Read this carefully. It contains a lot of very important information. Welcome to AP Chemistry: The AP Class you have signed up for is the equivalent of a2 semester (1. year) general level college Chemistry course. This course is dedicated to teaching you to think like a chemist. The laboratory experiments will emphasize real-world chemical applications and will also help you on the Chemistry AP exam ‘Mastering Chemistry: We will be using Mastering Chemistry for homework. Make sure you purchase a book with this option. Our book: Tro; Chemistry: A Molecular Approach AP® Edition 3e 2014 with Mastering Chemistry ISBN: 9780133099942 st week of class: We will very briefly review the summer assignment topics. There will be a quiz Tuesday 8/12 and Thursday 8/14 the first week of class. If you miss these quizzes, you cannot make them up. We will have an exam on chapter 3.1-3.11 and on 4.1-4.8 on Friday 8/16 and begin chapter 4.9 immediately after. Zero Period: To be successful and fair to everyone, itis imperative you come to the zero period class on time. Class policy is if you are late for zero period, there will be a 20% penalty on any activity. if you miss half the lab, you get 50% offetc, We will have a quiz at the beginning of each zero period and if you are late, you may not make up the quiz. No ‘excuses are accepted for tardies or absences. ABSENCE POLICY FOR THURSDAY CLASS ZERO PERIOD LABORATORY CLASS: A MAXIMUM OF ONE LABORTORY CLASS PERIOD CAN BE MISSED EACH SEMESTER. ADDITIONAL ABSENCES WILL RESULT IN A ZERO FOR THE LAB. NO EXCEPTIONS. NO EXCUSES ARE ACCEPTABLE. ABSENCES DUE TO ILLNESS, TRAFFIC, CHOIR, CARITOS CHRISTY, ATHLETICS, VACATIONS, DENTIST AND DOCTOR APPOINTMENTS, FIELD TRIPS AND COLLEGE VISITS ARE NOT ACCEPTED. IF YOU CAN'T BE ON TIME TO ZERO PERIOD ON THURSDAYS, PLEASE DROP THE CLASS NOW!!!!!! This is an AP class and the normal rules don’t apply and you have been warned! !I{I!{!! Ifyou can be on time we are going to have fun, learn a lot of chernistry. After the AP exam, there will be no more zero periods. ‘Summer Assignment: To properly prepare you for the Chemistry AP Exam, | am providing you with a summer assignment consisting of chapter 3 and 4 problems from your text book. This assignment is due Tuesday August 12", on the first day of class. These chapters are mostly review from chemistry honors. Answers to some problems have been provided Remember, for credit you must show your calculations with all units. Read chapters 3 and 4 (attached), take COMPLETE and AMAZING NOTES and complete the following problems with all work shown for each problem. No work, no credit, period. Chapter 3 problems: p. 131-135 #27, 29, 33-53 odd, 67, 69, 87, 95, 97, 101, 105, 129, 131, 133 Chapter 4 problems: p 186-193 #31, 43, 47, 49, 55, 61, 69, 73, 77, 79, 85, 89, 105, 109, 123, 127 Sincerely, Mrs. McAdam imcadam@jserra.orgMolecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations Almost all aspects of life are engineered at the molecular level, and without understanding molecules we can only have a very sketchy understanding of life itself —Francis Harry Compton Crick (1916-2004) 3.1 Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Water 86 3.2 Chemical Bonds 88 ‘3.8 Representing Compounds: Chemical Formulas and Molecular Models 90 3.4 AnomicLeve View of Elements and Compounds @3 ‘8.8 onic Compounds: Formulas and Names 95 ‘8.6 Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names 101 3.7 Summary of Inorganic Nomenclature 105 3.8 Formula Mass and the Mole Concept for Compounds 107 3.9 Compostion of Compounds 109 3.10 Determining a Chemical Formula from Experimental Data 114 ‘3.44, Wing and Bolancing Chemical Equations. 119 9.42 Organic Compounds 123 Key Leaming Outoomes 129 elements exist in nature, so there are at least 91 different substances. However, the world ‘would be dull—not to mention lifeless—with only 91 different substances. Fortunately, elements combine with each other to form compounds, Just as combinations of only 26 letters i ‘our English alphabet allow for an almost limitless number of words, each with its own specific ‘meaning, combinations of the 91 naturally occurring elements allow for an almost limitless ‘number of compounds, each with its own specific properties. The great diversity of substances that we find in nature isa direct result ofthe ability of elements to form compounds. Life, for example, could not exist with just 91 different clements, It takes compounds, in all of their diversity, to make life possible. H (OW MANY DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES EXIST? Recall from Chapter 2 that about 91 different 3.4 Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Water Hydrogen (H,) is an explosive gas used as @ fuel in rocket engines, Oxy gen (0,), also a gas ‘natural component ofthe air on Earth. Oxygen itself is not flammable. ut must be present combustion (burning) to occur: Hydrogen and oxygen both have extremely low boiling pointsYou can see from the following table. When hydrogen and oxygen combine to form the Compound water (H,0), however, a dramatically different substance results, Sead pares | waoaen GQ) | oncom QB | ver _ Boling ‘Stato at Room Temperat =253°¢ n183°¢ First ofall, water is a liquid rather than a gas at room temperature, and its boiling Point is hundreds of degrees higher than the boiling points of hydrogen and oxygen, Second, instead of being flammable (like hydrogen gas) ot supporting combustion (ike oxygen gas), water actually smothers flames. Water is nothing like the hydrogen and Xygen from which it forms. The dramatic difference between the elements hydrogen and oxygen and the compound water is typical of the differences between elements and the compounds that they form. When two or more elements combine to form a compound, ‘an entirely new substance results a [kien oreonbie | vss aga os When a balloon filled with Hy and ss ignited, the nwo elements react violently to form H,0. 878B Chepter3_ Molecules, Compounds, and real Eustins ‘Mixtures and Compounds Hydrogen and Oxygen Mixture | ‘Water (A Compound) “This can have any ratio of “Water molecules havea fixed ratio of hyeeogen to oxygen, [Laarogen vo stoms) to exygen (one atom). AFFIQURE 3.4. Misures and ane is telson in Consider as another example common table salt, a highly stable compound Shosaton is filled witha ‘composed of sodium and chlorine. Elemental sodium, by contrast, is a highly reactive, mixture of hydrogen gs and silvery metal that can explode on contact with water. Elemental chlorine is @ corrosive, ‘oxygen ga. The proportions of {greenish-yellow gas that can be fatal f inhaled. Yet the compound formed from the com- hydrogen and oxygen are bination of these two elements is sodium chloride (or table salt), a flavor enhancer that ‘atiale. The glass is Sled with tastes great on steak. wate, a compound of hydrogen ‘Although some of the substances that we encounter in everyday life are elements, and oxygen. The ratio of most are compounds. As we discussed in Chapter 1, a compound is different from a hydrogen to oxygen in water is fixed: water molecules always have two hydrogen atoms for cach oxygen atom. mixture of elements. In a compound, elements combine in fixed, definite proportions; in ‘a mixture, elements can mix in any proportions whatsoever. Consider the difference between @ hydrogen-oxygen mixture and water as shown in Figure 3.1 a. A hydrogen— ‘oxygen mixture can have any proportions of hydrogen and oxygen gas. Water, by contrast, is composed of water molecules that alWays contain two hydrogen atoms to every one oxygen atom, Water has 2 definite proportion of hydrogen to oxygen. Tn this chapter you vill earn about compounds: how to represent them, how to name. them, how to distinguish between their different types, and how to write chemical equa- tions showing how they form and change. You will also learn how to quantify the ele~ ‘mental composition of a compound. This is important in determining how much of a pasticular element is contained within a particular compound, For example, patients with high blood pressure (hypertension) often have to reduce their sodium ion intake. Since the sodium ion is normally consumed in the form of sodium chloride, a hypertension patient needs to know how much sodium is present in a given amount of sodium chloride. Similarly, an iron-mining company needs to know how much iron it can recover from given amount of iron ore, This chapter provides the tools to understand and answer these kinds of questions. 