller armount to grams. (Altematively, We can OWE ‘both quan- sige to grams and determine the Himiting reactant based on the mass of the product.) Relationships Used molar mass Mg = 24.31 8 Mg molar mass 07 = 32.00 8 O2 ‘2-mol Mg : 2 mol MgO 1 mol 0, : 2 mol MgO molar mass MgO = 40:31 ¢ MgO Solution Beginning with the masses of each reactant, we follow the conceptual plan to calculate how much product can be made from each: 1 nolatg ,, 2m01MO 7458 molM " eave | | east anont | 7assmatgo x 2208 70.5 gMgO. Goat [ Tok LinakO;_, 2mel MgO ah 2M aa since Mg makes the least amount of product, ti the limiting each and Oy is in Since Mg aoe tbat the Timiting reactant is not necessarily the reac ‘with the least cass fis case the mass of Oa ies than the mass. of Ms yet Mi sth New reac- rae desuse it makes the least amount of MgO. The theoretical yield is 705 g of MgO, the mass of product possible based on the limiting teactan uppose hat after the synthesis, the actual yiekd of MEO is 55.9 g. What is the percent yield? We caloulate the percent yield as follows actual yield 559g Lyvisk’ x 100% ne 2 x 100% = 793 ‘theoretical yield 70.5 ¢ _ ad % yield149 443 _Uiting Reactant, Theoretical ils, ond Perent Vel _ EXAMPLE 4.3. Limiting Reactant and Theoretical Yield | | mmonia, NH, can be synthesized by the reaction: | 2NO(g) + 5 Hye) > 2 Na) + 2 20(e) | Stating with 863 g NO and 256 g Ho find he theoretical yield of ammonia in grams. | SORT You ar given the mass of each | GWEN: 863 x NO, 256 Hy reactant in grams and asked to find | FIND: theoretical yield of NHI() the theoretical yield ofa product. | STRATEGIZE Determine which reac- | CONCEPTUAL PLAN tant makes the least amount of prod- | sol NO- oat by cowering rm grams of | (“GHG tach riacaat to mel of terest | Sood Nenad to moles ofthe produt, Use molar iri aaa masses to convert between grams and moles and use the stoichiomet- Smallestamount > {mob ric relationships (deduced from the Stevens sting reactant: 1203 pty chemical equation) to convert | _ 7 Tel between moles of reactant and moles ee }- (Gai) (SH mol Hy _ mol NH; of product. Remember thatthe reac- tant that makes the least amount of ed Ey Bol Nis product is the limiting reactant. Con- amet, ‘Smal, ‘ert the number of moles of product | ReLATlONSHIPS USED obtained using the limiting reactant to grams of product. molar mass NO = 3001 g/mol || molar mass Hy = 2.02 g/mol | 2 mol NO : 2 mol NH; (from chemical equation) |S mol H 2 mol NH rom chemical equation) ie [molar mass NH = 17.09 g/mol 7 SOLVE Beginning with the given | SOLUTION mass of each reactant, calculate the - amount of product that can be made amlNt 7, \ in moles, Convert the amount of 280 * Tmatng ~ >#257 mol NH product made by the limiting 7 | feactant to grams—this is the Gaaanpert | oe 8 siepet | agsrmotns < osx, theoretical yield. Le malt 25.68 x LREHE 5 2m91NB 59655 mol 688 X oat < smart * Since NO makes the least amount of product, it is the limiting reactant, and the theoretical yield of aramonia is 49.0. CHECK The units of the answer (g NH.) are comrect, The magnitude (49.0 g) seems reasonable given that 86.3 g NO is the limiting reactant, NO contains one oxygen atom er nitrogen atom and NH; contains three hydrogen atoms per nitrogen atom, Since three hydrogen atoms have less mass than one oxygen atom, it is reasonable that the ‘mass of NH; obtained is less than the mass of NO. FOR PRACTICE 4.3, ‘Ammonia can also be synthesized by the reaction: 3 Hg) + Nag) > 2NEAe) ‘What isthe theoretical yield of ammonia, n kg, that we ean synthesize from 5.22 kg OF Hy and 31.5 kg of Ni?150 chapter 4 crema! quarts and Aqueous Resctons | EXAMPLE 4.4 Limiting Reactant and Theoretical Yield | We can obtain titanium metal from its oxide according to the following balanced equation: Ti0,6) + 2C() > Ti) + 2.CO®) When 28.6 kg of C reacts with 88.2 kg of TiO, 42.8 kg of T is produced. Find the limiting reactant, theoretical yield (in kg), and percent yield 28.6 kg C, 88.2 kg TiO, 42.8 kg Ti produced limiting reactant, theoretical yield, % yield SORT You are given the mass of ceach reactant and the mass of product formed. You are asked to find the limiting reactant, theoretical yield, and percent yield STRATEGIZE Determine which of the reactants makes the least amountof product by converting | fiom tlograms of each reactant to | rnnles of provi Comer between | grams and moles using molar mass. Salt ont Convert between moles of reactant event and moles of product using the ttvichiometic relationships derived | (@E@D) (Glia) —4(GEiGR)—~( SI fom ie hema etn, e-@2-=>-Ea) Remember thatthe reactant that Te makes the least amount of product isthe limiting reactant. Determine the theoretical yield RELATIONSHIPS USED (in kg) by converting the number | 1000 g = 1ke 1 mol TiO. 1 mol Ti ‘of moles of product obtained with | molar mass of C = 12.01 g/mol 2molC: 1 mol T. | the limiting reactant to kilograms | of product. molar mass of THO, = 7987 g/mol molar mass of Ti = 4787 g/mot SOLE Beginning withthe actual | SOLUTION amount of each reactant, calculate soog imate | the amount of product that can be re6kge x W200 4, LmetC LmolTh _ 997 x 10° mol Ti made in moles. Convert the amount HEC X Tig“ poige * 2merc ~ 1% us of product made by the limiting ine ey reactant to Kilograms—this is the reat of prot theoretical yield. ¥ y | seakgTio; x 08 mT 1943 x 10° mol Th Tmo; 104s x 10LmotTi x “28787 4, Lhe | Lmoltr * Tooog ~ 59 ks TL Calculate the percent yield by divid- tng the actual vcd (428 kp) by | Siee TiO, makes the feast amount of product isthe limiting reactant and 52.9 kg Tiis the theoretical yield. the theoretical yield. ‘magnitude compared to the mass of TiQ,, Since Ti has a lower molar mass than TiO, the amount of Ti made from TiO, should have a lower mass. The percent yield is reasonable (under 100% as it should be)“FoR Pracrice 4.4 “ Atunn companies use this reaction to obi ton from ton oe Fi Fe,0,(s) + 3 CO(g) > 2 Fe(s) + 3 CO,(g) 43 Umiing Reactant, Teoreteal il and Percent Vel 151, he reaction of 167 gFo,03 with 85.8 g CO produces 72.3 g Fe. Determine the “jing reactant, theoretical yield, and percent yield. coer in 44 Reactant Excess tothe equation: 3NOs(g) + Hy0()>2 HNO4(D + NOL) Suppose that S mol NOp and 1 mo! H5O combine and react completely. How many moles of tie rectant in excess ae present after the reaction has completed? Nitrogen dioxide reacts with water to form nitric acid and nitrogen monoxide according o MTBE in Gasoline Ls Wetec te teased hemi equation othe combos tion of ectane, a component of gasoline, is: 2CyHlig(D + 25 Ox(g) —> 16 CO4Kg) + 18 1,068) The equation shows that 25 moles of O- are required to completely react with 2 moles of CsHy.. What if thee is not enough Op in an automobile cylinder to fully react with the amount of octane that is present? For many reactions, a shortage of one reactant means that less product forms—so, inthe reaction shown here, oxygen would became the limit ing reactant, However, for some reactions, a shortage of one eactant causes side reactions fo occur along with the desired reaction. In the case of octane and the other major components of gasoline, those side reactions produce pollutants such as eatbon monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbon fragments that Jead to the formation of ozone (03). In 1990, the U.S. Congress, in efforts to lower air pollution, passed amendments to the Clean Air Act requiring oil companies to add substances to gasoline that prevent these side resctions. Because these additives increase the amount of oxygen present during combustion, the resulting gasoline is called an oxygena- ted fuel. The additive of choice among oil companies was a ‘compound called MTBE (methyl tertiary butyl ether), 4 MTBE, a gasoline sitive that promotes ‘complete combustion, ‘The immediate results of adding MTBE to gasoline were Positive. Carbon monoxide and ozone levels in many major Cities decreased significantly. Over ime, however, MTBE—a compound that does not ‘eadily biodegrade (naturally break down inthe environment. began to appear in drinking water acros the nation. MTBE ‘tered the drinking water supply via gasoline spills at gas Stations, fom boat motors, and from leaking underground storage fans. MTBE, even at ow levels, imparts a turpentine-like odor sad fou! taste to drinking water. Itis also a suspected carcinogen, Public response was swift and dramatic. Several class action lawsuits were filed against the manufacturers of MTBE, against gas stations suspected of leaking it, and against the oil ‘companies that put it into gasoline, Many states banned MTBE, from gasoline, and the il industry stopped adding it to gaso- line (because of liability concems). This raises a question, however. MTBE was added to gasoline as a way to meet the requirements of the 1990 Clean Air Act amendments. If MBE is no longer an option, and the oil companies are not able to comply with the law, should the government remove the requirements, weakening the Clean Air Act? One potential solution is substituting ethanol for MTBE. Ethanol, made from the fermentation of grains, has many of the same pollu- Lion-reducing effects without the associated health hazards Question How many kilograms of oxygen (0,) are required to completely react wth 48 kg of octane (approximate capacity of a 15-gallon automobile gasoline tank)? > Oxygensted fuel contains compounds that increase the amount of oxygen available {or combustion, reducing the Formation of by-produets ‘such as carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon fragments,152 chapter 4 chemical Quaites and AqueatsReacbons 4.4 Solution Concentration and Solution Stoichiometry (Chemical reactions involving reactants dissolved in water are among the most common and important, The reactions that occur in lakes, streams, and oceans, as well as the reactions that occur in every cell within our bodies, take place in water. A homogeneous mixture of two substances—such as salt and water—is a solution, The majority compo- rent ofthe mixture is the solvent, and the minority component is the solute. An aqueous solution is one in which water acts as the solvent. In this section, we first examine how to quantify the concentration of a solution (the amount of solute relative to solvent) and then tur to applying the principles of stoichiometry, which we discussed inthe previous section, to reactions occurring in solution, Concentrated and Dilute Solutions Solution Concentration ‘The amount of solute in a solution is variable, For example, we can add just a litle salt to water to make a dilute solution, one that contains a small amount of solute relative to the solvent, fr we can add a Jot of salt to water to make a concentrated solution, one that contains a large amount of solute relative to the solvent (Figure 4.4 <). A common way to express solution concentration is molarity (M), the amount of solute (in moles) divided by the volume of solution (in liters): amount of solute (in mol) Molarity (= cium of solution (in L) "Notice that molarity is a ratio of the amount of solute per liter of solution, not per liter of solvent, To make an aqueous solu- tion of a specified molarity, we usually put the solute into a flask and then add water to reach the desired volume of solution. For example, to make 1 L of a 1 M NaCl solution, ‘we add 1 mol of NaCl to a flask and then add enough water to Sena cece eae make 1 L of solution (Figure 4.5 ¥). We do not combine I mol of NaCl with 1 L of water, coin arclatvely age mmomntof because the resulting solution would havea total volume different from 1 Land therefore a ease een A cat ‘molarity different than 1 M. To calculate molarity, divide the amount of the solute in moles solution contains a elatively small by the volume of the solution (solute and solvent in liters, as shown in Example 45. amount of slute relative to solvent Concentrated solution } ‘A FIGURE 4.4 Concontratod and Dilute Preparing a Solution of Specified Concentration na ‘Addwater uni} Lod mal NaCl Shen added | (58.44 9) . water until the t-liter | ° tmikipreaced. | fen Z \ —_Mix__, 3 4 aie \ feigh owt and odd | 1.00 moar > FIGURE 4.5 Preparing a 1-Molar Weigh (NaC! solution heh odmelofNecl444 Soliton Concenvation ond Solution Stolcomeiry 153 EXAMPLE 4.5 Calculating Solution Concentration Ifyou dissolve 25.5 KBrin enough water to make 1.75 L of sotation, wa isthe rolaityof the solution? SORT You ae given the mass of KBr andthe volume of | GIVEN: 25.5 £ KBr, 1,75 L of solution solution and asked to find its molarity ow FIND: molar STRATEGIZE When formulating the conceptual plan, | CONCEPTUAL PLAN think about the definition of molarity, the amount of | gkBr {mot KBr solute in moles per liter of solution. & ‘You are given the mass of KBr, so frst use the molar ns008 ‘mass of KBr to convert from g KBr to mol KBr. | Then use the number of moles of KBr and liters of (Gale ha solution to find the molarity ——_ mae snoumetscteeh Maley = Seam ea lame olen Gin) RELATIONSHIPS USED ‘molar mass of KBr = 119.00 g/mol | SOLVE Follow the conceptual plan, Begin with g KBr | and convert to mol KBr; then use mol KBr and L solu- = | tion to calculate molarity. ‘SOLUTION 1 mol KBr 2555 KBE X 71909 KBT amount of solute (in mot) ‘volume of solution (in L) (021429 mol KBr 1751. solution | = 012M 0.21429 mol KBr | molarity OD CHECK ‘The units ofthe answer (M) are corect. The magnitude is reasonable since common solutions range in concentration from 0 to about 18 M. Concentrations significantly above 18 M are suspect and should be double-checked. FoR Pracmice 4.5, = | Calculate the molarity of a solution made by adding 45.4 g of NaNOs to @ flask and | dissolving it with water to crete total volume of 2.50 L "| FOR MORE Practice 4.5 [What mass of KBr (in grams) do you need to make 250.0 mL. of a 1-50 M KBr solution? _ Using Molarity in Calculations ‘We can use the molarity of a solution as a conversion factor between moles of the solute And liters of the solution. For example, a 0.500 M NaCl solution contains 0.500 mol NaCl for every liter of solution: 0.500 mol NaCl (= aration ements { Lsolution ‘This conversion factor converts from L solution to mol NaCl. If we want to go the other ‘ay, we invert the conversion factor: —L solution — converts (mal NaCl YL solution 10.500 mol NaCl \ =e) ~ Bxample 4.6 illustrates how to use molarity in this way.154 chapter 4 chemical uantses end Aquos Reactions —e EXAMPLE 4.6 Using Molarity in Calculations How many liters of ¢ 0.125 M NaOH solution contain 0.255 mol of NaOH? SORT You are given the concentration of a | QNVEN: 0.125 M NOH solotion, 0.255 mol NOH NsOH solution. You are asked to find the | FIND: volume of NaOH solution Gin.) volume of the solution that contains a given amount in moles) of NaOlt STRATEGIZE The conceptual plan begins | CONCEPTUAL PLAN with mol NaOH and shows the conversion to Lof solution using molarity as a coner-| (‘mol NSOH omo{ Lslution } sion factor. ‘iii | RELATIONSHIPS USED 0.125M NaOH = 9125 mol NaOH TL solution SOLVE Follow the conceptual plan. Begin | SOLUTION with mol NaOH and convert to L solution. LL solution. 