3.2 Chemical Bonds Compounds are composed of atoms held together by chemical bonds. Chemical bonds result from the attractions between the charged particles (the electrons and protons) that compose atoms, We discuss these interactions more thoroughly in Chapter 9 (see: Section 9.2). For now, remember that, as we discussed in Section 2.4, charged particles ‘exert forces on one another: like charges repel and opposite charges attract. These elec- trostatic forces are responsible for chemical bonding. ‘We can broadly classify most chemical bonds info two types: ionic and covalent. Tonic bonds—which occur between metals and nonmetals—involve the transfer ofelectrons from one atom to another. Covalent bonds—which occur between two or more ‘nonmetals—involve the sharing of electrons between two atoms, lonic Bonds Recall from Chapter 2 that metals have a tendency to lose electrons and that nonmetals have a tendency fo gain them. Therefore, when a metal interacts with a nonmetal, it can transfer one or more of its electrons to the nonmetal. The metal atom then becomes a cation (a positively charged ion), and the nonmetal atom becomes ary anion (a negatively charged ion) as shown in Figure 3.2 v. These oppositely charged ions attract one another by electrostatic forces and form an ionic bond. The result is un ionic compound, which in the solid phase is composed of a latice—a regular three-dimensional array—of alter- nating cations and anions. Covalent Bonds ‘When a nonmetal bonds with another nonmetal, neither atom transfers its electron to the other. Instead the bonding atoms share some of their electrons. The shared electrons have lower potential energy than they would in the isolated atoms because they interact with 22 Chemical Bonds 89 ‘The Formation of an lonic Compound Sodium (a metal) Chlorine (a nonmetal) loses an electron. gains an electron, . I tom 7 Opposty charged ios ar el together by ni bond, ong | arcane ace Sodium chloride (table salt) i ee Chlorine gas “4 FIGURE 3.2 The Formation ofan Yonic Compound An atom of sodium (a metal) loses an electron to an atom of chlorine (a nonmetal), creating a pair of oppositely charged ions. The sodium cation is atacted tothe chloride anion and the two are held together as part of| ‘crystalline late.90 chapter’ Soleals, Compounds and Crema! Equations > FIGURE 3.3 The Stablityof@ Covalent Bond The potential energy of anegative charge interacting with ‘wo positive charges is lowest when the negative charge is between the two positive charges. Lowest potential eneray (most sabe) --@ eo o nd ? : the nuclei of both stoms, The bond is called 2 covalent bond and the covalently bound atoms compose a molecule. Each molecule is independent of the others—the molectles fare themselves not covalently bound to one another. Therefore, we call covalently bonded compounds molecular compounds. ‘We can begin to understand the stability of @ covalent bond by considering the most stable (or lowest potential energy) configuration of a negative charge interacting with two positive charges (which are separated by some small distance). Figure 3.3.4 shows that the lowest potential energy occurs when the negative charge lies berween the two positive charges because in this arrangement the negative charge can interact with both positive charges. Similarly, shared electrons in a covalent chemical bond hold the bond- ing atoms together by attracting the positively charged nuclei of both bonding atoms. 3.3 Representing Compounds: Chemical Formulas and Molecular Models ‘The quickest and easiest way to represent a compound is with its chemical formula, which indicates the elements present in the compound and the relative number of atoms fr ions of each. For example, H,0 is the chemical formula for water—it indicates that ‘water consists of hydrogen and oxygen atoms in atwo-to-one ratio, The formula contains the symbol for each element and a subscript indicating the relative number of atoms of the element. A subscript of 1 is typically omitted. Chemical formulas normally lst the ‘more metallic (or more positively charged) elements first, followed by the less metallic (or more negatively charged) elements, Other examples of common chemical formulas include NaCl for sodium chloride, indicating sodium and chloride ions in a one-to-one ratio; CO, for carbon dioxide, indicating carbon and oxygen atoms in a one-to-two ratio; ‘and CCl; for carbon tetrachloride, indicating carbon and chlorine in @ one-to-four ratio. Types of Chemical Formulas Chemical formulas can generally be categorized into thece different types: empiial, Spolecula, and structural: An empirical formula pives the relaive number of atoms of Zach element in-a compound, A molecular formula gives the actual number of sts teach clement in molecule of a compouné. For example, the empirical formula for hydrogen peroxide is HO, but its molecular formula is HO, The molecular formula is ttwaye whole number multiple ofthe empirical formula, For some compounds, the Gmpirical formula and the molecular formula are identical. For example, the emptical Girt molecular formula for water is H,O because water molecules contain two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, and no simpler whole-namber ratio can expres the relative numer of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms, ‘A structural formula uses lines to represent covalent bonds and shows how atoms ina molecule are connected or bonded to each other. The structural formula fr H,O3 is H-O-0-H ‘Structural formulas may also be written to give a sense of the molecule’s geometry ‘The structural formula for hydrogen peroxide can also be written as: H 7 6-9 \ nt3 Representing Compounds: Chemie! Formulas end Molecular Moaels OY ‘This version of the formula represents the approximate angles between bonds, siving 1 pense of the molecule’s shape, Structural formulas can also depict the different types 3 ponds that occur within molecules, For example, consider the structural formula for carbon dioxide: o: “The two lines between each carbon and oxygen atom representa double bond, which is gen- ‘enaly stronger and shorter than a single bond (represented by a single ine). A single bond orresponds to one shared electron pair, while a double bond corresponds to two shared {lectron pairs. We will leam more about single, double, and even triple bonds in Chapter 9. “The type of formula We use depends on how much we know about the compound ‘and how much we want to communicate. A structural formula communicates the-most jnformation, while an empirical formula communicates the least coe tin 3.1 structural Formulas “Write a structural formula for water. =o EXAMPLE 3.1 Molecular and Empirical Formulas ‘Weite empirical formulas for the compounds represented by the molecular formulas. (@) Hy (b) Balls (©) Cle SOLUTION "To determine the empirical formula from a molecular formula, divide the subscripts by the greatest common factor (the largest mimber that divides exactly into all of the subscripts). (a) For C4Hs, the greatest common factor is 4. The empirical formula is therefore CHs. (b)-For BaH the greatest common factor is 2. The empirical formula is therefore BHs, (© For CCl, the only common factor is 1, so the empirical formula and the ‘molecular formula are identical FOR PRACTICE 3.1 ‘Write the empizical formula for the compounds represented by the molecular formulas. | Answrs we For Practice and Fer Wore Practice peblons can fund in (@) Csi (0) Bash © CHO2 ae Molecular Models O Hydrogen A molealor models «more accrte and complete way f0 spdiy a compound. A @ cv Pallandotiek molecular model represent atoms a alls and chemical bonds a ticks; rar tare coun refers a moleodes abepe. Te balls ao ipl colorcode to @ Biren peas cements Por example, carbon s casomarily black, hydrogen i whit, nitrogen is bluc, and oxygen is red. (For a complete list of colors of elements in the molecular @ ov models used in this book, see Appendix IIA.) 2 Fluorine Th space filing molecular model, toms fil the space between each oer to more closely rennet our best estimates for how a molecule might appear if scaled to visible Q reer size, Consider the following ways to represent a molecule of methane, the main compo- mt nent of naturales: @« 4 @ vvsin crt nto i ‘Molecular formula Structural formula _Ball-and-stck model Space-fiing motel92 chapter Molecules, Compounds, and Chemie! Equsons ‘A.A tetrabedron isa three dimensional ‘geometrical shape characterized by four equivalent triangular faces. TABLE3.1 Benzene, Acetylone, Glucose, and Ammonia ‘The molecular formula of methane indicates the number and type of each atom in the ‘molecule: one carbon stom and four hydrogen atoms. ‘The structural formula indicates hhow the atoms are connected: the carbon atom is bonded to the four hydrogen atoms, ‘The ball-and-stick model clearly portrays the geometry of the molecule: the carbon atom. sits in the center of a tetrahedron formed by the four hydrogen atoms. And finally, the space-filling model gives the best sense of the relative sizes of the atoms and how they ‘merge together in bonding, Throughout this book, you will see molecules represented in all of these ways, As ‘you look at these representations, keep in mind what you learned in Chapter 1: the details ‘about a molecule—the atoms that compose it, the lengths of the bonds between atoms, the angles of the bonds between atoms, and its overall shape—determine the properties of the substance that the molecule composes, Change any of these details and those prop- erties change. Table 3.1 shows various compounds represented in the different ways we have just discussed. > Concent en 3.2 Representing Molecules Based on what you leamed in Chapter 2 about atoms, what part of the atom do you think the spheres in the molecular space-filling models shown in Table 3.1 represent? If you ‘were to superimpose a nucleus on one of these spheres, how big would you draw it? Name of Empical ——- Molealar Stretra : Manes Borie A a BaiandStck Model SpaceFling Model 4 I ? HY c oN ai 32 Benzene cH Cols I I 4 7 ou MS wee PN od 2 i ' eayene on Cath 280 a 6 Il cH H— fi —OH , Ho—0—# Glucose Ho CaHi205 i , Hen ( CoH Wey on nH ‘Ammonia Nig Ny ~ " a = B 434 AnAtomie Level View of Elements and Compounds 9B 3.4. An Atomic-Level View of Elements and Compounds Recall from Chapter 1 that we can categorize pure substances as either elements or com- pounds. We can subcategorize elements and compounds according to the basic nits that compose them, as shown in Figure 3.4. Blements may be either atomic or molecular. Compounds may be either molecular or ionic. \V FIGURE 3.4 A Molecular View of ‘ements and Compounds Classification of Elements and Compounds | NaCl formula unit EameNe | Eine ~ Beanie el Atomic elements exist in nature with single atoms as their basic