0.255 mol NaOH x oe Sr NaOH 7 2:04 L-solution CHECK The units of the answer (L) are correct. The magnitude is reasonable because | the solution contains 0.125 mol per liter. Therefore, roughly 2 L. contains the given || amount of moles (0.255 mol). | FOR PRACTICE 4.6. ~ | How many grams of sucrose (C101) ae in 1.55 L of 0.758 M sucrose solution? a FOR MORE PRACTICE 4.6 q How many mL of a 0.155 M KC1 solution contain 2.55 g KCI? i O Concept ection 4.5 Solutions If we dissolve 25 grams of salt in 251 grams of water, what is the mass of the resultin solution? @ 251g) 276g ©) 26 en tng tas a te ion Diluti concentrated acid to the water, Never; Solution Dilution rater to concentrated ai ulations, asthe TO Save space in storerooms, laboratories often store solutions in concentrated forms nat generated may case the eacestated called stock solutions. For example, hydrochloric acid is frequently stored as a 12 M- sid tester an wen your skin stock solution, However, many lab procedures call for much less concentrated hydra chlotic acid solutions, so we must dilute the stock solution to the required concentration: How do we know how much of the stock solution to use? The easiest way to solve di tion problems is to use the following dilution equation MV, = MGV (44) where M, and V; are the molarity and volume of the initial concentrated solution, and’ M; and V, are the molarity and volume ofthe final diluted solution. This equation works because the molarity multiplied by the volume gives the number of moles of solute, which isthe same in both solutions, 3 In other words, the number of moles of solute does not change wien we dilute a solution.0.150 Lof 10.0 ‘stock solution X 0.508 = 150 mel = spose a laboratory proc: for 3.00 L of a 0.500 M Cal ‘we prepare this solution from a 10.0 M stock solution? We solve the volume of the stock solution required for the dilution, and ther et values to My 0.500 meiff: 3.00 L “100 meifi: 1g 0.150 L of ti g solution will be156 chopter4 Cronica! Quantas and Aqueous Restions —— | EXAMPLE 4.7 Solution Dilution ‘To what volume should you dilute 0.200 L of a 15.0 M NaOH solution to obtain a | 3.00 M NaOH solution? SORT You are given the initial volume, initial concentration, and final | GIVEN: concentration of a solution, and you need to determine the final volume. y, = 0.200L, M, = 150M M; = 3.00M FIND: V> STRATEGIZE Equation 4.1 relates the init centrations for solution dilution problems. You are asked to find V3."The | ————- - Va other quantities (Vf, and Mz) ae all given in the problem | asta and final volumes and con- | CONCEPTUAL PLAN RELATIONSHIPS USED _ MV. = MVa SOLVE Begin withthe solution dilution equation and solve itfor V2. | SOLUTION &f,¥, = MV Substitute in the required quantities nd ealelate Vp v= MM Make the solution by difuting 0.200 L of the stock sotution to a total | a M2 volume of 1.00 L (V3). The resulting soltion will have a concentration 15.0 mol/L % 0.200 1. 0f 3.00 M. ~~ 3100 moifi (CHECK The final units (L) are comrect. The magnitude of the answer is | reasonable because the solution is diluted from 15.0 M to 3.00 M, a factor of five. Therefore the volume should increase by a factor of five. FOR PRACTICE 4.7, ‘To what volume (in mL) should you dilute 100.0 mL. of a 5.00 M CaCl solution to obtain 2 0.750 M CaCl solution? FOR MORE PRACTICE 4.7 ‘What volume of a 6,00 M NaNO solution should you use to make 0.525 L of | 1.20 MNNaNO, solution? Ll = 1.00 L om 4.6 sottion Ditton ‘The image at left represents a small volume within 500 ml of aqueous ethanol (CH,CH;OH) solution, (The water molecules have been omitted for clarity.) Which image below best represents the same volume of the solution after we add an additional 500 mL. of water? Gah &P) (@r ee Ge @ rc Solution Stoichiometry In Section 4.2 we discussed how the coeficients in chemical equations are used as com version factors between the amotnts of reactants (in moles) and the amounts of products {in moles) In aqueous reactions, quantities of reactants and products are often specified44 Solution Conceniston and Soliton Stoichiometry ABT its amount in moles. We can then use the stoichiometric _ coefficients in the chemical equation to convert to the amount of another reactant or _ product in moles, The general conceptual plan for these kinds of caleultions begins vith the volume of @ reactant or product EXAMPLE 4.8 Solution Stoichiometry _| hat valme (in L) of 0.150 M KCI solution will completely react with 0.150 L of a (0.175 M PP(NO;)» solution according tothe following balanced chemical equation? 2 KClag) + Po(NOs(ag) —> PECI,(s) + 2 KNOs(ag) See PANO even the volume and concentration | QIVEN: 0.150 of PH(NO,), solution, 0.175 M ofa PO(NOs), solution. You are asked to find the Pb(NO}), solution, 0.150M KCI solution ‘Nolume of KC! solution (of given concentration) | FIND: volume KC! solution (in L) required to react with it STRATEGIZE The conceptual plan has the Form: | CONCEPTUAL PLAN volume A —> amount A (in moles) —> amount B Gn moles) — volume B. Use the molar concen ‘tations of the KCI and Pb(NOs), solutions ae Conversion factors between the number of meles of | ‘eactants in these solutions and their volumes. Use [the stoichiometric coefficients from the balanced | squation to convert between number of moles of Pb(NO,)2 and number of moles of KCL RELATIONSHIPS USED 0.175 mol Pb(NOs)s TL Pb{NO,), solution 2mol KCI; 1 mol Pb(NOs): 0.150 mol KCL MPH(NO,)» MKCI TLRCLsolaon SOLE Begin with L Pb(NO;), solution and follow | SOLUTION the concept plan tourive LK OL ran x OATS MOLPHENOSE 0.150 L Pb(NO}rs0lt LL PbQNODs solution 2molKCI_ IL KCI solution : __2melKEI_,. IL KCI sotton _ solution L Cn 9 5561 ct ti HECK The final anita (L RCI soon }) are correct. The magnitude (0.350 L) is Praxgnable because the reaction stoichiometry requires 2 mol of KCl per mole of PO(NO:)2. Since the. Concentrations of the two solutions are not very different (0.150 M compared to 0.175 M), the volume of KCI required is roughly two times the 0.150 L of [ P8(NO3)o given in the problem,158 captor 4 chemical quantities and Aqueous Resctons FOR PRACTICE 4.8 ‘What volume (in mL) of a 0.150 M HNO; solution will completely react with 35.7 mL. of a 0.108 M Na;CO, solution according to the following balanced chemical equation? Na,COs(aq) + 2 HNOx(ag) —> 2. NaNOs(ag) + COx 2.Na"(ag) + COs? (aa) Sodium carbonate is soluble, but calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate are not (see the solubility rules in Table 4.1). Consequently, the carbonate anions react with dis- solved Mg** and Ca* ions in hard water to form solids that precipitate from (or come out of) solution: Mg?*(ag) + COs?-(aq) > MgCO,(s) CaP*(ag) + COs (ag) —> CaCO(s) “The precipitation of these ions prevents thei reaction with the soap eliminating curd and preventing white shirts from turning gray "The reactions between COZ” and Mg® and Ca** are examples of precipitation reactions, reactions in which a sold or prectpitate forms when we mix two solutions Precipitation reactions are common in chemistry. As another example, consider potas sium iodide and lead(U) nitrate, which form colorless, strong electrolyte solutions whet4.8 Procptation Reactons 163 2KI(aq) + PPCNOs)2(aq) 5 2KNO,(aq) + PIAS) (ole) Ce Goble) Insoluble) {When a potash de solution s mixed with a lead) nitrate solaton, a ylow lea iodide preitate forms, 2Ki(ag) (soluble) Pb(NO3)3(aq) (soluble) 2KNOs(aq) (Goluble) + PBI) (insoluble) ‘A FOURE 4.15 Precpitaton of Lat dissolved in water separately. When the (WO SO1UtiOns are combined, however, a brilignt elle” When a potassium iodide yellow precipitate forms (Figure 4-15 4)- We can describe ths precipitation reaction with slo mixed with lead nitrate clea cuca area station el se 2 Kilag) + Po(NO3)2(42) — PIs) + 2 KNOsan) Lt Precipitation reactions do not always OCCUF When two aqueous solutions are mixed. Te aeae edema ans owe NG ene crea Saale gene igure 4:16): Kl(ag) + NaCi(aq) > NO REACTION The key to predicting precipitation reactions isto understand thit only insoluble compounds form precipitates. In @ precipitation reaction, two solutions containing soluble compounds combine and an insoluble compound precipitates. Consider the pre cipitation reaction described previowsl¥: 2 Ki(ag) + Pb(NO)2(44) — PL) +2 KNOsal) salt soluble fosaaie "> Te‘chapter 4 Chemis! Qutis and Anusous Restos 164 No Reaction Kilag) NaCl(ag) > FIGURE 4.16 No Precipitation ‘When a potassium iodide solution is mixed with a sodium chloride solution, KJ and Pb(NO;), are both soluble, bu the precipitate, Pbl, is insoluble, Before mixing, Kilag) and Pb¢NO)x(aq) are both dissociated in their respective solutions: Kileq) Pb(NOS)a(aq)‘Now, new compounds—one or both of whi possibly insoluble products Original compounds K ‘one ar both of the possible products are i PROCEDURE FOR... ‘Writing Equations for 1. Write the formulas of the two ‘compounds being mixed as reactants in a chemical equatio 2, Below the equation, write the ‘formulas of the products that could form from the reactants. Obtain | these by combining the cation from each reactant with the anion from the other. Make sure to write correct formulas for these ionic compounds using the proce- dure demoustrated in Section 3.5, ‘The instant that the solutions come into contac, NO reaction insoluble, a Writir " Precipitation Reactions- pets Equations for | Write an | Shetion that occurs Gf any) when ickel(U) chloride are mixed. KiCOs(ag) + Nicifag) > ‘ectlen Paguen = Laut 165 4.6. Precipitation Reactions All four ions are present: Ki(aq) and POINOS) fag ich ‘ cally, the cation from either compound oa yeu ht be insoluble—are possible. Specifi- ait With the anion from the other to form Possible products KNO; Por, ‘cecurs and no precipitate forms. If ‘Cote: & precipitation reaction occurs. In this ‘onsequently, Pbl, precipitates. Kt No” Pbh Pbix(s) and KNOs(aq) EXAMPLE 4.11 Writing Equations for Precipitation Reactions Write an equation for the precipitation reaction that occurs (if any) when solutions of sodium nitrate and lithium | solfate are mixed. NaNO,(ag) + LinSOs(aq) > ‘ecipitation Reactions «ation forthe precipitation {ttions of potassium carbonate and — —~ NaNnds(a9) + Li804(aq) —> Possible products Kel Nico, Possible products LINO, Na,SOq 3. Refer to the solubility rules to KClis soluble. (Compounds containing | LiNOs is soluble. (Compounds ‘determine whether any of the CV" ate usually soluble and K* is not | containing NO,” are soluble and Li* possible products are insoluble, {an exception.) is not an exception.) NiCO\ is insoiut yunds 'Na,SOj is soluble. (Compounds am ible. (Compot a ‘802° are generally soluble is not an exception.) ing CO?” are usually insoluble is not an exception.) and Na*166 chapter4 chemical Quan and Aw 4, If all of the possible products are soluble, there will be no precipitate. Write “NO REACTION” after the arrow. ous Reactions ‘Since this example has an insoluble product, we proceed to the next step. | Since this example has no insoluble product, there is no reaction. NaNO,(ag) + LigSO,(aq) > NO REACTION 5. If any of the possible products are insoluble, write their formulas as the products of the reaction, using (5) to indicate solid. Write any soluble products with (aq) to indicate aqueous. K:COs(ag) + NiCh(ag) > NiCOx@) + KCKaq) 6, Balance the equation. Remember to adjust only coefficients, not subscripts. K,COs(ag) + NiCi(aq) > NiCO,(s) + 2KCKag) co Write an equation forthe precipitation reaction that occurs (if any) when FOR PRACTICE 4.11, Write an equation for the precipitation reaction that occurs (if any) when | solutions of ammonium chloride and iron( IM) nitrate are mixed, solutions of sodium hydroxide and copper(I) bromide are mixed. O° Cannel 4,1 precipitation Reactions Consider the generic ionic compounds with the formulas AX and BY and the following solubility ules: AX soluble; BY soluble; AY soluble; BX insoluble Let A* ions be represented by circles; B* ions be represented by squares; X~ ions be represented by triangles; and Y~ ions be represented by diamonds. Solutions of the two ‘compounds (AX and BY) can be represented as follows: es AX(aq) BY(aq) Draw a molecular level representation showing the result of mixing the two solutions and write an equation to represent the reaction. 4.7 Representing Aqueous Reactions: Molecular, lonic, and Complete lonic Equations Consider the following equation for a precipitation reaction: Pb(NO,)a(ag) + 2KCI(ag)—> PoCh{(s) + 2KNO,(aq) This equation is a molecular equation, an equation showing the complete neutral formulas for each compound in the reaction as if they existed as molecules. In actual solutions of soluble ionic compounds, dissolved substances are present as ions. We can4.7 Representing Aqueous Reactions: Mole, one, nd Complete onic Eguatens 167 write equations for reactions occurring in aqueous solution in a way that better shows ihe dissociated nature of dissolved ionic compounds, For example, we can rewrite the previous equation as: pbi*(ag) + 2NO3 (aq) + 2K*(ag) + 2CI-(ag)—> PCh(s) + 2K*(ag) + 2NOs (ag) “Equations such as this, which list al of the fons present a ether reactants or produets in ‘a chemical reaction, are complete ionic equations. Strong electrolytes are always repre- ‘sented as their component ions in ionic equations—weak electrolytes are not. ‘Notice that in the complete ionic equation, some of the ions in solution appear unchanged on both sides of the equation. These ions are called spectator ions because they do not participate in the reaction. pb? (ag) + 2 NOS (aq) + 2KM(ag) + 2CL-(aq) —> POCL(s) + 2K*(aq) + 2.NOs-(aq) Spectator ons ‘To simplify the equation, and to show more clearly what is happening, we can omit spectator ions: Po? (ag) + 2CI(aq) + PECs) ‘Equations that show only the species that actually change during the reaction are net ionic equations. "As another example, consider the reaction between HCM(ag) and KOH(aq): Hla) + KOH(aq) > H,0(0 + KCKag) ‘Since HCl, KOH, and KCI all exist in solution primarily as independent fons, the com- plete ionic equation is; H*(aq) + C1-(ag) + K*(aq) + OH (ag) > HOW + K*(ag) + C(an) ‘To write the net ionic equation, we remove the spectator ions, those that are unchanged on both sides of the equation: HY(aq) + @lzfag) + K2faq) + OH™(aq) —> H,0() 4, K*(aq)_4,.€1° (aa) Spectator ions ‘The net ionic equation is H*(ag) + OH” (aq) > 1,010. ‘Summarizing Aqueous Equations: > A molecular equation is a chemicel equation showing the complete, neutral formu las for every compound in a reaction, > 4 complete ionic equation is a chemical equation showing ll of the species as they are actually present in solution > A net joni equation is an equation showing only the species that actually change during the reaction.166 4, If all ofthe possible products are soluble, there wall be 1g precipitate, Write "NO REACTION” after the arrow. If any of the possible products ace insoluble, write their formulas asthe products of the eaction, using (3) to indicate solid. Write any soluble products with (ag) to indicate aqueous. 1. Balance the equation. Remember to adjust only coefficients, not subscripts. Chapter 4 Chumieal Quenties ana Aqueous Reactions ‘Since this example has an insoluble product, we proceed to the next step. KC0s(a) + NiCL(a)— | NiCO\G) + KCKaq) K,COsaq) + NiCh(ag)—> NiCOs) + 2KCKa) FOR PRACTICE 4.10 : Write an equation forthe precipitation reaction that occurs (i ny) when Solutions of ammonium chloride and Since this example has no insoluble product, there is no reaction, | NaNOsag) + LigSO,(ag)—> NO REACTION FOR PRACTICE 4.11 ‘Write an equation for the precipitation reaction that occurs (if any) when solutions of sodium hydroxide and | irondth nitrate are mixed copper(I!) bromide are mixed, Consider the generic ionic compounds with the formulas AX and BY and the following, solubility rules: AX soluble; BY soluble; AY soluble; BX insoluble Let A* ions be represented by circles; B* ions be represented by squares; X~ ions be represented by triangles; and Y~ ions be represented by diamonds. Solutions of the two compounds (AX and BY) can be represented as follows: a ¢ BY (aq) x y~ AX(ag) Draw a molecular level representation showing the result of mixing the two solutions and ‘write an equation to represent the reaction 4.7 Representing Aqueous Reactions: Molecular, lonic, and Complete lonic Equations Consider the following equation for a precipitation reaction: Pb(NO,)a(ag) + 2KCKag) + PoCh(s) + 2KNOs(aq) ‘This equation is a molecular equation, an equation showing the complete neutral formulas for each compound in the reaction as if they existed as molecules. In actual solutions of soluble ionic compounds, dissolved substances are present as ions. We can407” epeseming Agnes Recon oer oni, nd Croite c ‘write equations for reactions occurring in aqueous solution in a way that better shows the dissociated nature of dissolved ionic compounds. For example, we can rewrite the previous equation as: Pb** (ag) + 2NOS (aq) + 2K*(ag) + 2CI-(ag)—> POC(s) + 2K*(aq) + 2NOs (aq) ‘Equations such as this, which list all of the ions present as either reactants or products in ‘@ chemical reaction, are complete ionic equations, Strong electrolytes are always repre- sented as their component ions in ionic equations—weak electrolytes are not Notice that in the complete ionic equation, some of the ions in solution appear ‘unchanged on both sides of the equation. These ions are called spectator ions because they do not participate inthe reaction. Pb?*(aq) + 2NOs(aq) + 2K*aq) + 2CI(aq) —> PbC(s) + 2K*(aq) +2NOs-(ag) Spectator ions ‘To simplify the equation, and to show more clearly what is happening, we can omit spectator ions: Pb? (aq) + 2CI(aq) > PoCIL(s) Equations that show only the species that actually change during the reaction are net ionic equations ‘As another example, consider the reaction between HC\(ag) and KOH(aq) HCl(ag) + KOH (ag) > 1,00) + KCl(ag) Since HCI, KOH, and KCI all exist in solution primarily as independent ions, the com- Plete ionic equation is: A (ag) + CI-(ag) + K*(ag) + OHM (aq) > H,0() + K*(aq) + CI-(ag) To write the net ionic equation, we remove the spectator ions, those that are “unchanged on both sides ofthe equation: Hag) + @IYag) + KY(aq) + OH-(aq) —> H,O() 4, K"(ag) 4,cl (aq) Spectator fons The net ionic equation is H*(ag) + OH™(ag) > H,0(D, Summarizing Aqueous Equations: A molecular equation is a chemical equation showing the complete, neutral forrm- Jas for every compound in a reaction A complete ionic equation isa chemical equation showing all of the species as they are actually present in solution. ‘A net ionic equation is an equation showing only the species that actually change dluving the reaction.168 copter Crain! Quoi ane Aqueous Rectons ———— EXAMPLE 4.12 Writing Complete Ionic and Net Ionic Equations Write complete ionic and net ionic equations for each reaction (@) 3 SrCly(ag) + 2LisPO,(ag) — Sts(PO As) + 6LICKCag) (0) HCH,0,(0q) + KOH(ag) > H,0) + KCyH,0,(aq) SOLUTION | (@) Write the complete ionic equation by separating ‘aqueous ionic compounds into their constituent | ions, The Sr,(PO,)2(3), precipitating as a solid, Complete ionic equation: 381°*(aq) + 6 CI"(ag) + 6Li*(aq) + 2 POW” (aa) —> Se,(PO,){6) + 6 Li (ag) + 6 C1™%an) remains as one unit. ‘Net ionic equation: Write the net ionic equation by eliminating the | 3 S1?*(ag) + 2 PO,?(ag) —> Se(PO42(6) spectator ions, those that do not change from one side ofthe reaction tothe other. (b)_ Write the complete ionic equation by separating aqueous ionic compounds into their constituent ions. Do not separate HC;H0x(ag) because itis_| a weak electrolyte ‘Write the net ionic equation by eliminating the spectator ions. ‘Complete ionic equation: HCHO (aq) + K*(aq) + O(a) —> 5 H,0(1) + K*(aq) + CaHs02 (aa) Net ionic equation: HCH,0,(aq) + OH(ag)—> H,0(0 + C2H07 (aa) FOR PRACTICE 4.12 | Consider the following reaction occurring in aqueous solution: 2 HI(ag) + Ba(OW);(aq) > 2 H0() + Bal,(aq) ‘Write the complete ionic equation and net ionic equation for this reaction, 4.8 Acid-Base and Gas-Evolution Reactions ‘Two other important classes of reactions that occur in aqueous solution are acid base reactions and gas-evolution reactions. In an acid-base reaction (also called a” neutralization reaction), an acid reacts with @ base andthe two neutralize each other, producing water (or in some cases a weak electrolyte). In a gas-evolution reaction, & gas forms, resulting in bubbling, In both cases, asin precipitation reactions, the reactions § jceur when the anion from one reactant combines with the cation of the other. Many” 2as-evolution reactions are also acid-base reactions. Acid-Base Reactions (Our stomachs contain hydrochloric acid, which acts in the digestion of food. Certait foods or stress, however, can increase the stomach’s acidity to uncomfortable levels, causing acid stomach or heartburn, Antacids are over-the-counter medicines that work by reacting with and neutralizing stomach acid. Antacids employ different bases substances that produce hydroxide (OH) fons in water—as neutralizing agents. Milk of ‘A.Gas-eioltion reactions suchas ‘magnesia, for example, contains Mg(OH), and Mylanta contains Al(OH),. All antacids the reaction of hydrochloric acid regardless ofthe base they employ, have the same effect of neutralizing stomach acid ani with limestone (CaCO), typically relieving heartburn through acid-base reactions. produce CO; bubbling occurs as Recall from Chapter 3 that an acid forms H ions in solution, and we saw earl the gas is released. that a base is a substance that produces OH” ions in solution. More formally: + Acid: Substance that produces H* ions in aqueous solution + Base: Substance that produces OH™ ions in aqueous solution‘These definitions of acids and bases, called the Arrhenius definitions, are named after Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius (1859-1927). In Chapter 15, we will learn more general definitions of acids and bases, but these definitions are sufficient to describe neutralization reactions. ‘According to the Arrhenius definition, HCl is an acid because it produces H* ions in solution: (aq) > Hag) + CI(ag) ‘An H* ion is a bare proton. In solution bare protons normally associate with water A FIGURE 4.17 The Hydronium lon ‘molecules to form hydronium ions (Figure 4.17 »): Protons normally associate with water 7 . ‘molecules in solution to form HO" H"(aq) + H,0() > H0* (aq) ‘ons, which in turn interact with other Chemists use H*(ag) and H,0%(aq) interchangeably to mean the same thing—a Waller molecules, hydronium ion, The chemical equation forthe ionization of HCl and other acids is often written to show the association ofthe proton with a water molecule to form the hhydzonium ion: HC\(ag) + H,0() + H30*(aq) + CI-(aq) Some acids—called polyprotic acids—contain more than one ionizable proton and release them sequentially. For example, sulfuric acid, H,SO, is a diprotie acid, It is strong in it first ionizable proton, but weak in is second: H,SO4(aq) > H" (aq) + HSO.-(aa) HO," (aq) —> H"(ag) + $0P°(ag) [According to the Arthenius definition, NaOH is a base because it produces OH" ions in solution: NaH(aq) —> Na*(aq) + O(a) In analogy to diprotic acids, some bases, sich as Sr(OH), produce two moles of OH per mole ofthe base: ‘Sr(OH) (ag) — Sr" (ag) + 2 OH™ (aq) "Table 4.2 lists common acids and bases. You can Find acids anit bases in many every- day substances, Foods such as citrus fruits and vinegar contain acids. Soap, baking Lemons, oranges, and vinegar soda, and milk of magnesia all contain bases contain acids. Vitamin Cand apitin ‘When we mix an acid and a base, the H*(ag) from the acid—whether it is weak or are acids. strong—combines with the OH (ag) from the base to form H,O() (Figure 4.18 »). Consider the reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide: Heci(ag) + NaOH(ag) —> H,0() + NaCl(aq) Acid Base Water Salt Namo of Base Formula Sodium tydroxde NaOH Lithium hydroxide OH KOH calOH Barium hydroxide Ba, ‘mania Nis (weak base) HE (weak ald) 7 neon does nat contain OH, but t produces OH in a reaction with water that occurs ony to @ ‘A Many common household produets smal extent: Ng(ag) + H,0() == NH"(29) + OH (a9). contain bases.170 chapter chamica! Quonties ad Aqueous Restons Acid-Base Reaction HCKaq) + NaOH(ag) ———> H,0() + NaClag) ‘The reaction between hyrochlorc acd and sodium hydroxide forms water and a sal, sodium chloride, which remain dissolved in the solution, Li =) HCIag) NaOH(aq) A-FIGURE 4.18 Acid-Base Reaction The reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide forms water anda sal, sodium chloride, which remains dissolved inthe solution The word satin this seas apis to any Acid-base reactions generally form water and an ionic compound—called a salt— iene compound an is thereore more that usually remains dissolved in the solution. The net ionic equation for many acid_base enral than the cmon age whlch ions i rer ony to tble sl le), H¥ (aq) + OHT (aq) > H,0(,—_WJ,-_W 48 Acid-Base and Gas-tvotuion Reeclons ATA Another example of an acid-base reaction is the reaction between sulfuric acid and | potassium hydroxide: H,SO(ag) + 2KOH(aq) > 24,0(0 + K-S0,(ag) ‘Again, notice the pattern of acid and base reacting to form water and a salt. Acid + Base—> Water + Salt (acid-base reactions) _ When writing equations for acid-base reactions, write the formula of the salt using the procedure for writing formulas of ionic compounds demonstrated in Section 3.5, EXAMPLE 4.13 Writing Equations for Acid-Base Reactions ‘Write a molecular and net ionic equation for the reaction between aqueous HI and aqueous Ba(OH), SOLUTION First identify these substances as an acid anda | H(ag) + Ba(OH)s(aq)—> H,0() + Bal,(ag) base. Begin by writing the unbalanced equation in which | *# a te | the acid and the base combine to form water anda sat. Next, balance the equation; this isthe molecular equation. | 2 HI(ag) + Ba(OH);(ag) > 2 H,0(0 + Bal,(ag) ‘Write the net ionic equation by removing the | 2Hag) + 2 O(a) > 2,00 spectator ions, or simply H*(ag) + OHW(aq) > Hz0() | FOR PRACTICE 4.13 Write a molecular and a net ionic equation for the reaction that occurs between aqueous SO, and aqueous LiOH. Acid-Base Titrations We can apply the principles of acid-base neutralization and stoichi- ‘ometry to a common laboratory procedure called a cration. In a titration, a substance in a solution of known concentration is reacted with another substance in a solution of ‘unknown concentration. For example, consider the following acid-base reaction: HCK(aq) ++ NaOH(ag) > H,0(0) + NaC\(ag) ‘The net ionic equation for this reaction