units, Most ele ‘ments fall into this category. For example, helium is composed of helium atoms, aluminum is composed of aluminum atoms, and iron is composed of iron atoms. Molecular elements do not normally exist in nature with single atoms as their basic units; instead, they exist as molecules—two or more atoms of the element bonded together. Most molecular elements exist as diatomic molecules. For example, hydrogen is composed of Hy molecules, nitrogen is composed of N, molecules, and chlorine is, composed of Clz molecules. A few molecular elements exist as polyatomic molecules Phosphorus exists as P,, and sulfur exists as S.. Figure 3.5 ¥ shows the elements that exist primarily as diatomic or polyatomie molecules. Molecular Elements ‘A The basic units that compose ‘84 chlorine gas are diatomic chlorine A i Toles 1 pA ements that exist as distomic molecules SA 4A SA GA TAT TZ ‘Lap Gee Sawsdatomicmokeses 3848 $8 0B [te A Ta} [pitenensttatnitespaysomicmeleaies STOTT] @] 9] 71 | Be o tae Bi c|N|0| F | Ne [RTE] 2 8 3 @ mB ww where epepe Te g*[m|mel so 2 3 SP FP YT Bel elses 2B 2h 2 ee 1s 2 Se eed ese ‘La fea sel | ¥ | cel atal te [Zo Mt | Ga | ze | Ga | Gel as | ge ae | zleles te elele se tere ree pera sr est wo| se | ¥ | ze Nb | sio| fe [te | th | wa | Ae [da] fe | 82 [So Le] PL of SUS Ped Bre as foe meas peo per er ss eT es e6 el an | af seta | Ww |e | Os | fe | oe | Aa By St | bo | [Po |e Lite aL & [8 8 ie] tos os tor tos oso ary aef as nefis Pues Fe | a | hel ne] Be | Sp | Be [ie |e | be | ep | a [Fae PS [Be << RoUREAS Mole Cents stantes [S21 S127 8 SS] S122 SST = Tanthanides | Ce | Pr | Na [Pm | Sm | a Gd | Tb | Dy | Ho | Ee |Tm| Yb | Lo ‘The highlighted elements exist prims etnies [22] 31 732] 83 ELSE TOE] BET SEL [HOTT] HE] OS] yes latomic moles Gellow or ‘| ma] © [Sp | pu [Am|Crm|e| | ts [rm |sua| No] be) Bsedaomlc noisesA Molecular Compound ‘An lonie Compound some ionic compounds, such 3 NP, contain nore than one fp of metal on. ocaslonaly rete to formula ws ut hs sot erect since eta caer DA ea MeO {A Polystomic ions are common in household produc suct as bleach, ‘which contains sodium hypoctlorite (NaC10), [AGFIGURE 3.6 Molecular and onie Compounds (a) Propane is an example of a molecular compound, ‘The basic nits that compose propane pas are propane (C3H,) molecules. (b) Table salt (NaCI isan {nie compound. Is formula units the simplest charge-nentral collection of ons: one Na ion and Molecular compounds are usually composed of two or mote covalently bonded nonmetal, The basic units of molecular compounds are molecules composed of the con- stituent atoms. For example, water is composed of HO molecules, dry ice is composed of CO; molecules, and propane (often used as fuel for grils) is composed of C3Hg ‘molecules as shown in Figure 3.6(8) Tonle compounds are composed of cations (usually a metal) and anions Casually one or more nonmetals) bound together by ionic bonds. The basic unit of an ionic compound is the formula unit, the smallest, electrically neutral collection of ions. A formula unit is not a molecule—it docs not usually exist as a discrete entity but rather as part of a larger lattice. For example, the ionic compound table salt, with the formula unit NaCl, is composed of Na’ and CI ions in a one-to-one ratio. In table salt, Na* and CI ions exist in a three-dimensional alternating array. Because ionic bonds are not directional, no one Na’ ion pairs with a specific Cl” ion. Rather, as ‘you can see in Figure 3.6(b) A, any one Na* cation is surrounded by Cl” anions and ‘Many common ionic compounds contain ions that are themselves composed of & group of covalently bonded atoms with an overall charge. For example, the active ingredient in household bleach is sodium hypochlorite, which acts to chemically alter color-causing molecules in clothes (bleaching action) and to kill bacteria (dis- infection). Hypochlorite is a polyatomic ion—an ion composed of two of more atoms—with the formula CIO". (Note that the charge on the hypochlorite ion is a property of the whole ion, not just the oxygen atom this is true for all polyatomic ions.) The hypochlorite ion is often found as a unit in other compounds as well (such as KCIO and Mg(Ci0),}. Other common compounds that contain polyatomic ions include sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO), also known as baking soda, sodium nitrite (NaNO>), an inhibitor of bacterial growth in packaged meats, and calcium carbonate (C2CO}), the active ingredient in antacids such as Turns. Q Concent fection 3.3 A Molecular View of Elements and Compounds Suppose that the two elements A (represented by triangles) and B (represented by squares) form a molecular compound with the molecular formula AB, and that Wo other elements, C (represented by circles) and D (represented by diamonds) form an ionic compound with the formula CD. Draw a molecular level view of each compound,3.5. onic Compounes: Formas and Nemes 9B MPLE 3.2 Classifying Substances as Atomic Elements, Molecular Elements, Molecular Compounds, or Tonic Compounds “Clossify each ofthe substances as an stomic element, molecular element, molecular Eeampound, o ionie compound. Ha sen0n() NiCl, (© bromine (@) NOs) NaNO, Xenon is an clement, eis not a molecular element (see Figure 3.5); therefor, itis an atomic element. Nich is a compound composed ofa metal (eft side ofthe periodic table) and nonmetal (iat side ofthe perioic table therefore isan one compound, {e) Bromine is one ofthe elements that exss a a diatomic molecule (se Figure 3.5; © orfore, itis molecular element Fy NOs sa compound composed ofa nonmetal and a nonmetal therefore, itis a tmoecolar compound. {e) NaNO is compound composed ofa metal and a polyatomic ion; therefore itis anionic compound “Fon pracrice 3.2 | Gast each ofthe substances as anatomic element, molecular element, molecular [compound o oni compound BEB) Muorine —(b) NO) silver (@) Kj0__(€) Fe,0 tanceptt . (Corffiection 3.4 tonic and Molecular Compounds A statement best summarizes the difference between ionic and molecular ompounds? “(@) Molecular compounds contain highly directional covalent bonds, which results in the formation of molecules—discrete particles that do not covalently bond to each other. Ionic compounds contain non-directional ionic bonds, which results (in the solid phase) in the formation of ionic lattices—extended networks of alternating Cations and anions. ‘Molecular compounds contain covalent bonds in which one of the atoms shares an electron with the other one, resulting in a new force that holds the atoms together in 4 covalent molecule. Tonic compounds contain ionic bonds in which one atom donates an electron to the other, resulting in # new force that holds the ions together in pairs (in te solid phase. _ (©) The key difference between ionic and covalent compounds isthe types of elements | that compose them, not the way thatthe atoms bond together, _(@) A molecular compound is composed of covalently bonded molecules. An ionic compound is composed of ionically bonded molecules (in the solid phase). Tp gatz | Tonic compounds occur throughout Earth's crust as minerals, Examples include limestone (CaCO,), a type of sedimentary rock; gibbsite (AVOH),), an aluminu | Containing mineral; and soda ash (NajCO,), a natural deposit. We can also find fonic ‘A Toni compounds re comson in food and consumer prodets sich a8 18 table salt; calcium carbonate (CaCO;), a source of calcium necessary for bone health; light salt (a mixture of NaCl and KCI) ‘0d potassium chloride (KCD, a soures of potassium necessary for fluié balance and and Tums (CACO)96 Chapter Molecles, Compounds, and Chemical Equetons muscle function. Tonic compounds are generally very stable because the attractions ‘petween cations and anions within ionic compounds are strong and because each ion interacts with several oppositely charged ions in the crystalline lattice. 1 Coaleit (left isthe main component ‘of limestone, marble, and other forms of ealeium carbonate (CaCO3) ‘comamonly found in Earth's crast. ‘Tron (right) isa crystalline form cof hyruted sodium carbonate (QNaGH(CO,), * 2120). Writing Formulas for lonic Compounds Since ionic compounds are charge-neutral, and since many elements form only one type of ion with a predictable charge, we can deduce the formolas for many jonic compounds from their constituent clements. For example, the formula for the ionic compound com- posed of sodium and chlorine must be NaC! because in compounds Na always forms + Potions and Cl always forms 1— anions. In order forthe compound to be charge-neutral, it trust contain one Na* cation to every one CI” anion. The formula for te ionic compound Composed of calcium and chlorine, however, is CaCl, because Ca always forms 2+ cat fons and Cl always forms I~ anions, In order for this compound to be charge-neutral, it ‘must contain one Ca?™ cation for every two CI anions. ‘Summarizing Ionic Compound Formulas: > oie compounds always contain positive and negative ions. b> In.a chemical formula, the sum of the charges of the positive ions (cations) must ‘equal the sum of the charges of the negative ions (anions) > The formula of an ionic compound reflects the smallest whole-number ratio of fons, Sea Figure 248 to role te eles that ‘To write the formula for an ionic compound, follow the procedure in the left column oom lone with predictable charge. below. Two examples of how to apply the procedure are provided in the center and right columns. ed PROCEDURE FOR... EXAMPLE 3.4 Writing Formulas for ‘Writing Formulas for Writing Formulas for Tonic Compounds Tonic Compounds | Tonic Compounds | write he fori forthe onc com- | Write the formula for the oie | pound tht forms between aluminum compoon that forms berwee calcium | and oxygen. and oxygen. TL Wit the ambol forthe meal cat | —— Iona sche fllowed by the | ‘bol forthe nonmetal aon and | ieharge Determine charges fom _| the elements group nomber in the | periodic table (refer to Figure 2.14). | 2. Adjust the subscript on each cation and anion to balance the overall | charge. 