eliminates the spectator ions: Haq) + OH (aq) > 1500 Suppose we have an HCI solution represented by the molecular diagram at right (we have omited the CI” jons and the HO molecules not involved in the reaction from this representation for clarity) In titrating this sample, we slowly add a solution of known OH” concentration, as shown in the molecular diagrams in Figure 4.19 ». As the OH” is added, it reacts with and neutralizes the H", forming water. At the equivalence point—the point in the titration when the number of moles of OH" added equals the number of moles of H* inikatly in solution—the titration is complete. The equivalence point is typically signaled by an indicator, a dye whose color depends on the acidity or basicity of the solution igure 4.20 »). We cover acid-base titrations and indicators in more detail in Chapter 16. In most Iboratory titrations the concentration of one ofthe reactant solutions is unknown, and the concentration of the other is precisely known. By carefully measuring the volume of cach solution required to reach the equivalence point, we can determine the concentra- tion ofthe unknown solution, as demonstrated in Example 4.14,wonentL ul soyeD1puL uonenil aseg-ppy[STRATEGIZE Since this problem involves an acid-base ‘peutralization reaction between HC! and NaOH, you start by writing the balanced equation, using the tech- riques covered earlier in this section ‘The first pat of the conceptual plan has the form solume A — moles A —> moles B. The concentration ofthe NaOH solution isa conversion factor between ‘oles and volume of NaOH. The balanced equation provides the relationship between number of moles of sO and number of moles of HCL In the second part of the conceptual plan, use the number of moles of HCI (from the first part) and the ‘yolume of HCI solution (given) to calculate the molarity of the HCI solution, 4.8. Aeid-Bose and Gae-Soltion Reactions 173 HCK(ag) + NaOH(aq) — H,0() + NaCl(ag) | CONCEPTUAL PLAN {mol HCL HCtsofation RELATIONSHIPS USED 1L= 1000 mL. 0100 mol NaOH LNsOH 1 mol HCI: 1 mol NaOH moles of solute (mol) | | | M (NaOH) 10.00 mis equivalent to 0.01000 L. Molarity (4) volume of solution (L) ‘SOLVE In the frst partof the solution, determine the | SOLUTION number of moles of HCl in the unknown solution. steno x 1% y 0D aor 1000 at: E NaOH 7 Limo HCL 4.95 3 10-* mol HC 1 mol NaOH, Inthe second part ofthe solution, divide the number of ose ees moles of HCI by the volume of the HC! solution in L. folarit X 10°? mol 25 MHC Molatity 0.01000 L ee the similar volumes of NaOH and HCl. FOR PRACTICE 4.14 FOR MORE PRACTICE 4.14 [HBr to the equivalence point? Gas-Evolution Reactions CHECK The units of the answer (M HICD are correct. The magnitude of the answer (0.125 M) is reasonable because itis similar to the molarity of the NaOH solution, as expected from the reaction stoichiometry (1 mol HCl reacts with 1 mol NaOH) and The titration of a 20.0 mL. sample of an HSO, solution of unknown concentration | requires 22,87 mL. of a 0.158 M KOH solution to reach the equivalence point. “What isthe concentration of the unknown H,SO, solution? ‘What volume (in mL) of 0.200 M NaOH do we need to titrate 35.00 mL of 0.140 M. In a gas-evolution reaction, two aqueous solutions mix to form a gaseous product that ‘bubbles out of solution. Some gas-evolution reactions form a gaseous product directly ‘hen the cation of one reactant combines with the anion of the other. For example, when sulfuric acid reacts with lithium sulfide, dihydrogen sulfide gas forms: H,SO,(aq) + Li,S(ag) > H,S(g) + Li,SO(a9)174 chapter 4 chemical Quarts and Aqueous Reactions Other gas-evolution reactions often form an intermediate product that then decomposes (breaks down into simpler substances) to form a gas. For example, when aqueous hydro- chloric acid is mixed with aqueous sodium bicarbonate, the following reaction occurs (Figure 4.21 ¥): ‘Many g3s-volutin reactions such as (aq) + NaHCO;(aq)—> HyCOs(ag) + NaCl(ag)—> H,O(N) + CO,(g) + NaC ice wean snrarens in ‘HCUOA) + NAHCOSoq)—> HyCOMag) + NaClog)— HOU) + COs) + NeCKag) 5 neil are eon sch tetas naan sl Gas-Evolution Reaction NaliCOy(aq) + Hag) H,0() + NaCl(ag) + COxLe) | When aqueous sodium bicarbonate is mixed with aqueous hydrochloric acid, gaseous CO, bubbles are the result ofthe reaction, J > FIGURE 4.21 Gas-Evlution Reaction ‘When aqueous hydrochloric acid is mixed with aqueous sda bicarbonate, gaseous CO; bubbles fut of the reaction mixture, NaHCO,(ag) HC\(eq)49 Oridaton-Resucton Rescions 75 LE 4.3 Types of Compounds That Undergo Gas-Evolution Reactions Gas Evolved Example ies us 2 Won) + RoS(e0)— HSL) + 2KCIe@) aromas od Dcrbonatas CO, 2 noNaa) + KOs) —> HOt) + COs) +2 KON) ~ Sules and bisultes 30, 2 HOVaq) + KeSOslaq) —> HOU) + SOe) + 2 KoWen) Font Ne THelog) + KOHS9)— HO) + NW) + Kee) 1¢ intermediate product, H_CO,, is not slable and decomposes into H,0 and gaseous CO;. Other important gas-evolution reactions form either HS, or NH,OH as interme- diate products C\ag) + NaHSO,(ag) > SOs(aq) + NaCl(ag)—> 1,010) + SO4fg) + NaClag) Th ftrmait product 08 poles 3 NHCllag) + NAOH(aq)—> NHO(ag) + NaCKag)—> HOU) + NH) + NaCion) (emo RR ae ” tthe etnt owe actualy forms “Table 43 lists the main types of compounds that form gases in aqueous reactions, as well | ideale, EXAMPLE 4.15 Writing Equations for Gas ‘Write a molecular equation for the gas-evolution reaction that occurs when you mix aqueons nitric acid and aqueous sodium carbonate, Begin by writing an unbalanced equation in which the cation of each reactant combines with the anion | }{NOs(aq) + NayCOs(aq). —> ee H,CO,(aq) + NaNO3(aq) | You must then recognize that HyCO,(ag) T HNOs(aq) + NagCOs(ag)—> H,O() + CO4(g) + NaNOs(ag) ee | decomposes into H,O(J) and CO,(g) and write these products into the equation. 2HNO,(ag) + NajCOs(aq)— H,0() + COx(@) + 2 NaNOs(aq) = | Finally, balance the equation. FOR PRACTICE 4.15, ‘Weite a molecular equation for the gas-evolution reaction that occurs When you mix aqueous hydrobromic acid and aqueous potassium sulfite. FOR MORE PRACTICE 4.15 ‘Write a net ionic equation for the reaction that occurs when you mix hydroiodic acid with calcium sulfide. 4.9 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Oxidation-reduction reactions or redox reactions are reactions in which electrons transfer from one reactant to the other. The rusting of iron, the bleaching of hais, and the production of electricity in batteries involve redox reactions. Many redox reactions involve the reaction of a substance with oxygen (Figure 4.22»): 4 Fes) + 3 On(g) +2 Fe, 046) rusting of iron) 2CyHhig(D + 25 O,(g) + 16 COs(g) + 18H,O(§) (combustion of octane) 2 Hye) + Ox(g)—>2 206) (combustion of hydrogen) sdtin-refuction eactons are covered in nore deal in Chapter 38.] i 176 chapter 4 chemical Quanttas and Aquous Reactors > FIGURE 4.22 Oxidation-Reducton Reaction The hydrogen in the balloon reacts with oxygen upon ignition 9 form gaseous water (which is ispesed inthe flame) The eatin between sod and axeen fms ater exis a well. Helpful Bemonle: 011 RI 6-Oridation ts Less; Reduction Is ain, The abit ofan element attract letrons ins eboial bond called etrneentity. We ovr eletronegatity in more deta in Section [ Hydrogen loses electron density (oxidation) and chlorine gains electron density (reduction), A-FIGURE 4.23 Redox with Partial lecuon Transfer When hydrogen ‘bonds to chlorine, the electrons aze unevenly shared, resulting in an increase of electron density (reduction) for chlorine and a decrease in electron 210@) Hydrogen and oxygen react to form gaseous water, However, redox reactions need not involve oxygen. Consider, for example, the reaction between sodium and chlorine to form sodium chloride (NaCI), depicted in Figure 4.24 »: 2Na(s) + Ch(g) > 2NaCl(s) This reaction is similar to the reaction between sodium and oxygen, which forms sodium oxide: 4Na(s) + On(g)—>2Na,0(6) In both cases, a metal (which has a tendency to lose electrons) reacts with a nonmetal (which has a tendency to gain electrons). In both cases, metal atoms lose electrons to nonmetal atoms. A fundamental definition of oxidation is the loss of electrons, and a fundamental definition of reduetion is the gain of electrons. ‘The transfer of electrons does not need to be a complete transfer (as occurs in the formation of an ionic compound) for the reaction to qualify as oxidation-reduction. For example, consider the reaction between hydrogen gas and chlorine gas: Hh(g) + Ch(g) > 2 HCI) Even though hydrogen chloride is « molecular compound with a covalent bond, and even though the hydrogen has not completely transferred its electron to chlorine during the reac- tion, you can see from the electron density diagrams (Figure 4.23) that hydrogen has lost some of its electron density—it has partially transferred its electron to chlorine, In the reac- tion, hydrogen is oxidized and chlorine is reduced and, therefore, ths isa redox reaction Oxidation States Identifying whether or not a reaction between a metal and a nonmetal is @ redox reaction is fairly straightforward because of ion formation, But how do we identify redox reac- tions that occur between nonmetals? Chemists have devised a scheme to track electrons before and after a chemical reaction. In this scheme—which is like bookkeeping for electrons—each shared electron is assigned to the atom that attracts the electrons most strongly, Then a number, called the oxidation state or oxidation number, is given to each atom based on the electron assignments. In other words, the oxidation number of an atomn in a compound is the “charge” it would have if all shared electrons were assigned to the atom with the greatest attraction for those electrons. For example, consider HCl. Since chlorine attracts electrons more strongly than hydrogen, we assign the two shared electrons in the bond to chlorine; then H (which has lost an electron in our assignment) has an oxidation state of +1, and Cl (which has gainedOxidation-Reduction Reaction without Oxygen 2Nae) + Chg) ———> 2 NaC) Electrons are transferred from sodium to chlorine, fring sodium chloride Sodium is oxidized and chlorine reduced Na(s) Hletron transfer, ‘one electron in our assignment) has an oxidation state of —1. Notice that in contrast to ionic charges, which are usually written with the sign of the charge after the magnitude (J+ and I~, for example), oxidation states are written with the sign of the charge before the magnitude (+1 and —1, for example). You can use the following rules to assign oxidation states to atoms in elements, ions, and compounds. Rules for Assigning Oxidation States Examples (These rules are hierarchical, If any two rules conflict, follow the rule that is higher onthe list) 1. The oxidation state of an atom in a free ca Gh element is 0. ieee eee In their compounds, nonmetals are assigned oxidation states according to the table at right. Entries at the top of the table take precedence over entries at the Group 54 bottom of the table, 49° Ovidaton-Redvevon Reactions A177 ae Ncs, Ifso, what element is oxidized? What element is reduced? We can use the oxidation state rules to assign oxidation states to all elements on both sides of the equation, cH2s — Oxidation states: @ 4 LReduction’ Oxidation ‘Carbon changes from an oxidation state of 0 to an oxidation state of +4. In terms of ‘our electron bookkeeping scheme (the assigned oxidation state), carbon loses electrons: and is oxidized. Sulfur changes from an oxidation state of O to an oxidation state of —2. In terms of our electron bookkeeping scheme, sulfur gains electrons and is reduced. In terms of oxidation states, oxidation and reduction are defined as follows: ‘+ Oxidation: An increase in oxidation state Remember tat eection + Reduction: A decrease in oxidation state cdaton state tection in | EXAMPLE 4.17 Using Oxidation States to Identify Oxidation and Reduction ‘Use oxidation states to identify the element that is oxidized and the element that is reduced in the following redox reaction. Mag(s) + 2 Hz0(D > Mg(OH)a(aa) + Ho(9) sowuTion Begin by assigning oxidation states to each atom in the reaction. Mg(s) + 2H,0(1) —> Mg(OH),(ag) + Ha(g) Oxidation states: 4 tat ° + — reduction + Oxidation ‘Since Mg increased in oxidation state, it was oxidized, Since H decreased in oxidation state, it was reduced.180 caper 4 chemical quate and Aquous Reactions FoR PRACTICE 4.17 Use oxidation states to ienty the clement that is oxidized and tbe element hat is rece in the following redox eaton Sn(s) + 4 HNO;(aq) + SnO,(s) + 4 NO,(g) + 2 H,O(g) FoR MORE PRACTICE 4.47 Determine whether or no each zeaton i redox reaction. Ihe reaction sa redox rection, ideally which element is oxidized and which sede. (a) Hg,(NO;),(ag) + 2 KBr(aq) —> Hg,Br,(s) + 2 KNO;(ag) (b) 4 Al(s) + 3. 0,6) > 2 ALOs(s) [© C20@) + Conk)» C2005) Notice that oxidation and reduction must occur together. If one substance loses electrons (oxidation) then another substance must gain electrons reduction). A substance {hat causes the oxidation of another substance isan oxidizing agent. Oxygen, for example, is an excellent oxidizing agent. In a redox reaction, the oxidizing agent is always reduced. ‘A substance that causes the reduction of another substance isa reducing agent. Hydrogen, for example, as well asthe group 1A and group 2A metals (because of their tendency to Jose electrons) are excellent reducing agents. Ina redox reaction, the reducing agent is always oxidized. In Section 18.2 you will learn more about redox reactions, including how to balance them, For now, you need to be able to identify redox reactions, as well as oxidizing and reducing agents, according to the following guidelines. Redox reactions: + Any reaction in which there isa change in the oxidation states of atoms in going from reactants to products Ina redox reaction: + The oxidizing agent oxidizes another substance (and is itself reduced). + Tho reducing agent reduces another substance (and is itself oxidized). a | | EXAMPLE 4,18 Identifying Redox Reactions, Oxidizing Agents, and Reducing Agents | Determine whether each reaction is an oxidation-reduction reaction. For each. | oxidation-reduction reaction, identify the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent. | @ 2Mg(s) + Ox(@) > 2Mg06) |) 2HB1(aq) + Ca(OH)s(aq) > 2 HOW) + CaBr.kag) (©) Zn(s) + Fe**(ag)—> Zn" (ag) + Fe(s) SOLUTION | This is @ redox reaction because magnesium (2) 2Mg(s) + Ox(g) —> 2MgOIs) | increases in oxidation number (oxidation) and oo 2 | ‘oxygen decreases in oxidation number (reduction). Li reduction Oxidation Oxidizing agent: O, | Reducing agent: Mg—— 49 Oridelor-Reducson Reactions 8 “pis is nora redox reaction because none of the | (py dom undergo a change in oxidation number. 2 HBraq) + Ca(OH Xan) > 21,00) + Cabra) ae CxOHa(aa) = 21,00 + Cab (aa) Ths is a redox reaction because zie neeases in| (a = | oxidation number (oxidation) and iron decreases in Zn(s) + Bet ee | ee eae eres, | Zn(s) + Fe**(ag) —> Zn? (ag) + Fels) | LL tin ‘Oxidizing agent: Fe Reducing agent: Zn _ | Determine whether or not each reaction is @ redox reactio, D mn. _ | entify the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent, For all redox reactions, ED | @) 21i@) + Ch) > 2 LiClO) |) 2AlG) + 3 So®*(aq) > ZAP "(aa + 3 Suis) (6) POND, x(ag) + 2 LiCl(aq) > PCh() + 2LINO,(agy (a) CG) + Ong) > COal@) tae ec Which statement is true? in 4.9 Oxidation and Reduction (a) A redox reaction involves either the transfer of an cleo oxidation state of an element. (0) If any of the reactants or products in a reaction contain redox reaction. oxygen, {© Inaresction, oxidation can occur independently of reduction, @ na redox reaction, any increase in the oxidation ctompanied by a decrease in the oxidation state of aro fon or a change in the the reaction is a tate of a. reactant: must be actant. Bleached Blonde ave you ever bleached your hair? Most home kits for hair i Scuiain bydrozen peroxide (1,02) an excel, _-‘bricting $ 4s oxidizing agent, When applied to hair, hydrogen peroxide 5 oxidizes melanin, the dark pigment that gives har its colo, Once melanin is oxidized, it no Tonger imparts a dark on leaving the hair with the familiar bleached look. Hyd, peroxide also oxidizes other components of hai. Fore, protein molecules in hair contain —SH groups called th Hydrogen peroxide oxidizes these thiol grups to sulfonic groups, SOSH. The oxidation of thiol groups to sulfonic acid groups causes changes in the proteins that compose hair, making the hair more brittle and more likely to tangle Consequently, people with heavily bleached hair generally use conditioners, which contain compounds that form thin,Baa 6T'p aDULOVUd Hos Mor + Boor — Hoe HO'HD ¢ | _“OT'€ HonDas ut sour: - ‘OFH Due 799 oH + G09 — 0 + MHOHD om Buy Nountos (HOFHO) 1ogo9Te [Aipats pinby] Jo uonsnguros oxy suonoeay uorsnquios 10j suonenbg BUNLIA BE"y ATAINYXA of worrenbo poouyteg v u5y4 Mone Oo + HT 191898 UHIO} © WaBAxO HHL UaROApAy Jo WORwAI Mp 00 (0 + 628 aha twonsnquoo O00 — )"O 6g :ABog aygeaousy age 88 TEEN my ‘pIXOIp Woareo U0 0} WoBKKO 66 ABs 282905 we %61e 700 2tp apnysur suonsvar u iodn z21eM puv appxo1p fe9tuNO§ 0} wonwaN WoRSRLIOD ‘soBero10q ayoyOO|e Uy joyooTe 2 ‘qouetpg ‘paonpar st waBéxo pur pazyprxo sf Hoge ‘tonseer ST Uy OOHE + FOS Oe + PHD” save pus aprxoIp Hoge ULO} 03 UaBKxO YN sioeaN (PHD) see perme ondeyD sm ‘yo s09 as NOK se “ajdurexe Jo, “weay UID ose suoROUAL WORSAgUIOL “ore SuIpNoAT Eqns # Jo oN pause nok sy 4) tmp LOH Pantsop sage suoneas uoRsNquIO;) sexdeqD ST) “wonovar xopas Jo ada v ‘suonseax uonsnquioo patatinoaua 2A vopduneven 09'S" Sep UNDUE A suogoeey uoRsnquiog 4 asne00q 9001 01 wins ou ext saquiny) 210 MONEY ABlougy nqaoa sq p2onpoi st ssn sa 81 ABzoue s {101008 ano Jo ysout asme90q 1 Jo uonoes dumuodo ay ‘Suonoeoy smoenby ue semen sway piste BEChaptarin Review —— 183. ‘Sulfur and fluorine reat to form sulfur hexavoride: S@) + 3 Fig) > SF&e) 150.0 g Sis allowed to react as completely as possible with 105.0 g P(e), what mass ofthe excess reactant is left? a) 20588 9) 457¢R ©) 15088 @ 363BF, ‘A reaction has a theoretical yield of 45.8 g. When the reaction is cartied out, 372 g of the product is obtained. ‘What is the percent yield? a) 55.1% b) 448% 2) 13% @) 812% “What is the molarity ofa solution containing 55.8 g of ‘MgCh dissolved in 1.00 L of solution? (Q10, Whats the net ionic equation forthe reaction that occurs _when aqueous solutions of KOH and SiC are mixed?” a) K*(aq) + Coq) > KCK) b) Se*[ag) + 2 OH (ag) > SHOH)x(8) ©) H*(ag) + OH (ag) 1,00 {None of the above because no Fenton occurs QU. Whats the net ionic equation for the reaction that occurs ‘when aqueous solutions of KOH and HINO are mixed? 8) RY(q) + NOs (ap) —> KNOG) ‘b) NOs (aq) + OH" (aq) NO;OH(s) ©) HY(aq) + OH (aq) HO {8) None of he above because no reaction occurs. Q12. What isthe net oni equation forthe reaction that ceurs when aqueotssoltions of KHCOs and HBr a) 358M ») 17M a ©) 0.586M ®) 0558M. ) Kaa) + CoH07 a Ke (aq) —> KC3H04) ‘What mass (in grams) of Mg(NO3) is present in 145 ml. of 1B) Hag) + HCO; (ap) > COx8) + HO 40.150 M solution of Mg(NOS),? €) Hag) + OF (aa) > HOO » 3238 ») 00228 4) None of the above because no reaction occu. ©) 188s 13g Q13. What isthe oxidation state of carbon in CO? “What volume of a 1.50 M HCt solution should you use to a prepare 2.00 1 of a 0.100 M HCl solution? ya a) 0.3001 b) 01331 O38 ) 300L @) 2007 a2 Potassium iodide reacts with lead) nitrate inthe folow- 44, Sodium reacts with water according tothe reaction: ing precipitation reaction: 2Na(s) + 2 HO(0) + 2NaOH(oq) + Hea) 2 KIag) + PoONOs)sag) ~* 2 KNOs(aq) + POLG) ‘entity the oxidizing agent ‘What minimum volume of 0.200 M potassium iodide 5) Nat) solution i required to completely precipitate all of the ») #00) lead in 155.0 mL of a 0.112.M lead) nitrate solution? ©) NsOH(aq) a) 348 mL ) 868 mL & Hye) eee heals QIS. Identify the comect balanced equation forthe combustion Which solution will form a precipitate when mixed with a ‘of propane (C3H4)- solution of aqueous Na,CO3? 8) Caliyg) > 4 Falg) + 3 (9) a) KNOx(ag) ¥) GHG) + 50:@)—> 412048) + 3 00x) by NaBr(aq) ©) CHa) + 3 0,6) > 4,018) + 3.00, ©) NHCKag) ) 2C Hy) + 9.Oxlg) > 6 HaCOS(g) + 2 FRE) @ CuCh¢aa) @'st Ort Ot OU OW OH O6 OF ML O9 OS OF OE OT (P)TsHMeY Key Terms Section 4.2 molarity (M) (152) ‘Section 4.7 ‘tration (171), stoichiometry (L41) Stock ston 1) icelar equation (166) egalence pont (171) Compton euaion indator Section 4.3 section 4.8 Soe ‘am Timing reactant (145) steal (159) ee ten Section 4.9 theoretical yield (145) stong secre (159) triton section edo) actual yield (146) nonelectrolyte (160) Section 4.8 reaction (175), percent yield (146) strong acid (160) acid-base reaction oxidation (176) weak (160) (ecole reaction) redcon (76) Section 4 Weak leeolt (160) ties) Orit ae onaon solution (152) soluble (160) _gas-evolution reaction (168) number) (176) ase caaie insoluble (160) Archenius definitions (169) oxidizing agent (180) iam hydronium ion (169) seducing agent (180) ‘aqueous solution (152) Section 4.6 ee aA med Gute soon 152) Preeblatonsesion 16a) movortcscid ‘concentrated solution (152) precipitate (162) ena184 captor chemist Quases and Aqueous Reactions Key Concepts Climate Change and the Combustion of Fossil Fuels (4.1) > Groenhouse gases warm Barth by tapping some ofthe soaight that penetrates Earth's atmosphere, Global warming, resulting fom Hsing atmospheric esrbon dioxide lovls, is potentially harmful > "The largest atmospheric carbon dioxide source isthe burning of fossi fuels. Tis can be verified by reaction stoichiometry. Reaction Stoichiometry (4.2) > Reection stoichiometry refers to the numerical relationships ‘between the reactants and products in balanced chemical equation > Reaction stoichiometry allows us to predict, for example, the amount of product that can be formed for & given amount of reactant, or how much of one reactant is required to react with a given amount of another, Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield (4.3) > When a chemical reaction actually occurs, the reactants ace ‘usually not present inthe exact stoichiometric ratios specified by the balanced chemical equation. The limiting resctat is the one ‘that is available in the smallest stichiometsic quantity—it will completely consumed inthe reaction and it limits the amount of product that can be made, > Any reactant that does not limit the amount af prolct is said to bein excess, > The amount of product that can be made from the limiting reactant i the theoretical yield > The actual yield—always equal to or less than the theoretic yield—is the amount of product that is actually made when the reavtion is carted out, > The percentage ofthe theoretical yield that is actually produced isthe percent yield Solution Concentration and Stoichiometry (4.4) > An aqueous solution is @ homogeneous mixture of water (the solvent) with another substance (the solute). > We often express the concentration of a solution in molarity, the number of moles of solute per liter of solution > We can us the molarites and volumes of reactant solutions to pee- ice the smount of product that will form in an aqueous reaction. ‘Aqueous Solutions and Precipitation Reactions (4.5, 4.6) > Solutes that completly dissociate (or completely ionize in the case ofthe acids) to ions in solution are strong electrolytes and their solurons are good conductors of electcity > Solutes that only partially dissociate (or partially ionize) are ‘weak electrolytes, > Solutes tha do not dissociate (or ionize) are nonelectrolytes > A substance that dissolves in water to form a solution is soluble. > In a precipitation reaction, we mix two aqueous solutions and a solid—or preipitate—forms, > The solubility utes are an empirical set of guidelines tha help pre- Ait the solubilities of ionic compounds; these rules are especially ‘useful when determining whether or nota precpiete will frm. Equations for Aqueous Reactions (4.7) > We can represent an aqueous reaction with a molecular equation, ‘hich shows the complete neutral formula for each compound in the reaction > We can also represent an aqueous reaction witha complete ionic ‘equation, which shows the dissociated nature of the aqueous ‘onic compounds. > A third representation of an aqueous reaction is the net ionic ‘equation, in which the spectetorions—those that do not change: in the course ofthe reaction—are left out ofthe equation Acid-Base and Gas-Evolution Reactions (4.8) > Iman acid-base reaction, an aid, a substance that produces Hin solution, reacts with a base, a substance that produces OH” in solution, andthe two neutalize each other, producing water (cr in some cases « weak electrolyte) > An acid-base titration is laboratory procedure in which a veac- tion is carted to its equivalence point—the point at which the reactants are in exact stoichiometic proportions; titrations ere tseful in determining the concentrations of unknov solutions > In ges-evolution reactions, to aqueous solutions combine and a 88 is produced. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions (4,9) > In oxidation-reduction reactions clectros to another substance. > The substance that loses electrons is oxidized and the substance that gain them is reduce, > An oxidation state is 2 fictitious charge given to each atom in ‘redox reaction by assigning all shared electrons to the atom withthe greater attraction for those electrons. Oxidation states are an imposed electronic bookkeeping scheme, not an actual physical state > ‘The oxidation state of an atom eereases upon reduction > A combustion reaction is a specific type of oxidation-reduction reaction in which a substance reacts with oxygen, emiting heat and forming one or more oxygea-containing produc fone substance transfers ses upon oxidation and Key Equations and Relationships Masso Mass Conversion: Stuichometty (42) mass A —» amount A (in moles) —> ammount B (ia moles) —> mass B Percent il (43) actual yt % yield se Theoretical yield X 100% Molarty(M): Solution Concentration (8.4) = Mount of solute (in mal) volume of solution GarL) M (rr Solution Ditton (4.4) MV, = MV Soliton Stoichiometry (4.4) volume A —> amount A (in moles) ‘amount B (in moles) — volume B: Key Learning Outcomes ‘Chapter Objectives Assossment “Calculations Imohing the Stoichiometry ofa Reaction (4.2) Example 41,42 For Practice 41,42 Exercises 31-36 Determining the Limiting Reactant and Calculating eoretical anc Parent Vea (4:3) i, ts A Calculating and Using Molarity as a Conversion Factor (4.4) Sxample 43,44 ForPractice 43,44 Exercises 41-51 Example 45,4.6 For Practice 4.5, 4.6 For More Practice 45, 4.6 Exercises 53-60 Determining Solution Dilutions (4.4) Example 4.7. Por Practice 47 For More Practice 4:7 Brercises 63,64 Using Solution Stoichiomety to Find Volumes and Amounts (4.8) Example 4.8. For Practice 48 For More Practice 48 Bxercises 65-67 Predicting Whether a Compound 1s Soluble (4.5) Example 49 ForPractce 49. Exercises 73, 74 ‘tng Equations for Precipitation Reactions (4.6) . Example 410, 4.11 For Practice 4.10, 4.11 Exercises 75-78 ‘ting Complete onic and Net lonio Equations (4.7) Wing Equations for Acid-Base Reactions (4.8) Example 4.12 For Practice 4.12 For More Practice 4.12 Exercises 79, 80 Example 4.13 For Practice 4.13 Exercises 83, 84 Calculations nvoving Acid-Base Tvations (4.8) Example 4.14 For Practice 4.14 For More Practice 4.14 Exercises 87, 88 Weng Equations for Gas Evolution Reaction (4.8) Exatnple 4.15 For Praclice 4.15 For More Pracdice 415 Exercises 89, 90 Example 4.16 For Practice 4.16 Exercises 91-94 Idetiving Redox Reactions, Oidng Aen, and Reducing Agents Using Oxidation States (4.9) Example 4.17,4.18 For Practice 4.17,4.18 For More Practice 4.17. Exercises 95, 96 Example 419 For Practice 4.19 Exercises 97, 98186 EXERCISES Review Questions chapter 4 Chez Quontes and Aqueous Reactors 1 What is reaction stoichiometry? What is the significance of the coefficients ina balanced chemical equation? 