3. Check thatthe sum ofthe charges | cations: 2(3+) = 6+ J cations: 2+ of the cations equals the sum of the | anions: 3(2-) = 6— | anions: 2— charges of the anions. | The charges ence. “The charges cancel.FOR PRACTICE 3.3, | formed between potassium and sulfur. | Naming tonic Compounds Some ionic compounds—such as NaCl (table salt) and NaHCO, (baking soda)— have common names, which are nicknames of sorts leamed by familiarity However, chemists have developed systematic names for different types of com- pounds including ionic ones. Even if you are not familiar with a compound, you THBLE 35. lle Compounss: Formulas and Names a7 FOR PRACTICE 3.4 | Write the formula for the compound | Write the formula for the compound formed between aluminum and nitrogen. 3.2 Metals Whose Chargo Is Invariant from One Compound to Another fen dteine its systema ane from is chemical formula, Conversely, you can Mata Mane = SHR deduce the formula of a compound from it systematic name. + ‘The first step in naming an ionic compound is to identify it as one. Remember, ! __U as ionic compounds are usually composed of metals and nonmetals, any ime you see Na__Wa* Sodum 1A ‘metal and one or more nonmetal together in a chemical formula, assume that you KK" Potassium 1A have an ionic compound. Tonic compounds can be categorized into two types, “Ry ae Rubidium IA depending on the metal in the compound. The first type contains a metal whose “Get Gag yg charge is invariant from one compound to another. Whenever the metal in this first type of compound forms an ion, the ion always has the same charge. pee ae ee ceee ee Mg Magnesium 2A tonic compounns. | cose kine 28 || Metal and nonmetal Sr S®* Sonu 2A fa ee arm 2A AAS Aluminum 3k ‘ne Soandium Sher Tie care often met comet be fod fom har Since the charge of the metal in this first type of ionic compound is always pauprens the same, it need not be specified in the name of the compound. Sodium, for +-Siesaetnesfoms corps wb ss bao instance, has a I++ charge in all of its compounds. Table 3.2 lists some examples of these types of metals; the charges of these metals can be inferred from their ‘group number in the periodic table. ‘The second type of ionic compound contains a metal with a charge that can differ in different compounds. In other words, the metal in this second type of ionic compound ‘can form more than one kind of cation (depending on the compound), and its charge ‘must therefore be specified for a given compound. Iron, for instance, forms @ 2+ cation in some of its compounds and a 3+ cation in others. Metals of this type are often transition mezals (Figure 3.7 »). However, some transition metals, such as Zn and Ag, form cations with the same charge in all oftheir compounds (as shown in Table 3.2), and some main group metals, such as Pb and Sn, form more than one type of cation. Naming Binary tonic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms Only One Type of Cation Binary compounds contain only two different elements. The names of binary ionic compounds take the form: For example, the name for KCI consists of the name of the cation, potassium, followed by the base name of the anion, chlor, with the ending -ide. Its fall name is Potassium chloride. KC1_ potassium chloride ain groups Citransition metas ‘A FIGURE 3.7 Transition Metals ‘Metals that can have different charges in different compounds are usually, (Gut not always) transition metas,98 chapter eels, Compounes TABLE3.3 Some Common ‘Monoatomic Anions ‘Symiot Base Anion Neamt tres Nae Nene Tye hse nmes for vos nonmetal and he most comon cares in ore “Fine F7__fvor_ Fluofde compounds, are shown in Table 33. Thine GO _eNlor_CHorde Bromine BF _brom Bromide fodine t iod —_lodide EXAMPLE 3.5 Naming Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal ee ‘That Forms Only One ‘Type of Cation ait suiiée | Name the compound Car “Wivogen it Nie espionis P™_phosph Posphide | Note that there fs mo space betwen the ame ofthe elon and the parentet | numer indleting its charge. ‘ABLE 3.4 Some Metals That Form Cr Difforent Charges Metal Name Chromium CP —Chromium(i) — Chromous | fate In oran sarnpeg) [po ee | Seo es Lem Resi et ‘ron Fe tron) Ferrous ro tein hoe ‘You can determine the charge of the metal cation by inference from the a tw um of the charges ofthe nonmetal anions—remember that the sum of all Cobalt oo Coban) Cobeltous ‘the charges in the compound must be zero. Table 3.4 shows some of the __ Co" Cobait(tl) Cobaltic ‘metals that form more than one cation and their most common charges. Tapper? onpet)Gipcss “For example, in Cir, the charge of chromium must be inorder fo the ca? copper) —__ Con Compound to be charge-neutra wit three Br" anions. The cation is named Tin ‘sn Tin(ll) ‘Stannous Cr+ chromium(iil) sat _ Tv) Mercury ‘Hag? Mercury) _ Me Moran) Moa CxBr,chromium(ID bromide a eT) Pusha Similarly, in CuO the charge of copper must be 2+ in order forthe compound po teackNy —__Prmblo to be charge-neatral with one O” anion. The cation i therefore named tue sre canons ie. nl bs fonath be ese ard ingest on wh be et chm Renin a sam sw Ano rang jst stata vanes ora i oo cu copper(I) ‘ene ta ond charge. Und par eh) end Ceca Equatins “The name for CaO consists of the name of the cation, calcium, followed by the base ‘name of the anion, ox, with the ending -ide. Its full name is calciwm oxide. CaO calcium oxide SOLUTION ‘The cation is calcium. The anion is from bromine, which becomes bromide. The correct name is calcium bromide. | FOR PRACTICE 3.5 | Name the compound AgsN. | FoR WoRE practice 3.5 | Write the formula for rubidium sulfide. Naming Binary lonic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms More Than One Kind of Cation For these types of metals, the name of the cation is flowed by a roman numeral Cia prices) that indicates the charge of the metal in that particular compound. For ‘example, we distinguish between Fe" and Fe?* as follows: Fe iron(tt) Fe" ison(ill) ‘The full names for compounds containing metals that form more than one ations with ind of cation have the form: tne «= (GE {charge of xin neta [sternum ‘The full name of the compound is Mercurous “atingonsse The full name of the compound is, CuO copper oxideEXAMPLE 3.6 Naming Ionic Compounds Containing z Forms More Than One Kind of Cation Name the compound PbCL, SOLUTION The charge on Pb must be 4+ forthe compound to be charge-neutral s _ | anions. The name for PbCi, i the name ofthe eation, lad, followed t the cation in parentheses (V) and the base name of the anion, chlor, ® ide. The full name is lead{{V) chloride. PbCly_lead(IV) chloride sand Cronica 0, Compound FOR PRACTICE 3.6, Waite the formula for ruthenium(IV) oxide. Naming Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic lons = We name ionic compounds that contain a polyatomic fon inthe same way a8 other onic = compounds, except that we use the name of the polyatomic fon whenever it occurs. Shamed according to its cation, Na* (sodium), and its polystomic anion, NO,” (nitrite). NaNO, sodium nitrite FeSO, is named according to its cation iron, its charge (71), and its polyatomic ion © sulfate. Its full name is iron( UL) sulfate FeSO, iron(I1) sulfate TF the compound contains both a polyatomic cation and 2 polyatomic anion, use the james of both polyatomic ions, Far example, NH,NOs is ammonium nitrate. NH.NO; ammonium nitrate | FEBS coe comm etn ns chloe Chorale Parchlorate G05 Prmanganate 7 Sutte SF S05 soe #508 meen Cyanide ow Dinos shonae pO | made ul Mass ane the Mole Concept or Compauncs| 407.100 chapter Molecules, Compounds and Chenoa Equatons ter halides (halogen ins) orm sir rs ith sine wames. Thus, 13" 15 called edte and Bcd bromate, CoC; 60 CoCh, AAIGURE.8 Hycrates Cobalt) chloride hexahydrate is pink. Heating the compound zemoves the waters of ‘hydration, leaving the blue anhydrous cobalt} chloride amon hydrate pees be You should be able to recognize polyatomic ions in a chemical formula, so become {familiar with the ions listed in Table 3.5. Most polyatomic ions are oxyanions, anions containing oxygen and another element. Notice that when a series of oxyanions con- tains different numbers of oxygen atoms, they are named systematically according to the ‘number of oxygen atoms in the ion. If there are only two ions in the series, the one with ‘more oxygen atoms has the ending -ate and the one with fewer has the ending -ite. For ‘example, NOs” is nirrate and NO} is nitrite NO: nitrate NO,” nitrite If there are more than two ions in the series, then the prefixes hrypo-, meaning less than, ‘and per-, meaning more than, are used. So CIO™ is hypochlorite (less oxygen than chlorite), and C10, is perchlorate (more oxygen than chlorate). C107 hypochlorite C10," chlorite 10s" chlorate ClO" perchlorate EXAMPLE 3.7 Naming Ionic Compounds That Contain a Polyatomic Ion ‘Name the compound LisCta0), SOLUTION “The name for Li,Cr,O> is the name of the cation, lithium, followed by the name ofthe polyatomic ion, dichromate. Is full name is lithiun dichromate. 