2. Ina chemical reaction, what is the limiting reactant? The theo- retical yicld? The percent yield? What do we mean when ¥& say areactant is in excess? 13. We typically calculate the percent yield using the actual yield and theoretical yield in units of mass (g or kg). Would the per ‘cent yield be diferent ifthe actual yield and theoretical yield ‘were in wnits of amount (moles)? 4. What is an aqueous solution? What is the difference between ‘the solute and the solvent? 5. Whatis molarity? How is it useful? 6. Explain how a strong electrolyte, a weak electrolyte, and a non electrolyte difer 7. Explain the difference between a strong acid and a weak acid {8 What does it mean for a compound to be soluble? Insoluble? 9, What are the solubility ules? How are they useful? 10, What are the cations and anions whose compounds are usually soluble? What are the exceptions? What are the anions whose ‘Compounds axe mostly insoluble? What are the exceptions? 11. What isa precipitation reaction? Give an exasnple 12, How can you predict whether a precipitation reaction will our ‘upon mixing two aqueous solutions? 13, Explain how molecular equation, « complete ionic equation, and « ne ionic equation differ 14. What isthe Arthenius definition of an acid? A base? 18, Whats an acid-base eaction? Give an exemple. 16. Explain the principles behind an acid-base titration. What is an indicator? 17, What is gas-evoltion reaction? Give an example. 18, What seacant types give rise to gas-evolution reactions? 19, What isan oxidation-redution reaction? Give an example 20, What are oxidation states? 21. How can oxidation states be used o identify redox reactions? 22, Whathappens toa substance when itbecomes oxidized? Reduced? 23, In a redox reaction, which reactant is the oxidizing agent? ‘The reducing agent? ‘24, What isa combustion reaction? Why are they important? Give an example. Problems by Topic Reaction Stoichiometry 28, Consider the unbalanced equation for the combustion of Dexane: Cathe) + 0168) + COL) + 12018) ‘Balance the equation and determine how many moles of Op are required to react completely with 7.2-moles of Cis. 26, Consider the unbalanced equation for the neutralization of scatie acid HC H,O,(aq) + Ba(OH){aq) + HOW + Ba(CzH,0n(a0) Balance the equation and determine how many moles of Ba(Oli)s are required to completely neutralize 0461 mole of HCHO, 27. Calculate how many moles of NO, form when each quantity of reactant completely reat. 2 N:0s(g) —? 4 NOG) + O2(6) 8, 25 mol NOs b. 68molN.0s © 1528Ni0s 4. 287 ke N05 28, Calculate how many moles of NH form when each quantity of reactant completely eats 3 Nd > 4 NHa) + NA) a. 26 mol Nafle 3:55 mot Nate c. 653 ¢ Nie a, 488 KEN 29, Consider the balanced equation: Si0{6) + 3C() = SIC) + 2.0) Complete the table showing the appropriate umber of moles of reactants and products. Ifthe numberof moles ofa reactant is Provided, ili the required ammount of the oter reactant, 8 wre asthe moles of each product tha forms. Ifthe number of moles of & product is provided, fil in the required amount of tach reectant to make that amount of product, as well as the ‘mount of the other product that is made. Mole Mol co Mot SiO, Mot sic 30, Consider the balanced equation ‘2Nalu(a) + NsOag)—> 3a) + 4 2008) Complete the table showing the appropriate number of moles of reactants and products, Ifthe aumber of moles ofa reactant is provided, fl in the required amount ofthe other reactant as fvell asthe moles ofeach product chat forms. Ifthe murber of Toles of a product is provided, ill in the required amount of ‘och reactant to make that amount of product, as well as the amoust ofthe other product that is made, Mol Nal, Mot ¥:0 Mol NO, ‘Mot N21. Hydrobromie acid dissolves solid ron acorn othe reaction: Fo(s) + 2 HBH(ay) > FeB(ag) + Hale) ‘What mass of HB (in g) do you ned to dissolve a 3.2 g pure iron bar on a padlock? What mass of H would the complete reaction of the iron bar preduce? 32, Sulfuric acid dissolves aluminum metal according 10 the 2 Alls) + 3 HSO,(aq)— AlySOds(an) + 3 HAG) Soppose you want to dissolve an slaminam block witha mass of 152 g, What minitnara mass of H3SO, Ging) do you need? ‘What mass of Hy gas (in ) does the complete reaction of the atuminum block produce? 233. For each of the reactions, calculate the mass (n grams) ofthe product that forms when 3.67 g ofthe underlined reactant com- pletely reacts. Assume that cere is more than enough of the oer reactant 2. Ba(s) + Ch(g) —> Bac) B. CaO) + COnEg)—> CACOS) «. 2Mg@) + OxG@) +2 MeO) 4. 4 Alls) + 3 Onl) > 2 AL 0x0) ‘34, For each of the reactions, calculate the mas (in grams) of the product that forms when 15:39 g of the underlined reactant completly reaets, Assume dat there is more than enough ofthe other reactant. 3. 2KG) + Chg) —>2 KK) b. 2KG) + Br) 2 KBHG) . 4Cr(s) + 3 Oxg) 2 Cr0\65) 4. 2S1(5) + Ox)» 2 51066) 35, For each of the acid-base reactions, ealulate the mass (in ‘rams ofeach acid necessary to completely react with and ne tralze 4.85 g of the base 8. HICK ag) + NaOH (aq) > H_OXD ++ NaClag) B. 2HNOsaq) + CalOH)a9) —> 2H,O() + Ca(NO,(e0) © H,SO,(ap) + 2 KOH(aq) > 21,00) + K,SOdag) 36. For each precipitation reaction, calculate how many grams of the first reactant are necessary to completely seat with 55.8 ofthe second reactant. 2. 2Ki(ag) + PO(NO}) (ap) —> PoL{0) + 2 KNOYCa2) bh. NogCOs(ag) + CuCl(ag)—+ CxCO4() + 2 NaCkan) © K,SO4(og) + SANO a9) > ‘150(6) + 2KNO¥ag) Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield 3. For the following reaction, detecmine the limiting reactant for ‘each of the initial amounts of eactants 2Na(s) + Brylg) > 2NaBr(s) a. 2molNa, 2 mol Brp D. 1.8 mol Na, 1.4 mol Bry © 2.5 mol Na, 1 mol Br, @. 12.6 mol Na, 6. mol Bry ‘38 Find the limiting reactant for each intial amount of reactants, 4 Alls) + 3 03(@) +2 ALO) . Lmol Al, 1 mol O> b, 401 Al,26mol O; © I6molAl,13mol0, 4. 7.4 mol Al, 65 mol O; 39. Consider the reaction: 4HCIg) + Og) >2 HLO(@) + 2 Chg) Each molecular diagram represents an initial mixture of the reactants, How many molecules of Clz would be formed series 187 from the reaction mixture that produces the greatest amount of products? a.o \@o%o e @ 40, Consider the reaction: 2CH,OH(g) + 3 0,(g) >2.COyg) + 4104s) Bach of the molecular diagrams represents an initial mixture of the reactants. How many CO, molecules would be formed from the rezction mixture that produces the greatest amount ‘of products? @ 41, Catealate the theoretic yield of the reduc noes) foreach inal smownt of eaten. Ti) + 2CHe) 2 4mol i, 4 mol Cl © 124017, 188 mol Cl, 42, Calculate the theoretical yield of product (in moles) for each intl amount of reactant 3 Mais) + 20;(¢) > Mo?) 2. 3molMn,3mol0, —b 4mol Mn, 7 moO; © 275 mol Mo, 4358 mol Op 48, Zin) lide reacts with oxygen aconding oe Facto: 2989) + 3048) 220019) + 2 S03) A retction mixture inialy contains 4:2 mol ZnS and 6.8 mol Os, One the reaction has oocured as completely as posible, ovhat amount (in moles of te exces resctantsat? 4, lia sue resets with hydrochloric ac according to he FeS(o) + 2 HCl) > PoC) + 18) ‘A reaction mixture initlly contains 0223 mol FeS and 0.652 mol HCL Once the reaction has ooured completly as sible, what amovnt in moles) of the excess reactant set? 45, Forthe reaction shown calculate the theoretical yield of prot Gn grams) for ach nts! amount of reactants. ZAG) + 3 Ch(g)—>2 AICI) 4. 20gAL.20¢Ch b 75 gAL.2486Ch ©. 0235 gAl. 115 Cl 46, Foc the rection shown, calculate the theoretical ye ofthe product in prams) for ech iil amount of reactants iG) + 2 FG) > TE) 2. 50¢71.508F, b 2487, 165F © 0253 15,0288 5 Fy 47 Ion) sf reacts with etbon monoxide according tthe = Fe,0,(s) + 3 CO(g) > 2 Fe(s) + 3 COg) A reaction mixtre initially contins 22.55 @ Fe,0, and 14:78 CO. Once the reaction has occured as completely a5 possible, what mass (i) af he excess reactant i et? »TICLS) b. Tmol T, 17 mol Cl,188 chapter 4 Chemical Quantties and Aqueous Reactions 48. Elemental phosphorus reacts with chlorine ges according to the equation: Pals) + 6 Ch{g) > 4 PCL ‘A reaction mixture initially contains 45.69 g Pand 131.3 g Ch. (Once the reaction has occurred as completely as possible, what ‘mass (ing) of the excess reactant is left? 49. Lead ions ean be precipitated from solution with KCE according, to the reaction Pb? (aq) + 2. KCI(ag)—> POCH{s) + 2 Kaa) When 28.5 g KClis added to solution containing 25.7 2 Pb, @ PECL precipitate forms. The precipitate is tered and dried and found to have a mass of 294 g. Determine the limiting reactant, theoretical yeld of PbCl and percent yield for the reaction. I. Magnesium oxide can be made by heating magnesium metal in the presence of oxygen. The balanced equation for the reaction is 2Mg(s) + Ox{g) > 2 MgO) When 10.1 g of Mg reacts with 105g Op 11.9 g MgO is collected. Determine the limiting reactant, theoretical yield, and percent yield forthe reaction SL. Urea (CH,N,O) is a common fertilizer that is synthesized by the reaction of ammonia (NH) with earbon dioxide: 2NH(aq) + COs(aq) > CH.N,OCag) + 1-000 Inn industrial synthesis of urea, a chemist combines 136.4 kg of ammonia with 211.4 kg of carbon dioxide and obtains 168.4 kg of ures, Determine the limiting reactant, theoretical Yield of urea, and percent yield for the reaction. ‘52. Many computer chips are manufactured from silicon, whiely ‘curs in nature as SiO», When SiO; is bested to melting, it reacts with solid carbon 10 form liquid silicon and carbon ‘monoxide gas. In an industrial preparation of silicon, 155.8 ke ‘of SiO, reacts with 78.3 kg, of carbon to produce 66.1 kg of silicon, Determine the limiting reactant, theoretical yield, and Percent yield forthe reaction, Solution Concentration and Solution Stoichiometry 53, Calculate the molarity ofeach solution. ‘a. 3.25 mol of LiCl in 2.78 L solution B, 28.33 g CalysO, in 1.28 L of solution © 32.4 mg NaCl in 122.4 mL of solution 54, Calculate the molasity ofeach solution. 8. 038 mol of LiNOs in 6.14 L of solution b, 728 g CyH,0 in 234 L of solution © 12.87 mg KI in 1124 mL of solution 55. What isthe molarity of NOS" in each solution? 0.150 KNO, ’ 0.150 M C(O), ©. 0.150 M AKINOs)s ‘56. What is the molarity of CI" in each solution? 1, 0.200 M NaCl b. 0.150 MSiCl, © 0.100M AIC 57. How many moles of KCI are contained in each solution? a. 0.556 L of a2.3M KCI solution D. 18 Lof 20.85 M KCI solution © 11d mL of a 1.85 M KCI solution ‘58. What volume of 0.200 M ethanol solution contains each amount in moles of ethanol? ‘4. 0.45 mol ethanol © 12 x 10? mol ethanol , 1.22 mol ethanol 59, A laboratory procedure calls for making 400.0 mL of a 1.1 M NaNO, solution, What mass of NaNOs (in g) is needed? 60, & chemist wants to make 5.5 L of a 0:30 M CaCl solution ‘What mass of CaCl, (ing) should the chemist use? 61, If 123 mL of a 1.1 M glucose solution is diluted to 500.0 mi, ‘what s the molarity ofthe diluted solution? (62, 1£3.5 Lofa4.8 M SiC, solution s ifuted to 451, what is the molarity ofthe diluted solution? 63. To what volume should you dilute 50.0 ml. of a 12 M stock HNO; solution to obtain a 0.100 M HINO, solution? (64, To what volume should you dilute 25 mL of a 10.0 M H,S0, solution to obtzin a 0,150 M 1,80, solution? 65. Consider the precipitation reaction: 2NasPOd(ag) + 3 CUCL (a9) > CasPO)s) + 6 NaCKag) ‘What volume of 0.175 M NajPO, solution is necessary to completely reat with 95.4 mL of 0.102 M CuCl? 666, Consider the reaction LisS(ag) + Co(NO3);(a9) -> 2 LINO,(ay) + CoS(s) ‘What volume of 0.150 MLipS solution is required to completely react with 125 mL of 0.150 M Co(NO3),? (67, What is the minieoum amount of 6.0 M H,SO, necessary to produce 25.0 g of Hy(g) according to the reaction between aluminum and sulfuric acid? 2AM) + 3HSO¢ag)— AlGO.)x(09) + 3 Hale) 68. What isthe molarity of ZnCl that forms when 25.0 g of zine completely reacts with CuCl, according tothe following reac tion? Assume a final volume of 275 mL, Za(s) + CaC(aq) > ZnCl{ag) + Cuts) 69, A 25.0 mL sample of a 1.20 M potassium chloride solution is ‘mixed with 15.0 mi of a 0.900 M barium nitrate sotution and ‘his precipitation reaction occurs 2KCK(ag) + Ba(NO};(09)—> BaCh(s) + 2 KNOs(ag) “The solid BaCl, is collected, dried, and found to have a mass of 245 g, Determine the limiting reactant, the theoretical yield, tnd the percent yield 70. A 55.0 mi. sample of a 0.102 M potassium sulfate solution is, mixed with 35.0 ml. of 20.114 M lead(I) acetate solution and this precipitation reaction occurs K,S04(aq) + Pb(C3H,0;)(aq) —> 2 KCH,Oslaq) + PESO,() ‘The solid POSO, is collected, dried, and found to have a mass of LOL g, Determine the limiting reactant, the theoretical yield, and the percent yield ‘Types of Aqueous Solutions and Solubility "7 For each compound (all water soluble), would you expect the resulting aqueous solution to conduct electrical current? a CsCl bCHOH —c. CANO), dl. CeHicOe “72, Classify each compound as astrong electrolyte or nonelectolyt. a. MgB, b. CioyOy)&. NasCO, d. KOH 7. Determine whether each compound is soluble or insoluble, If the compound is soluble, list che fons present in solution. a. AENO; DB. PL(CAHO2), KNOy 4. (NHL)aS 74, Determine whether each compound is soluble or insoluble. For te soluble compounds, list the ions present in solution a. Ash , CuyPO)2 €CoCO, a. KPO,Precipitation Reactions 75. Complete and balsuce each equation. If no resction occurs, write "NO REACTION” a, Lillag) + BaStag)—> b, KCliag) + CaS(a)—> ‘e. CaBr,(aq) + NasCO,(aq) > 4. NeOH(a9) + FeCis(a9) —> 76. Complete and balance each equation. If no reaction occurs, ‘write “NO REACTION.” a, NaNOy(ag) + KCI(aq) —> b. NaClag) + Hg(CaH,0)(aa) -> 1 (NHL);S04(a2) + SrCly(ag) > 4. NH,Cl(ag) + AgNOs(aq)—> ‘71. Write & molecular equation for the precipitation reaction that cocurs (if any) when each pair of aqueous solutions is mixed. If ‘no reaction occurs, write “NO REACTION.” potassium carbonate and les(UD) nitrate », lithium sulfate and lead(t) scerte copper(I) nitrate and magnesium sulfide 4. strontium nitrate and potassium iodide ‘78. Write a molecular equation forthe precipitation reaction that ‘occurs (if any) when each pair of aqueous solutions is mixed. If no reaction occurs, write "NO REACTION?” a. sodium chloride and leed() acetate °. potassium sulfate and strontium iodide ‘cesium chloride and ealeium sulfide 4. chromium(I) nitrate and sodium phosphate Tonic and Net ionic Equations 79, Write balanced complete ionic and net ionic equations for each reaction. 