15,Cx,0) lithium dichromate | For Practice 3.7 ‘Name the compound Sn(CIO5)>, FOR MORE PRACTICE 3.7 || Write the formula for cobalt(II) phosphate. Hydrated lonic Compounds Some ionic compoands—alled hydrates—contuin a specific number of water mole- cles associated with each formula unit, For example, the formula for epsom salts is, ‘MgSO,-7H,O and its systematic name is magnesium sulfate heptahydrate. The seven QO molecules associated with the formula unit ace waters of hydration. Waters of hydration can usually be removed by heating the compound. Figure 3.8 4 shows a sample of cobalt) chloride hexahydrate (CoCl, “6H0) before and after heating, The hydrate is pink and the anhydrous sat (the salt without any asocisted water molecules) is blue iydrates are named just as other ionic compounds, but they are given the ational name “prefichydrate” where the prefs indicates the number of water molecules associated with each formula unit. Other commen hyérated ionic compounds and their names areas follows €$0,+!10 calciam slate heminydrate BaCl,-6H,0 barium chloride hexahydrate Ci804-5H,0 copper(I sulfate pentahydrate(RAT 3.6, Woleculr Compounds: Formuls and Names 20. 3.6 Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names In contr * NO, NO>, NO, NzO5, NzOg, and N3Os. In “stand the stability of these various combinations, of the same elements. For now, we foc 1s On naming a molecular compound based on its formula and writing its formula based on its name Naming Molecular Compounds {Like ioc compounds, many molecular compounds have common names. For ‘example, HO and NH, have the common names water and anmergn However, the sheer number spear naive hog Ponds—numberigin th milion ~necssaes a ajtemae Approach to naming them, When writing the name of a molecular first element isthe more metal-like o GREY, wie the name ofthe clement withthe smallest group number het Ife nag {hen write the clement withthe greatest row number rst tumber of atoms present These pretizes ar the same as those usd in sanlng yrates. first element in the formula, the prefix mono- is Mitr eh pean tample, We name NO; scordng tothe fist clement, mirogen cena ter Besa mono is emited forthe first element, fllowed bythe prefix di, Cranticae two oxygen atoms, and the base name ofthe second cloner na cath he nding -ide. Is fll name is nitrogen dior, NO, nitrogen dioxide ‘We name the compound NO, sometimes cal ‘we use the prefix di- before nitrogen to led laughing gas, similarly except that indicate tw before oxide to indicate one oxygen at "nitrogen atoms and the prefix mono- ‘om. Its full name is dinitrogen monoxide. vine x por ots with "0° andthe kav same bein with" the ist "eaten N,0 dinitrogen monoxide roped So mene bocomes monais.102 chapter Moleuss,compouns, ond Crema Eavatons ‘A Many fais are acidic and have the characteristically sour taste of acd | EXAMPLE 3.8 Naming Molecular Compounds | Name each compound. @) Nh) PC, © Pao SOLUTION | (@) The name of the compound is the name of the first element, nitrogen, followed by the base name of the second element, id, prefixed by ari-to indicate three and | given the suffix ide. | Nk nitrogen trifodide (b) The name of the compound is the name of the frst element, phosphorus, followed by the base name of the second element, chlor, prefixed by penta- to indicate five ‘and given the suffix -ide. | PCl; phosphorus pentachloride (©) ‘The name of the compound is the name of the first element, phosphorus, prefixed by tetra- to indicate four, followed by the base name of the second element, sulf, prefixed by deca to indicate ten and given the suifix ~ide. P,Sio _tetraphosphorus decasul | | FOR PRACTICE 3.8 | ‘Name the compound NzOs. | FOR MORE PRACTICE 3.8 ‘Write the formula for phosphorus tribromide, CO Cent 3.5 Nomenclature ‘The compound NCls is nitrogen trichloride, but AICI5 is simply aluminum chloride. Why? Naming Acids We can define acids in a number of ways, as we will discuss in Chapter 15. For now we define acids as molecular compounds that release hydrogen ions (H*) when dissolved in water, Acids are composed of hydrogen, usually written frst in their formula, and one or ‘more nonmetals, written second, For example, HCI is a molecular compound that, when dissolved in water, forms H' (aq) and CI (ag) ions, where aqueous (ag) means dissolved in water, Therefore, HCl is an acid when dissolved in water. To distinguish between ‘gaseous HCl (which is named hydrogen chloride because it is a molecular compound) and HCl in solution (which is named hydrochloric acid because itis an acid), we write the former as HCI(g) and the latter as HCK(aq). ‘Acids are characterized by their sour taste and their ability to dissolve many metals, For example, hydrochloric acid is present in stomach fluids, and its sour taste becomes painfully obvious during vomiting. Hydrochloric acid also dissolves some metals, For example, if you put a strip of zine into a test tube of hydrochloric acid, it slowly dissolves as the H*(aq) ions convert the zine metal into Zn**(aq) cations (Figure 3.9»). ‘Acids are present in foods such as lemons and limes and are used in household products such a toilet bowl cleaner and Lime-A-Way. In this section, we discuss howAcids Dissolve Many Metals them; in Chapter 15 you will leam more about their properties. Acids can be ed into two types: binary acids and oxyacids. ‘example, HCK(ag) is hydrochloric acid and HBr(aq) is hydrobromic acid HC(ag)_ hydrochloric acid HBr(aq)_hydrobromic acid ‘SOLUTION ‘The base name of Lis ‘od, so Haq) is hydroiodic acid. 45 Hag) —_hydroiodic acid 3.6 Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names 403 4 FIGURE 3.9 Hhdoehove Acid Dissobing Zine Metal ‘The zinc atoms are ionized to zinc ions, which dissolve in the wate. The HCI forms H 28, Which is responsible fr the bubbles ‘you can see in the test tube.104 chapter3_Molees,compours, an Chica Exuotons Naming Oxyacids Oxyacids contain hydrogen and an oxyanion (an anion containing a nonmetal and oxygen). The common oxyanions are listed in the table of polyatomic ions (Table 3.5), For example, HNOs(aq) contains the nitrate (NOs~) fon, HSOs(ag) contains the sulfite ($0,2") ion, and H;SOu(ag) contains the sulfate (SO,?") ion. Oxyacids are a combina. tion of one or more H* ions with an oxyanion, The number of H ions depends on the charge of the oxyanion; the formula is always charge-neutral. The names of oxyacids ‘depend on the ending of the oxyanion and take the following forms oxyanions ending with -ate oxyanions ending with ~ite So HNO4(aq) is nitric acid (oxyanion is nitrate), and H,SO,(aq) is sulfurous acid (oxyanion is sulfite) HINOs(aq) nitric acid —-H,SO,(oq) _sulfurous acid wy Acid Rai extain pollutants such as NO, NOp, and SO;—form acids when mixed with water. NO and NO», primarily emitted in vehicalar exhaust, combine with atmospheric oxygen and water to form nttic acid, HINOx(aq). SOp, emitted primarily from coal-powered electricity generation, combines with atmospheric oxygen and water to form sulfuric acid, H,8O4(ag). Both HNO,(ag) and H,S0,(ag) result in acidic rainwater. The problem is greatest inthe northeastema United States where pollutants from midwestern electrical power plants combine with rainwater to produce rain that is up to ten times more acidic than normal, ‘Acid rain can fall or flow into lakes and streams, making these bodies of water more acidic. Some species of aquatic ‘animals—such as trout, bass, snails, salamanders, and Acid rain damages ‘building materials suet asthe limestone that composes many statues.3.7 Summary of Inorganie Nomencatre 105 EXAMPLE 3.10 Naming Oxyacids Name HC3H,0,(g). SOLUTION ‘The oxyanion is acetate, which ends in -ate; therefore, the name of the acid is ‘acetic acid. HC}H,O,(aq) acetic acid FOR PRACTICE 3.10 ‘Name HNO,(ag). FOR MORE PRACTICE 3.10 ‘Write the formula for perchloric acid. 3.7 Summary of Inorganic Nomenclature In the previous two sections, we discussed naming inorganic compounds, specifically ionic compounds, molecular compounds, and acids. However, we often have to name 4 compound without intially knowing the category into which it falls, In other words, ‘eal life nomenclature is abit messier than the categorized nomenclature we jut worked through. Figure 3.10 v summarizes inorganic nomenclature in a flow chart that will help you to tackle nomenclature from beginning to end. ‘Tose the flow chart, begin by determining what ‘ype of compound you are trying to mame. For example, fo name the compound MgCl, you need to decide if the Inorganic Nomenclature Flow Chart Ley ae arpa calm die er) a Te ion wont | ea proc | cement | a J scout) cam | Bangle Fs phosphorus penne ‘base name of) sion got ee camp Fel, ‘argl:l Example 509 ‘ont oe tysrodoe sis ‘oud A FIGURE 3.10 Inorganic Nomencatue Flow Chart The chart summarizes how to name inorganic ee ‘Compounds. Begin by determining ifthe compound to be named is ionic, molecular, or an acid ‘Then follow the flow chat for that category from top to bottom until you arrive at a name for the compound.106 chapter3_Woleees, Compounds, end Chemis Equations Mi ‘compound is ionic, molecular, or an acid. In this case, since MgCl; is composed of a (cows) ‘metal and nonmetal, itis ionic, Therefore, you begin at the box labeled “IONIC” at the | {ar left side of the flow chart Next, determine whether the metal in the compound forms only one type of ion or ‘more than one type. You can decide this by looking for the metal (in this case magnesium) in Table 3.2. Since magnesium is listed in the table, it forms only one type of ion; therefore, you take the left branch in the flow chart as shown in Figure 3.11 "Finally, name the compound according to the blocks at the end of the path in the flow char. In this case, write the name of the cation (the metal) followed by the base name of the anion (the nonmetal) appended with the ending -ide. Its fall name is magne- sium chloride. “A FIGURE 3.11 Flow Chart Path for Mec EXAMPLE 3.11 Using the Nomenclature Flow Chart to Name Compounds Use the flow chart in Figure 3.10 to name each compound. (a) SO, (b) HCIO,(ag)_— (©) CoP, SOLUTION (@) SO; Begin by determining whether the compound is ionic, molecular, or an acid. Since SO, contains only nonmetals, itis molecular. [Name the compound as the name ofthe first element, sulfr (no prefix since the prefix is éropped for mono), followed by the base name of the second element, or, prefixed by dito indicate two, and given the suffix ~ide, ‘Sulfur dioxide | @) HCIOaq) Begin by determining wheter the compound is foc, molecular, or an acid. Sine HC1O,(az) contains Hand one more nonmetal ands Gesignates as aquoous itis an ai ‘Next determine whether the acid contains oxygen. Since HCIOg contains| onygen, tis am oxyacid ‘Then determine whether the name of the oxyanion end inate or ite Since the oxyanion i perchlorate, tends in ave | Finally, name the acd as the base name ofthe oxyanion, perchor, with | the ening ic, followed by the word aid | © OF, Begin by determining whether the compound is ionic, molecular, or an acid. Since CoP; contains a metal and a nonmetal, it is ionie. Next refer to Table 3.2 to determine whether the metal forms one type ‘of ion or more than one type. Since Co isnot listed in Table 3.2, it must form more than one type of ion. GeG)\| “wees [Name the compound as the name of the cation, cobalt, followed by the charge of the cation in parentheses (77), and the base name of the anion, fluor, with the ending -ide. Cobalt) fluoride FoR PRACTICE 3.13, [Use the low char in Figure 3.100 name #803600),3.8 Formula Mass andthe Mole Concept for Compounds 107 3.8 Formula Mass and the Mole Concept for Compounds In Chapter 2, we defined the average mass of an atom of an element as its atomic mass, Similarly, we now define the average mass of a molecule (or a formula unit) of a com. pound as its formula mass. (The terms molecular mass or molecular weight are synony. ‘mous with formula mass and are also common.) For any compound, the formula mass the sum ofthe atomic masses of all the atoms in its chemical formula, fe > = Number ofstoms} {Atomic nas [ Nombér ofatome Formulamass= (| oftateiomentin |x| ots | «(| Sumberataame ( Seema oomata |” { tatclomenn JJ | | Seana For example, the formula mass of carbon dioxide, CO,, is 2 Msipy by 2 vce frmas te ye a 2.01 amu -+ 2(16.00 amu) 44,01 amu Formula mass and that of sodium oxide, Na,O, is 1 Matty oy 2 bees forma bast soo as Formula mass = 2(22.99 amu) + 16.00 amu 61.98 amu EXAMPLE 3.12 Calculating Formula Mass Calculate the formula mass of glucose, CHO. sowution ‘To find the formula mass, add the atomic masses of each atom in the chemical formula: Formula mass = 6 X (atomic mass C) + 12 x (atomic mass H) + 6 X (atomic mass 0) = 6(12.01 amu) + 12(1,008 amu) + 6(16.00 amu) = 180.16 amu Molar Mass of a Compound | I Chapter 2 (Section 2.9), we saw that an element's molar mass—the mass in grams of compounds do oot contain ‘ne mole of its atoms—is numerically equivalent to its atomic mass. We then used the indiriual molecules casual language, the {ol mus in combination with Avgad's uke deri te manber of soma |e ete tal ct fo sven mass ofthe clement. The same cone apis fo compouns, The molar [Rtn cles mae Mass ofa compound —the mass in grams of 1 mol of it molecules ot formula units ig Smerically equivalent to its formula mass. For example, we just calculated the formula £355 of CO; to be 44.01 amv, The molar mas js, therefore: CO, molar mass = 44.01 g/mol _Using Molar Mass to Count Molecules by Weighing ee molar mass of CO, isa conversion factor between mass (in grams) and amount (in © 8°) CO,, Suppose we want to find the number of CO, molecules in a sample of dry with amass of 10.8 g, Ths calculation is analogous to Example 28, where We found the number of atoms in a ‘sample of copper of a given mass. We begin with the| 108 captor Nolues, Compounds, ne Chemin Equatons mass of 10.8 g and use the molar mass to convert to the amount in moles. Then we use Avogadto’s number to convert to number of molecules. The conceptual plan is as follows: Concoptual Plan (Ge) eaico, }—1earmaaie) Alco; 6022 10 COsmoeelr tai 560; aalO, To solve the problem, we follow the conceptual plan, beginning with 10.8 2 COs, converting to moles, and then to molecules. Solution L mol €O; 4401 86; y, 6022 X 10 CO, molecules Tmok€0;, 108 g 60; x = 1.48 10 CO; molecules | EXAMPLE 3.13 The Mole Concept—Converting between Mass and Number of Molecules An aspirin tablet contains 325 mg of acetylsalicylic acid (CyH,0,). How many acetylsalicylic acid molecules does it contain? | SORT You are given the mass of acetylsai clic acid and asked to find the number of, GIVEN: 325 mg C3H,O, FIND: number of CsFi40, molecules molecules. STRATEGIZE First convert to moles (using | CONCEPTUAL PLAN the molar mass of the compound) and then | /-—————~ to number of molecules (using Avogadro's | (mg £GH0, fam ( £CHO me ssumber). You will need both the molar mass |“ = ae of acetylsalicylic acid and Avogadro's num- ra amare ber as conversion factors. You will also need ae : : the conversion factor between g and mg, (“wot Gtte0, {number of C440. moecutes } “i210 GOvnmlecder mel G40, | | RELATIONSHIPS USED | CHO, molar mass = 9(12.01) + 8(1.008) + 4(16.00) 180.15 g/mol 6.022 x 10 = 1 mol Img = 10° g SOLVE Follow the conceptual plan to solve | SOLUTION the problem, | 10% | LimokesHig05 pr | 325 ing cstigo; x 10-€ y, LmelesthO,_ | Ting ™ 180.15 £ CHG | 6.022 x 10 C3H,0, molecule fA RRA = 1.09 X 10” CohlgO, molecules | ‘Linol 65#§0, CHECK ‘The units of the answer, CsH,O, molecules, are correct. The magnitude is smaller than Avogadro's number, as expected, since you have less than I molar mass of acetylsalicylic acid FOR PRACTICE 3.13 Find the number of ibuprofen molecules ina tablet containing 200.0 mg of ibuprofen (CisHys02) | For More PRACTICE 3.13 ‘What isthe mass of a sample of water containing 3.55 x 10? H,O molecules?3.9. Composion of Compounds 109 2 a cancel ction 3.6 Molecular Models and the Size of Molecules ‘Throughout this book, we use space-filling molecular models to represent molecules. Which number is the best estimate for the scaling factor used in these models? In other ‘words, by approximately what number would you have to multiply the radius of an actual ‘oxygen alom to get the radius of the sphere used to represent the oxygen atom in the ‘water molecule shown at right. (@) 10) 10" @ 10° @) 10 3.9 Composition of Compounds {A chemical formula, in combination with the molar masses of its constituent elements, indicates the relative quantities of each element in a compound, which is extemely use- {fal information. For example, about 30 years ago, scientists began to suspect that syn- thetic compounds known as chlorofluorocarbons (or CFCs) were destroying ozone (Os) in Earth's upper atmosphere. Upper atmospheric ozone is important because it acts as & shield, protecting life on Earth from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet light CFCs are chemically inert compounds that were used primarily as refrigerants and industrial solvents. Over time, CFCs accumulated in the atmosphere. In the upper atmosphere, sunlight breaks bonds within CFCs, releasing chlorine atoms. The chlorine atoms then react with ozone, converting it into O. So the harmful part of CFCS is the chlorine atoms that they carry. How can we determine the mass of chlorine in given mass of a CFC ‘One way to express how much of an element isin a given compound is to use the A The ciorin in clorfinorcarbons clement's mass percent composition for that compound. The mass percent composition sed the ozone hole over Antarctica, cr mass percent of an clement is that element's percentage of the compound's total The dirk blue color indicates mass, We can calculate the mass percent of element X in a compound from the chemical SePrs8ed ozone levels formula as follows: massofelementX in | molofcompound | massofI molofthecompound 100% ‘Mass percentofelementX = ‘Suppose, for example, that we want to caleulate the mass percent composition of Cl in the chiorofluorocarbon CCIgF>, The mass percent Cl is given by: *~ @@ s molar mass Cl @ We multiply the molar mass of Cl by 2 because the chemical formula has a subscript of 2 for Cl, indicating that 1 mol of CCI;P; contains 2 mol of Cl atoms, We calculate the ‘molar mass of CCLLF; as follows: Molarmnass = 12.01 g/mol + 2G5.45 g/m) + 219.00 g/mot = 120.91 g/mol o ‘Mass percent Cl X 100% So the mass percent of Clin CCLFs is: 2X molar mass Cl molar mass CCLF _ 2X 35.45 géenot 120.91 g/mot = 58.64% MasspercentCl = X 100% X 100%110 chapter Motels, Compounds, ans cemicl Eqns (EXAMPLE 3aa oa | EXAMPLE 3.14 Mass Percent Composition | Cateutate the mass percent of Clin Freon-112 (CgCLF,), a CRC refrigerant SORT You are given the molecular GIVEN: C.CLF | formula of Freon-112 and asked to find | FIND: mass percent Cl the mass percent of Cl | STRATEGIZE The molecular formula | CONCEPTUAL PLAN tells you that there are 4 mol of Clin 4X molar mass Cl percent composition from the chemical | RELATIONSHIPS USED formula by using the equation that mass of element X in 1 mol of compound defines mass percent. The conceptual | Mass perent of element X = “"" STE & 100% plan shows you how to use the mass of | Clin 1 mol of CCL, and the molar | mass of C,Cl4Fz to find the mass per- | cent of CL | SOWE Calculate the necessary parts | SOLUTION of the equation and substitute the 4 x molar mass Cl = 4(35.45 g/mol) = 141.8 g/mol : Values ito the equation to find mass | Molar mass C,Cl = 2(1201 g/mol) + 4(35.45 g/mol) + 2(19.00 g/mol) percent Cl. | 24.02 mol + 141.8 g/mol + 38.00 g/mol = 203.8 g/mol 4% molar