8, HCl(aq) + LiOH(ag) ~» HO) + Lic(aa) De MgS(ag) + CuCiy(ag)—> Cuts) + MaChtaa) 6 NeOH(aq) + HCH;0,(aq) ~* H,0() + NaC3Hs0,(a9) 4. NesPO,(aq) + NiCl;(ag) —> Nix PO.)8) + NaClaz) 80. Write balanced complete ionic and net ionic equations for each reaction, K,SOg(aq) + Calsfaq) > CaSO) + KI(a9) b, NH,Clag) + NeOH(aa)—> HOW + NHy(e) + NaCl(ag) & AgNOs(ag) + NaClag)—> AgCl(s) + NaNOs(aq) 4. HOHsOx(aq) + K,COxag) > HOO + COXg) + KC3H,0,4a9) 81, Mercury) ions (Hg;**) can be removed from solution by recitation with CI". Suppose that a solution contains aqueous Hgx(NO3);. Write complete ionic and net ionic equatioas to show the reaction of aqueous Hg,(NO3)z with aqueous sodium hlorie to form solid Hg,Cl, and aqueous sodium nitrate. £82, Leadilt) ions can be removed from solution by precipitation With sulfate ions. Suppose that a solution contains lead(I) nitrate. Write complete ionic and net ionic equations 10 show the reaction of aqueous Jead() nitrate with aqueous Potassium sulfate to form solid fead(I) sulfate and aqueous potassium nitrate ‘Acid-Base and Gas-Evolution Reactions $3. Write balanced molecular and net ionic equations for the reaction between hydrobromic acid and potassium hydroxide. 84, Waite balanced molecular and net one equations toy son betwern ite ai and eatin hye 45, Complete and balance each acid-base equation, 4. H,SOag) + Cx(OF (a9) > b. HOIOdaq) + KOH(ay)—> & H,SO4ag) + NaOH(aq) > ‘86, Complete and balance each acid-base equation Hag) ++ LiOH (ag) —> 1b, HCH0an) + COP) aq) = ©: HCKag) + Ba(OF) (a) —> 87. 4 25.00 mL sample of an unknown HCIO, solution requires station with 22.62 mL of 0.2000 MNaOH to reach the equiva lence point. What is the concentration ofthe unknown TICIO, solution? The neuatization reaction is CIO) + NaOH (ay) HAO(D + NeClOKan) 88, 4 30.00 mL sample of an unknown H;PO, solution is titrated with @ 0.100 M_NaOH solution. The equivalence point is reached when 26.38 mL of NaOH solutions added, Whats the concentration ofthe unknown HPO, solution? The neualiza- tion reaction s HPO( a9) + 3 NeOHH(aq) +3 00) + NasPO4(aq) 89. Complete and balance each gas-evoltion equation, HBC) + NiS() > B. NH,Ka9) + NeOH(aq) —» © HBH(ag) + NagS(aq) —> a. HCIO(eg) + Li,COsg)—> 90. Complete and balance each gas-evoluion equation a. HNOs(ag) + Na,SOs(ag)—> 1h HCKag) + KHCOs(q) —» & HCH,Oxag) + Nal8Os(09)—> 4 (NHQ:SOKap) + CuOHD faq) —> ‘Oxidation-Reduction and Combustion 1. Assign oxidation states to each atom in each element, ion, ‘or compound a Ag bast ©. CaP, ans COP fk COP 92. Assign oxidation states to each atom in each element, ion, or compound. ach BR & CuCl @. cH © CxO? HSO, 93. What is the oxidation state of Cr in each compound? a. GO. B.C; COs ‘94, Whats the oxidation state of CLin each ion? & CO” bo CIO a. CIO 95. Determine whether each reaction is a redox reaction, For cach redox reaction, identify the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent & ALi(s) + Ox(g) 2 LigO(s) b. Ma(s) + Fe" (ag) —> Mg*"(aq) + Fe(s) ‘& PO(NO})(ap) + NaySO(ag)—> PoSOy(s) + 2 NeNOs(aq) 4. HBr(aq) + KOH(aq) > H,0() + KBr(aq) 96. Determine whether each reaction is a redox reaction. For each redox reaction, identify the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent a. Alls) + 3 Ag*(aa) > AP*(ag) + 3 Ag) B. SOs{g) + H,00) > H,S0,(ay) © Ba) + Chig) > BaCl,(s) 4. Ma(s) + Br,(O > MeBr6s)190 chapter 4 Chemis! Quentiis and Aqueous Reactions 97. Complete and balance each combustion reaction equation, a. S6) + O:@) > b. CoH) + Oxle)—> 1. Cx(s) + Ong) > 4. CSC) + Ox(@) > Cumulative Problems 99. The density of a 20.0% by mass ethylene glycol (C2H;02) solution in waters 1.03 g/mL. Find the molarity ofthe solution. 100, Find the percent by mass of sodium chloride ina 1,35 M NaCl solution, The density ofthe solution is 05 g/ml. 101. People often use sodium bicarbonate as an antacid to neutralize excess hydrochloric acid in an upset stomach. Wrst mass of hydrochloric acid (in grams) can 2.5 g of sodium bicarbonate neutralize? (Hint: Begin by viting a balanced equation forthe reaction between aqueous sodium bicarbonate and aqueous hydrochloric acid.) 102, Toilet bow! cleaners often contain hydrochloric acid, which sissolves the calcium carbonate deposits that accumulate within a toile bowl, What mass of caleium carbonate (in grams) cen 38 g of HCI dissolve? (Hint: Begin by writing a balanced ‘equation for the reaction between hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate.) 103.'The combustion of gasoline produces carbon dioxide and wate ‘Assume gasoline t0 be pure octane (CaHye) and calentate the ‘mass (in kg) of carhon dioxide that is added to the atmosphere per L.0 kg of octane burned. (Hint: Begin by writing a balanced ‘equation forthe combustion reaction.) 104, Many home barbeques are fueled with propane gas (C3Hs). ‘What mass of carbon dioxide in kg) is produced upon the com- plete combustion of 18.9 L of propane (approximate contents of| fone S-galion tank)? Assume that the density of the liquid propane in the tank is 0.621 g/mL. (Hint: Begin by writing a balanced equation fr the combustion reaction.) 105. Aspitin can be made in the laboratory by reacting acetic anhydride (C\H,O;) with salicylic acid (CyH,0s) to form sspitin (CjHjO,) and acetic acid (CyH,O;). The balanced ‘equation is C40, + CHHGO)—> CsHO, + CoH In a laboratory synthesis, a student begins with 3.00 mL of acetic anhydride (density = 1.08 g/mL) and 1.25 g of salicylic ‘acid. Once the reaction is complete, the student collects 1.22 g of aspirin, Determine the limiting reactant, theoretical yield of| aspirin, and pereent yield forthe reaction 106. The combustion of liguid ethanot (CAHSOH) produces carbon dioxide and water. After 462 mL of ethanol (detisity = (0.789 g/m.) is allowed to burn in the presence of 15.55 2 of ‘oxygen gas, 3.72 mL of water (density = 1.00 g/mL) is collected. Determine the limiting reactant, theoretical yield of| ,0, and percent yield for the rection. (Hint: Write a balanced ‘equation for the combustion of ethanol.) 107. A loud classroom demonstration involves igniting a hydrogen- filled balloon. ‘The hydrogen within the balloon reacts explosively with oxygen inthe air co form water. If te balloon is filled with a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, the explosion is even louder than ifthe balloon is filled only with hydrogen — the intensity of the explosion depends on the relative amounts ‘of oxygen and hydrogen within the balloon, Look at the ‘molecular views representing different amounts of hydrogen and oxygen in four different balloons. Based on the balanced 98, Complete and balance each combustion reaction equation a. Clg) + Ong) > b, CO) + Ox) & CS,6) + Ox) > 4. CHOW + Oe) > chemical equation, which balloon will make the loudest explo- sion? @ 108. A hydrochloric acid solution will neutralize sodium hydrox ide solution. Look at the molecular views showing one beaker lof HC and four beakers of NaOH. Which NaOH beaker wil just neutralize the HCI beaker? Begin by writing a balanced ‘chemical equation for the neutralization reaction. 109. Predice the products and write a balanced molecular equation foreach reaction, Ino reaction oceus, write "NO REACTION” a. HCl(aq) + HeNO3)a9) > b. KHSOag) + HNOXeq) > «aqueous ammonium chloride and aqueous lead(I) nitrate 4, aqueous ammonium chloride and aqueaus calcium hydroxide 110, Predict the products and write a balanced molecular equation foreach reaction. Ifno reaction oceus, write "NO REACTION. 1. H,SO4(ag) + HNOs(ag)—> b, CeINOD}ag) + LiOH(aq) —> , liguid pontanol (CHO) and gaseous oxyged 4, aqueous strontium sulfide and aqueous copper(I) sulfate 11, Hard water often contains dissolved Ca* and Mg ions. One ‘way to soften waters toad phosphates. The phosphate fon forms insoluble precipitates with calcium and magnesium ions, removing ‘hem from solution, A solution is 0.050 M in calcium chloride and (0.085 M in magnesium nitrate. What mass of sodium phosphat? 3 ‘would have to be added to 1.5 L of this solution to completely climinatethe hard water ions? Assume complete rection. 3112, An acd solution is 0.100 M in HCI and 0.200 M in H,S0, ‘What volume of & 0.150 M KOH soltion would completely eatalize all the acid in 500.0 mL of his solution? 413-Find the mass of barium metal Gn grams) tht must react ‘vith Ot produce enough barium oxide w prepare 1.0L of @ 0.10 M solution of OF = {14.4 solution contsins C?* jon and Mg ion. The addition of 1.00 of 151 M Na solution eases the complete precipitation ofthese ions as CH) and MaFG) The total mas ofthe pre tiptate s 49.6 g Find she mass of Ce in the orignal oloon 115: The mitogen in sodium nitrate and i ammonium sulfate is avaiable to plans as fetlizes. Which isthe more economics Source of nitrogen, a fectlizr containing 30.0% sodium nitrate by weight and costing $9.0 per 10 Ib or one containing 2.0% ammonium sulfate by weight snd costing $8.10 per 10016? 1N6.Find the volume of 0.110 M hydochloic acid necessury to react completly with 152 g AKOH) 117. Treatment of gold metal with Br, and KF produces Bry snd KAUP, salt of gold, ldeutify the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent in this restion. Find the mast ofthe gold salt that forms when a 73.5 g mixture of equal masses of all hee reactants is prepare, 118. We prepare soltion by mixing 0.10 L of 012 M sodium chloride with 023 L of 80.18 M MgCl solution, What volume of 020 M silver nite solution do we ned to precipitate all he Cl iomin the solution a AgCi? 119. solution contains one of more of the following ions: Ag" Ca, and Cu, When you nd sodium chloride othe solution, no precipitate forms. When you add sodium sulfite to the {olution white preiptate forms. You fie off the precipitate tu a sodium carbonate tothe remaining solution, producing ‘nother precipitate. Which ions were present in th original solution? Waite net ionic equations forte formation of eats of the precipitates observed, Challenge Problems 125. A mixture of CyH, and C,H has © mass of 2.0 g Its bumed in excess O, to form a mixture of water and carbon dioxide that contains 1.5 times as many moles of CO; as of water Find the ‘mass of CH in the original mixture, 126. A mixture of 20.6 g of P and 79.4 g Cl, reacts completely 10 orm PCly and PCI, as the only products. Find the mass of PCls tha forms. 127. A solution contains Ag* and Hg ions. The addition of 0.1001 of 1.2 M Nal solution is just enough to precipitate all the ions a5 AgK and Hgly. The total mass of the precipitate is 8.1. Find the mass of Agl in the precipitate. 128, The water in lakes that have been acidified by acid rain (HNO and H,S0,) can be neutralized by a process called liming, in ‘hich limestone (CaCO) is added to the acidified water. What mass of limestone (in kg) would completely neutralize a 1522 billion-iter lake that is 18 X 10"°M in H,SO, and 87 x 10° Min HNO? 129, Recall fom Section 46 that sodium carbonate is often added to laundry detergents to soften hard water and make the detergent smote effective. Suppose that a particular detergent mixture is esigned to soften hard water tha is 35 x 10~? Min Ca and LL 10M in Mg* and that the average capacity of a washing machine is 19.5 gallons of water. If the detergent creriees 19. 420. A solution contains ane or more ofthe following ions: Hg,"*, Ba, and Fe!*, When potassium chloride is added to the solution, a precipitate forms, The precipita is filtered off, and potassium sulfate is added to the remaining solution, producing, ro precipitate. When potassium carbonate is added to the remaining solution, a precipitate forms. Which ions were pres eatin the original solution? Write net ionic equations for the oration of each ofthe precipitates observed. 121. The reaction of NH and Op forms NO and water. The NO can bho used to convert Py 0 P4Os, forming Nz in the process. The iO, can be tretled with water to form HyPOs, which forms PH, and HPO, when heated, Find the mass of PH, that forms from the reaction of 1.00 g NH, 122, An important reaction that takes place in a blast furnace during the production of iron is the formation of iron metal and CO, from Fe,0, and CO. Determine the mass of Fe,03 required 10 {oxm 910 xg of iron. Determine the smount of CO, that forms in this process. 123, A liquid fuel mixture contains 30.35% hexane (CsH),), 15:859% heptane (CH), and the rest octane (CyHh.). What maximam amass of carbon dioxide is produced by the complete combus- ‘ion of 10.0 kg of this fuel mixture? 124, Titanium occurs in the magnetic mineral ilmenite (FeT5O.), ‘which is often found mixed up with sand. The ilmenite ean be separated from the sand with magnets. The titanium can then be extracted from the ilmenite by the following set of resctons: FeTiOgs) + 3 Ch{g) + 3C() > 3.CO() + FeCh(e) + TICLIS) TiCk(g) + 2Mg(s) +2 MeCh() + Tic) Suppose that an ilmenite-sand mixture conins 22.8% menite bby mass and thatthe frst reaction is earied out with a 90.8% yield. Ifthe second reaction is carried out with an 85.9% yield, ‘what mass of titanium can he obtained from 1,00 kg. of the ‘lmenite-sund mixture? requires using 0.65 kg detergent per load of laundry, what percentage (by mass) ofthe detergent should be sodium carbon ate in order to completely precipitate all of the calcium and ‘magnesium ions in an average load of laundry water? 