mass CL Mass % Cl = Saas Clg, * 100% 141.8 g/enol | j 2088 gmat * 10% I = 69.58% CHECK The units of the answer (%) are correct, and the magnitude is reasonable | because (a itis between 0 and 100% and ()ehorine fs the heaves atom in the molecule and thee ae four atoms oft FOR PRACTICE 3.14 ‘Acetic acid (CsH,O>) isthe active ingredient in vinegar. Calculate the mass percent composition of oxygen in acetic acid FOR MORE PRACTICE 3.14 CCtouate the mass percent composition of sodium in sodium oxide. cancel Qin 3.17 Chemical Formula and Mass Percent Composition Without doing any calculations, lst the elements in CHO in order of decreasing mass percent composition. Mass Percent Composition as a Conversion Factor ‘The mass percent composition of an element in a compound is a conversion factor | between mass of the element and mass of the compound. For example, we saw that the ‘mass percent composition of C1 in CCIxF2 is 58.64%. Since percent means per hundred, there are 58.64 g Cl per hundred grams CCI3F>, which can be expressed as the ratio: 58.64 g C1:100 g CLF, cr, in fractional form: 58.64 Cl 100 g CCLF, 100gCCLF, “ ~5864gcl‘39 composition of Compounds AL ‘These ratios can function as conversion factors between grams of Cl and grams of CLE). or example, to calculate the mass of Cl in 1.00kg CCIF;, we use the following conceptual plan; Conceptual Pian eco a e8 | Notice that the mass percent composition acts as a conversion factor between grams of the compound and grams of the constituent element. To calculate grams Cl, we follow the conceptual plan, Solution 1000 ¢ kg 58.64 gCl 100 ¢ CORR; 1.00 keg CCHF: x = 5.86 x 10? gc EXAMPLE 3.15 Using Mass Percent Composition as a Conversion Factor ‘The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends that a person consume less than 2.4 g of sodium per day. What mass of sodium chloride (in grams) can you consume and sill be within the FDA guidelines? Sodium chloride is 399% sodium by mass. SORT You are given a mass of sodium and the mass | GIVEN: 2.4 Na ‘percent of sodium in sodium chloride. You are FIND: g NaCl asked to find the mass of NaCl that contains the | given mass of sodium, = ——} STRATEGIZE Convert between mass ofa constituent | CONCEPTUAL PLAN element and mass of a compound by using mass percent composition as a conversion factor, | Ga amc) WogNsct | RELATIONSHIPS USED : 39 g Na: 100 g NaCl SOLVE Follow dhe conceptual panto solve the | SOLUTION ble, 100g Nact x 2agna x 28 | 39 gNE | You can consume 6:2 g NaCl and stil be within the FDA guidelines, = 62gNacl CHECK ‘The units of the answer are correct. The magnitude seems reasonable because itis larger than the amount of sodium, as expected, because sodium is only one of the | elements in NaCl FOR Practice 3.15, [ What mass in grams) of iron(II) oxide contains 58.7 grams of iron? Iron(lD oxide 69.94% iron by mass FOR MORE PRACTICE 3.15 ‘If someone consumes 22 g of sodium chloride per day, what mass (in grams) of 14.125 packers of at um does that person consume? Sodium chloride is 39% sodium by mass, contain 62 8 of N112 chapter3_ Molecules, Corgeunds, and Chemica Eustons Conversion Factors from Chemical Formulas Mass percent composition is one way to understand how much chlorine is in a particular chlorofluorocarbon or, more generally, how much of a constituent element is present in a given mass of any compound. However, we can also approach this type of problem in a dif- ferent way. Chemical formulas contain within them inherent relationships between atoms (or moles of atoms) and molecales (or moles of molecules). For example, the formula for CCHF, tells us that 1 mol of CCF; contains 2 mol of Cl atoms. We write the ratio as: 1 molCChF:: 2 molCl 4 With ratios such as these—which come from the chemical formula—we can directly determine the amounts of the constituent elements present in a given amount of a com- pound without having to calculate mass percent composition. For example, we calculate the number of moles of Clin 38.5 mol of CCL.F, as follows: Conceptual Plan Solution 2 mol Cl FX = 77.0 molCl 38.5 molOChF: x eegis = 7-0 molCl As we have seen, however, we often want to know, not the amount in moles of an clement in a certain number of moles of compound, but the mass in grams (or other units) of a constituent element in a given mass of the compound. Suppose we want 10 know the mass (in grams) of Cl contained in 25.0 g CCl. The relationship inherent in the chemical formula (2 mol Cl:1 mol CCLF,) applies to the amount in moles, not to mass. Therefore, we first convert the mass of CLF; to moles CCLyF2. Then we use the conversion factor from the chemical formula to convert to moles Cl, Finally, we use the molar mass of Cl to convert to grams Cl. Conceptual Pian Gn) Gis) Go) rami Oc * peste ssasgcl 1991 COL, Tal Cob, Tra Solution pe molec motel 354580 _ yo oy SCENE * 190.91 gCCHR: © TmolCeGF; © Imetct ® Notice that we must convert from g CCF; to mol CCLF; before we can use the chemi- cal formula as a conversion factor. Always remember that the chemical formula gives us ‘a relationship beeween the amounts (in moles) of substances, not between the masses (it {grams) of them. : ‘The general form for solving problems in which we are asked to find the mass of an clement present in a given mass of a compound is ‘Mass compound —> moles compound —> moles element — mass element We use the atomic or molar mass to convext between mass and moles, and we use relationships inherent in the chemical to convert between moles and moles.Hydrogen may ©) major automobile companies = ye environmentally friendly jbiain hydrogen for fuel isto use an emisi to form ele jned in }.00 gallon of wate “SORT You are given a volume of water and asked to find the mass of hydrogen it contains. You are also “> ven the density of water. “STRATEGIZE ‘The first part ofthe conceptual plan hows how to convert the units of volume from ello to liters and then to mL Tt also shows how you can then use the density to convert ml tog | The second part of the conceptual "plan isthe basic sequence of 5 inass—> moles — moles —> mass. | Cowvert between moles and mass using © the appropriate molar masses, and convert from mol {10 to mol H using the conversion factor derived |) irom the molecular formula. CEXAMPLE 3.16 Chemical Formulas as Conversion Factors potentially be used in the future to replace gasoline as a fuel. Most are developing vehicles that run on hydrogen. These cars trecause thei only emission is water vapor: One way to free energy source such as wind power mental hydrogen fom water. What mass of hydrogen (in gram) i 1? (The density of waters 1.00 g/ml.) 39. Compostion of Compounds GIVEN: 1,00 gal HO {T.m20 — nto ml sr } 20 mt 3005 s2alth0 ol “gi iemagHo Teeltio Tol RELATIONSHIPS USED 3.7851 = 1 gal (Table 1.3) 1000 mL = 1L 1,00 g H,0 = I mL H,0 (density of H,0) ‘Molar mass HO = 2(1.008) + 16.00 = 18.02 g/mol 2 mol H: 1 mol HO 1,008 g H = 1 mol H sas x gnn0 x RM 2 Shout 3.8 L, its mass is ificantly less than 3.8 kg, as itis in the answer, -MORE PRACTICE 3.16, HECK The units of the answer (g H) are correct. Since a gallon of water is about 3.8 kg. His a light atom, so its mass should be ie (CH) the liquid fuel in lighters. How many grams of carbon are present within cf containing 725 ml of butane? (The density of guid butane is 0.601 g/m) (b) 2mLH: 1 mL HO ce ntl en 3.8 chemical Formulas and Elemental Composition ‘molecular formula for water is HO. Which ratio can be correctly derived from this (©) 2mol H:1 mol HO114 chapter Moleuies, Compounds, and Chemica Equations [aitelst deze te US: Bron rtton ‘Agency (EPA) has grown increasingly Jconcemed about mercury levels in fish. Mexcury—which is present in fish as methylmer- ceury-—affects the contral nervous system of humans who eat the fish, especially in children ‘and developing fetuses. In a developing fetus, excessive mercury exposure can result in slowed mental development and even retardation, Some lakes now have warnings about cating too much fish caught in the Lake. ‘Recent regulations force many fish vendors to alert customers about the dangers of, eating too much of certain kinds of commercial fish, including shark, tana, and mackerel "These fish tend to contain high levels of methylmercury and therefore should be eaten in moderation, especially by children and pregnant women. The U.S. Food and Drug ‘Administration (FDA) action level—the level below which the FDA claims the food has tno adverse heath effects—for methylmercury in fish is 1.0 ppm or 1.0 g of methylmer- ceury per million grams of fish. However, a number of environmental advocacy groups, including the EPA, have suggested that, while ths level may be safe for adults, itis too high for children and pregnant women, Consequently, the FDA suggests that pregnant ‘women limit thei intake of fish to 12 ounces per week. : = Question ‘a Lakes containing mercury—either ‘The levels of methylmercury in fish are normally tested by laboratory tecniques that from natural sources or from. ‘measute only the mercury (Hig). Suppose a lab analyzes @ 14.5 g sample of fish and finds pollution—often have posted limits for that it contains 1.03 * 10° g of mercury. How much methylmercury (HgCH,CI isin the the numberof ish from the lake that fishin parts per million (ppm)? Is this above the FDA action level? can be eaten safely re eo cet 3.10 Determining a Chemical Formula from Experimental Data In Section 3.8, we calculated mass percent composition from a chemical formula. Can wwe also do the reverse? Can we calculate a chemical formula from mass percent compo- sition? This question is important because many laboratory analyses of compounds give the relative