130, Lead poisoning is a serious condition resulting from the inges tion of lead in food, water, or other environmental sources It affects the central nervous system, leading t0 a varicty of symptoms such as distractibility, lethargy, and loss of motor coordination, Lead poisoning is treated with chelating agents, substances that bind to metal ions, allowing them to be climinated in the urine, A modem chelating agent used fortis purpose is suecimer (C,H,0,8,). Suppose you are trying to ‘etermine the appropriate dove for succimer treatment of lead poisoning. What minimum mass of suecimer (in mg) is needed to bind all ofthe lead in patient's bloodstream? Assume that patient blood lead levels are 45 g/L, that total blood volume is 5.0 L, and that 1 mole of succimer binds 1 mole oflead. 131A paticular kind of emergency breathing apparatos—often placed in mines, caves, or ther places where oxygen might become depleted or where the air might become poisoned— ‘works via the following chemical reaction: 4 KO4(9) + 2COx(g) > 2 K,CO465) + 3 0x68)192 chapter Chemica! Quontes and Aquous Reactions [Notice thatthe reaction produces O, which can be breathed, nd absorbs CO;, a product of respiration. Suppose you work for & ‘company interested in producing a self-rescue breathing appars- tus (based on the given reaction) that would allow the user to survive for 10 minutes in an emergency situation. What are the important chemical considerations in designing such 2 unit? Estimate how much KO, would be required for the apparatus. (ind any necessary additional information—such as human breathing rates—from appropriate sources. Assume that normal sir is 20% oxygen) Conceptual Problems 134, Consider the reaction: AKG) + 02) >2K00) “The molar mass of Kis 39.09 g/mol and that of O; is 32.00 g/mol. ‘Without doing any calculations, pick the conditions under which potassium is the limiting reactant and explain your reasoning. a. 1702K,31 £02 b. 16,2550; ©. 165 kg K, 28 kg O> @. 15gK,038 20) 138, Consider the reaction: 2NO{g) + 5H (g) > 2H (@) + 2,0) A reaction mixture initially contains S moles of NO and 10 moles ‘of Hp, Without doing any calculations, determine which set of amounts best represents the mixture after the reactants have reacted as completely as possible. Explain your reasoning. .-1-mol NO, 0:mol Hy, 4 mol NH, 4 mol HO. , Omol NO, 1 mol Hy, S mol NHy, 5 mol HO & 3molNO, $ mol Hy, 2 mol NH, 2 mol HO 4. O mol NO, O:mol He, 4 mo] NH, 4 mol H50 136. The following cirele represents 1.0 liter of a solution with solute concentration of 1 M: Explain what you would add (the amount of solute or volume of| solvent) fo the solution to obtain a solotion represented by each diagram: 137. Consider the reaction: 2NiHA@) + NsOds)— 3 Nae) + 41,008) Consider also this representation of en intial mixture of NaH and N0¢ qe ¥ & ee) ewes, 8 132, Metallic aluminum reacts with MaO; at elevated temperatures to form manganese metal and aluminum oxide. A mixture of the two reactants is 67.2% mole percent Al Find the theoretical yield (in grams) of mangenese from the reaction of 250 g of this mixture. 133. Hydrolysis of the compound BH, forms boric acid, HBO. Fusion of boric acid with sodium oxide forms a borate salt, NaB,0}. Without writing complete equations, find the mass {in grams) of BH, requited to form 151 g of te borate salt by this eaction sequence, ‘Which diagram best represents the reaction mixture after the eactans have reacted as completely as possible? 138, Consider the generic ionie compounds with the formulas AgX and BY, and the following solubility rules: AX soluble; BY, soluble; AY insoluble; BX soluble, Let A* ions be represented by circles, BY ions be represented by squares, X?- jons be represented by triangles, and Y~ ions be represented by diamonds. Solutions of the two compounds (Axx and BY3) can be represented as follows: le * le Draw a molecular level representation showing the result of ‘mixing the two solutions given and write an equation (o repre- sent the reaction,S al oh jOnS — 107, vy = 82 10" pm, = 14 x 108 pm’, 5.9 x 10% 109. 6.022 X 10°" dollars total, 9.3 x 10" dollars per person, blionaes 111, 15985 am 113. 4.76 x 10% atoms Ms. Line = 1494" Lin? 117. 750% gold 119, 106,91 amu a 123. 1 x 10” atoms/universe Ds. 0423 127. 63.67 g/mol 129, 25.06 g/mol mo Le us 133, Ifthe amu and mole were not based on the same isotope, the numerical values obtained for an atom of material and a mole of material would not be the same. If, for example, the mole was based on the number of particles in C-12 but the amu was changed to a fraction of the mass of an atom of Ne-20, the number of part cles and the number of amu that make up one mole of ‘material would no longer be the same. We would no longer have the relationship in which the mass of an atom in amu is numerically equal to the mass of a mole ‘of those atoms in grams. 135. The different isotopes of the same element have the same number of protons and electrons, so the attractive forces between the nucleus and the electrons are constant and there is no difference in the radi of the jgotopes. Tons, on the other hand, have a different num- ber of electrons than the parent atom from which they are derived. Cations have fewer electrons than the par- cent atom, The attractive forces are greater because there is larger positive charge in the nucleus than the nega- tive charge in the electron cloud. So, cations are smaller than the alom they are derived from. Anions have more ‘electrons than the parent. The electron cloud has a greater negative charge than the nucleus, so the anions hhave larger radii than the parent, 92.506% Chapter 3 23. a 3Mg2R80 — b. 1Ba,2Cl G1Fe,2N40 — d.1Ca,20,2H 25.a.NH; bilge. SOs, 27. a. atomic b. molecular atomic 4. molecular 29. a, molecular be. ionic «ionic 4. molecular 31. a, molecularelement b, molecular compound. ¢. atomic element Aopencb I; Anaweste Seeded Eeases ALT 33. a. CxO, b. ZnS ©. RbBr 4. ALO; 35. a. Ca(OM)2 b. CaCrO, © Cay(PO))a 4, Ca(CN), 37. a. magnesium nittide b. potassium fluoride . sodium oxide lithium sulfide €. cesium fluoride potassium iodide 39. a tin(ID oxide », chromium(II) sulfide c. rubidium iodide dy barium bromide 41, a, copper(l) nitrite _b. magnesium acetate bariumnitrate ——d. lead(II acetate 43, a, NaHSOs b. LiMnO, © AgNO, 4. K:S0; ‘e. RbHSO, f. KHCOs 45. a. cobalt) sulfate heptahydrate b. [Bry-4 H0 ‘ Magnesium bromate hexahydrate a. K,CO;-2 1,0 47. a, carbon monoxide —b. nitrogen titodide «. silicon tetrachloride . tetranitrogen tetrasclenide 49, a. PCs b. C10 © SF a. PFs 51. a. hydroiodic acid by nitric acid . carbonic acid HE b. HBr ©. H,S0, strontium chloride ». tin(IV) oxide «. diphosphorus pentasuifide 4, acetic acid ‘57. a, potassium chlorate b. difodine pentoxide «lead sulfate 59, a. 46.01 ama b. 58.12 amu 180.16 amu 4. 238.03 amu 61, a, 0.471 mol ’b. 0.0362 mol ©. 968 mol 4. 0.279 mol 63, a. 0.554 mol >. 284 mol ©. 0378 mol 4.1093 mol 65, a, 22 X 10 molecules b. 7.06 X 10 molecules ©. 4.16 X 10 molecules 4. 1.09 X 10” molecules 0.0790g 084g —&, 2.992. X 10 69, 0.10 mg, TL. a. 7487% C b. 79.88% C ©. 92.24% C 4. 37.23% C 3, NHy: 82.27% N CO(NH) x: 46.65% N NH,NOs: 35.00% N (NH):S0¢: 21.20% N [NH has the highest N content 75. 208 gF 77. 196 yg KI 79.a2:1 be Art © 6:2:1 81. a. 0.885 mol H b. 5.2 mol H ©. 29 mol H 4. 33.7 mol H 83. a, 332Na b. 36gNa e 14gNa @. L7gNa 85. a. Ag;O —b. CosAsjOg SeBryAAA8 Aopen: Annet to Selsod xe 87. a. CSN b. CyH:N,O 157, The statement is incorrect because a chemical formula 89. CisflsO2 is based on the rato of atoms combined, notte ratio of 91. NC ‘rams combined, The statement should read “Tae 93. a. CysHyNa b. CaCI, ‘chemical formula for ammonia (NHs) indicates that ©: Cio FhoNSe ‘ammonia contains three hydrogen atoms to etch 95. CH nitrogen atom.” 97. CHO 159, 0,5, 1 98, 2804) + O48) + 2HO(D ——> 2 HASOM00) 101, 2 Nag) + 21,00) —> Hala) + 2 NaOH(aa) 4103, Cys0446) + H:00 —> 4C:H,OH(29) + 4COL() Chapter 4 408, a. POS{s) + 2 HBx(aq) —> POBEAS) + HS) 25, 2 Catala) + 19 031g) —> . CO() + 3 Fa(g) —> CHA) + 12000 12 COxGg) + 14 H,0(), 68 mol O, c. 4HCKag) + MnOJs) —> 27. a. 5.0 mol NOz ‘MnClz(aq) + 2H,0() + Ch(g) b 14, mol NO3 4. Cll + 8 046g) —> 5 COse) * 610) ©. 0.281 mol NO; 107, NecOslag)+ CoCh{ag) —> CuCO3(9) + 2NeCag) 4. 53.1 mol NOy 109, a. 2COs) + CaSiOx6s) + Hj) —> 29. ~ pois, mal mol SIC wal CO Si,s) + CaCHCO)ag) Se b. 2.Co(NO3)(aq) +3 (NH)2S(aa) —> z a 2 a ConSy(s) + 6 NHANO3(0a) aaceeeeea a e. Cuj0(5) + Cf) —> 2 Culs) + COL) 5 a7 goa — 3c ae 5 11. a. inorganic be. onanic ust 4s . organic 4. inorganic 31 a. 93g HBr, 0.12 ¢ Hy 113, a alkene >, alkane 33. a. SS6gBaCh ——_b 6.55 g CACO, alkyne 4, alkane ©. 609 Mg 4. 693g ALO, 115. a. CH;CH,CHy ‘b. propane ~ 35. a. 4.42 ¢ HCL ‘b. 8.25.g. HNO; ©. CH,CH,CH,CH,CH,CH,CH,Cth ©. 424 g 180, 4. pentane 37a. Na b. Na 117. a. functionalized hydrocarbon, alcohol ©. Bry a Na bi, hydrocarbon 39, molecules Cly «. functionalized hydrocarbon, ketone 41. a, 2mol b. 7 mol . 940:mol 4. functionalized hydrocarbon, amine 43, 0.5 mol O; 119. 1.50 X 10% molecules EtOH 48 a. 258 b 3g e 116g IL. a. KyCrO,, 40.27% K, 26.78% Cr, 32.95% oO 47. 2.91 grams CO, remaining b. Pbs(PO,)n, 76.60% Pb, 7.63% P, 15.77% O 49. limiting reactant: Pb, theoretical yield: 34.5 x PbCh, c. H,S0s, 2.46% H, 39.07% S, 58.47% 0 percent yield: 85.3% . d. CoBrz, 26.94% Co, 73.06% Br 51, limiting reactant: NHs, theoretical yield: 240.5 kg _ 123, 1180 x 10 gCle/yr CHLN,O, percent yield: 70.01% 125. M= Fe 53. a, LITMLCL ——b. 0.123 MCiHlDs 127, estradiol = CysH402 ©. 0.00453 M NaCl 129. CipHag0> 55. a 0.150MNO;-—_b. 0.300 MNO 131. 7,0 ©. 0.450M NO; 133. CcHsBrO 57. a, 1.3 mol +b. 1.5 mol c 0.211 mol 135. 1.87 x 10" atoms 59. 37g, 137, 92.93 amu 61. 027M 139. x= Ly 63. 601 141. 41.7 mg 65. 37.1 mL 143, 0.224 g 61.24 145. 22.0% by mass 69. barium nitrate, 2.81g Ba(NOs)s, 87.1% 147. 16 10? kg Cl TI. a. yes b. no 349. 7.8 X 10° kg rock ©. yes a. 00 BL, CsHigST 773, a. soluble Ag’, NOy by soluble Pb?*, CaHOF 153. XY . soluble K", NO; d. soluble NH", S* 15S. The sphere in the molecular models represents the 75. a. NOREACTION —_b. NOREACTION electron cloud of the atom. On this scale, the nucleus €. CxBrs{ag) + NazCOs(aq) —> CrCO¥G) + 2 NaBriag) ‘would be too small to see. 3 NsOH(ag) + PeCiy(ag) —> Fe(OH)3(8) + 3NaClog)71. a. KxCOs{ag) + Pb(NO3)x(aq) —> PLCO\(s) + 2 KNOS(aa) B. LisSO\(ag) + Pb(C2H,03)x(ag) —> PHOS) + 2 LIC,H,0,(ag) © CutNO3)(ag) + MgS(aq) —> CuS(s) + Ma(NO,),(ag) 4, NO REACTION 79. a Complete: Haq) + Cl (aq) + Lit(ag) + OHM(ag) —> H,00) + Li'(ag) + CI"(e) Net: H"(aq) + OH (ag) —> H,0(0 b. Complete: Me**(aq) + S*(ag) + Cu?*(aq) + 2 Cr-(ag) —> CuS(s) + Mg**(ag) + 2 C1"(aq) Net: Cu**(ag) + S*-(ag) —> Cus(s) © Complete: Na" (aq) + OH-(aq) + HCpH,03(ag) —> H,0() + Na" (ag) + C2H307 (aq) ‘Net: OH (aq) + HC3H303(ag) —> HAO) + CoH; (ag) a. Complete: 6 Nat (ag) + 2PO?-(aq) + 3 Ni?*(aq) + 6 CI-(ag) —> Nig(PO,)a(s) + 6Na*(ag) + 6 CI-(aq) Net: 3 Ni*(aq) + 2 PO,?(ag) —> Nis(PO,)(s) 81. Complete: Hg2*(aq) + 2NO}(aq) + 2Na'(aq) + 2CP-(ag) —> Hg,Cl(s) + 2 Nat(ag) + 2 NOs (ag) Net: Hg,*"(aq) + 2 CI-(aq) —> Hg, Chis) 83, Molecular: HBr(aq) + KOH(aq) —+ H,0() + KBr(aq) Net ionic: H*(ag) + OH (ag) —> H,0() 85. a. H,SO.(c9) + Ca(OH);(aq) —> 2 14010 + CaSO4GY 1h HCIO,(aq) + KOH(aq) —> H,0() + KCIOKag) © H,SO,(aq) + 2 NaOH(aq) —> 2 H,O(D) + Na,SO,(aq) 87. 0.1810MHCIO, 89. a. 2 HBr(ag) + NiS(s) —> H,S(g) + NiBexlaq) b. NH,I(ag) + NaOH(ag) —> HO + NHy(g) + Nal(ag) © 2 HB4(aq) + NagS(ag) —> HS(g) + 2 NaBr(aq) @. 2HCIO,(aq) + Li;COs(ag) —> H,0() + COAg) + 2 LiC10,(ag) 91 a. Ag: 0 b Ag: + eCe42R-1 a Ht, e CH, 0; £ Cr +6, 93. a. +2 b. +6 6 43 98. a, redox reaction, oxidizing agent: O>, reducing agent: Li b. redox reaction, oxidizing agent: Fe®*, reducing agent: Mg © nota redox reaction d. not «redox reaction 97. a. S(9) + O22) —> SOx() b. 2 CoHG(a) + 9 Ox(e) —> 6 COAG) + 6 HOL®) © 2Cals) + Ox(g) —> 2. C206) @. CsHpS) +9 046g) —> 5 COxg) + SOr(g) + 6 H,O(g) 99, 332M 101. 11g 103. 3.1 kg Appendix il: Answers to Selected Exercises A19 105. limiting reactant: C)H,Os, theoretical yields 1.63 g CyH,O,, percent yield: 74.8% 107. b 109. a, 2HCl(ag) + Hex(NO3)ag) —> He,Cl(6) + 2INOs(ag) b. KHSOs(aq) + HNO,(ag) —> 1,00) + S0.(@) + KNOs(ag) © 2NH,Clag) + Pb(NO3)s(aq) —> PbCIA(s) + 2 NH/NO,(ag) 4. 2NHACi(ag) + Ca(OH) (ag) —+ 2 NHA(g) + 2 H,0(g) + CaCl,(ag) UL. 2g 1B. 69g 118. NaNO; is more economical 417. Bris the oxidizing agent, Au isthe reducing agent, 38.8 g KAoF, . 119. Ca’* and Cu?* present in the original solution. Net ‘onic for frst precipitate Ce (ag) + $0.2 (aq) —> CaSO,(5) Net ionic for second precipitate Cu*(ag) + COs? (ag) —> CuCO,(s) 121, 0.333 PH 123, 308kg CO, DS. 16g CH, WT. 18 gAal 129. 5.5% by mass 1BL. 14g KO;. In designing the unit you would need to con- sider the theoretical yield and % yield ofthe reaction, hhow changing the limiting reactant would affect the reaction, and the stoichiometry between KO, and O, to determine the mass of KO, required to produce enotigh > for 10 minutes. You might also consider the speed ofthe reaction and whether or not the reaction pro- duced heat, Additionally, because your body does not ‘se 100% of the oxygen taken in with each breath the ‘apparatus would only need to replenish the oxygen used. The percentage of oxygen in ai is about 20% and the percentage in exhaled air is about 16%, so we will assume that 4% of the air would need to be replenished with oxygen, 133. 37.9 g Bally 138. a, Since the mol ratio of Hy to NO is 5:2, the 10 mol ‘of Hy will require 4 mole NO, and H, isthe limiting reactant, This eliminates answers b and c, Since there is excess NO, this eliminates d, leaving answer a, BI. a Chapter 5 25, a. 0.832 atm . 632: mmlig © 122 psi 4. 8.43 X 10" Pa 27. a. 809.0 mmHg b, 1.064 atm €- 809.0 tor a. 107.9 kPa 29, a. $32 mmHg b. 718 malig 3L 44 x 10? mmbig 33. 58.9 mL 38. 4.221 37. 3.0L The volume would not be differen ifthe gas was argon.