massos of each element present in the compound. For example, if we decom: ‘pose water into hydrogen and oxygen in the laboratory, we can measure the masses of | hydrogen and oxygen produced, Can we get a chemical formula from this kind of data? | “The answer is a qualified yes, We can determine a chemical formula, but itis an empiti- cal formula (not a molecular formula), To get a molecular formula, we need additional information, such as the molar mass of the compound. ‘Suppose we decompose a sample of water in the laboratory and find that it produces 0.857 ¢ of hydrogen and 6.86 g of oxygen. How do we detetmine an empirical formil from these date? We know that an empirical formula represents a ratio of atoms or 8 ratio of ‘moles of atoms, nota ratio of masses. So the first thing we must do is convert our data from ‘mass (in gratis) to amount (in moles). How many moles of each element are present inthe, sample? To convert to moles, we divide each mass by the molar mass of that element: 1 mol H foles H Hx = 0849 mol Me 0857 BH X 7 gg = 0849 mol L mol Moles 0 = 685 86 X 765 5g = 0429 mol O From these data, we know there are 0.849 mol H for every 0.429 mol O. We can n0¥4, write a pseudoformula for water: Ho s5Ona09 ‘To get the smallest whole-number subscripts in our formula, we divide all the subserip by the smallest one, inthis case 0.429: Hos0os0 _ S ose00423 — 1,440 = 1,0‘of how to apply the procedure. PROCEDURE FOR... Obtaining an Empirical Formula from Experimental Data 1, Write down (or calculate) as given the masses of each element present ina sample of the compound. If you tre given mass percent composition, ‘assume a 100 g sample and calculate the masses of each element from the given percentages, 3.40 Determining 2 Chemical Formule fom Experimental Date EXAMPLE 3.17 | Obtaining an Empirical | Formula from Experimental Data A compound containing nitrogen and oxygen is decomposed in the Inbora- tory and produces 24.5 g nitrogen and 70.0 g oxygen. Calculate the empirical | formula of the compound GIVEN: 24.5 gN, 70.020 FIND: empirical formula 115 E urempitical formula for water, which also happens tobe the molecular formula, is HO. “You cen use the procedure shown below to obtain the empirical formula of any compound = from experimental data giving the relative masses of the constituent elements. The left ‘olurn outlines the procedure, and the center and right columns contain two examples | EXAMPLE 3.18 Obtaining an Empirical Formula from Experimental Data A laboratory analysis of aspirin determined the following mass percent compesition: € 60.00% 4.48% 035.52% Find the empirial formula. | GIVEN: In a 100 g sample: 60.00 g C, 4,8 gH, 35.52.20 FIND: empirical formula Convert each of the masses in step 1 to moles by using the appropriate molar mass for each element as @ conversion Factor, 1 mol Dor ge 7 1% mac 60.00 ge x . Write down a pseudoformula for the compound using the number of ‘moles of each element (from step 2) as subscripts. 4. Divide all the subscripts in the ormula by the smallest subscript. |S. Ifthe subscripts are not whole num- bers, multiply all the subscripts by ‘small whole number (see table) to {et whole-number subscripts. etlonal Subseript Multiply by This | NisOa28 NjOa5 X 2 —> NzOs ‘The correct empirical formula is N,0s FOR PRACTICE 3.47 ‘A sample of a compound is decom- posed in the aboratory and produces | 165 g carbon, 27.8 g hydrogen, and | 220.2 g oxygen. Calculate the empiri- | cal formula of the compound. CasogHla 4402220 Cass est Ons —> Cast Oy fam in 20 Caasth,O, x 4 —> CoH: ‘The correct empirical formula is CoHeOs. FOR PRACTICE 3.18 Ibuprofen has the following mass percent composition: C75.69%, H 8.80%, 0 15.51%. ‘What is the empirical formula of ibuprofen?116 chapter3_ Molecules, Compound, and Cheri Eauatons Calculating Molecular Formulas for Compounds We can find the molecular formula of a compound from the empirical formula if we also know the molar mass of the compound, Recall from Section 3.3 that the molecular Formula is always a whole-number multiple of the empirical formule: ‘Molecular formula = empirical formula X n, where n= 1, 2,3, ‘Suppose we want to find the molecular formula for fructose (a sugar found in fruit) from its empirical formula, CH,O, and its molar mass, 180.2 g/mol. We know that the molecu- Jar formula is a whole-number multiple of CHO: ‘Molecular formula = (CH,0) X = CyHOn We also know that the molar mass is a whole-number multiple of the empirical formula ‘molar mass, the sum of the masses of all the atoms in the empirical formula Molar mass = empirical formula molar mass X For a particular compound, the value of m in both cases is the same. Therefore, ‘we can find n by calculating the ratio of the molar mass to the empirical formula molar mass: molar mass ‘empirical formula molar mass For fructose, the empirical formula molar mass is: Empirical formula molar mass = 12.01 g/mol + 2(1.01 g/mol) + 16.00 g/mol = 30.03 g/mol ‘Therefore, n is 180.2 g/twot 30.03 g/mol We can then use this value of nto find the molecular formula: Molecular formula = (CHO) * 6 = C205 EXAMPLE 3.19 Calculating a Molecular Formula from an Empirical | Formula and Molar Mass | Butanedione—a main component responsible for the smell and taste of batter and ‘cheese—contains the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The empirical formula of tutanedione is CHO, and its molar mass is 86.09 g/mol. Find its molecular formu, _ ‘SORT You are given the empirical formula and molar mass of butanedione and asked to find the molecular formula. STRATEGIZE A molecular formula is always ‘a whole-number multiple of the empirical formula, Divide the molar mass by the empirical formula mass to get the whole ‘number. GIVEN: Empirical formula ~ C3H,0 molar mass = 86.09 g/mol FIND: molecular formula Molecular formula = empitical formula X molar mass ~ empirical formula mass SOLVE Calculate the empirical formula Divide the molar mass by the empirical formula mass to find n. Multiply the empirical formula by 1 to obtain the molecular formula. [Empirical formula molar mass. = 2(12.01 gimol) + 3(1.008 g/mol) + 16.00 g/mol = 43.04 g/mol 86.09 g/mol 43.04 g/mol ‘molar mass copia! formola mass Molecular formula = CH,0 X 2 = ChiO,3.10 Determining 2 Chemica! Formula tm Experimenta Data AAT [eWEOK Check the answer by calculating the molar mass ofthe formula as follows 4(12.01 g/mol) + 6(1.008 gfmol) + 2(16.00 gyal) = 86.09 g/mol ‘The calculated molar mass is in agreement withthe given molar mass, | FOR PRACTICE 3.19 | ‘s compound has the empitical formula CH and a molar mass of 78.11 g/mol. What | js its molecular formula? FOR MORE PRACTICE 3.19 “A compound with the percent composition shown nexthas a molar mass of 60.10 g/mol. ‘Determine its molecular formula. ©, 39.97% i H, 13.41% N, 46.62% Combustion Analysis In the previous section, we discussed how to determine the empirical formula of a com- ‘pound from the relative masses of is constituent elements, Another common (and related) ‘way to obtain empirical formulas for unknown compounds, especially those containing, carbon and hydrogen, is combustion analysis, In combustion analysis, the unknown Combustion typeof emia! reacts, ‘compound undergoes combustion (or burning) in the presence of pure oxygen, as shown _|Wescess chemical eetions ad thelr in Figure 3.12 v, When the sample is burned, all of the carbon in the sample is converted _| #¥resenatonn Secten 3.41. to CO;, and all of the hydrogen is converted to H,0. The CO; and H,0 produced are weighed. With these masses, we can use the numerical relationships between moles in. herent in the formulas for CO, and H,0 (1 mol COg: 1 mol C and 1 mol H,0 : 2 mol H) to determine the amounts of C and H in the original sample. The amounts of any other ‘elemental constituents, such as O, Cl, or N, can be determined by subtracting the sum of the masses of C and H from the original mass of the sample. Examples 20 and 21 show how to perform these calculations for a sample containing only C and H and for a sample containing C, H, and O. aninown compound isburned in orygen. | ‘produced are isolated ‘and weighed, Other substances ‘not absorbed 1,0 aber A.FIGURE 3.12 Combustion Analysls Apparatus The sample tobe analyzed is placed in a furnace and bummed in oxygen. The water and carbon dioxide produced ae absorbed into separate containers and weighed.118 PROCEDURE FOR... / Obtaining an Empirical Formula from Combustion Analysis Chapter Molecules, Compounds, and Chemica Exuations EXAMPLE 3.20 Determining an Empirical Formula from Combustion Analysis Upon combustion, a compound containing only carbon and hydrogen produces 1.83 g CO, and 0.901 g 0. Find the empirical formula of the compound. EXAMPLE 3.21 Determining an Empirical Formula from Combustion Analysi: ‘Upon combustion, 2 0.8233 g sample of a compound containing only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen produces 2.445 g CO, and 0.6003 1,0. Find the empirical formula of the compound. 1. Write down as given the masses of each combustion product and the mass of the sample (if given) 2. Convert the masses of COs and Hj from step 1 to moles by using the appropriate molar mass for each compound as a conversion factor. GIVEN: 1.83 g CO;, 0.901 g H,0 FIND: empirical formula 1 mol CO 4401 g€0; = 0.0416 mol CO, 1 mol H,0 18.02 gO = 0.0500 mol H;0 1.83 g€03 0.901 gH:0 x GIVEN: 0.82334 sample, 2.445 CO>, 0.6003 ¢ HO FIND: empirical formula 1 mol CO, 44.01 gO; = 0.05556 mol CO, 1 mol HO. 1801 gH;0 = 0.03331 mol HO 2.445 g€05 x 0.6008 g-H0 x 3. Convert the moles of CO, and moles of H0 from step 2 to moles of C and | moles of H using the conversion fac- tors inherent in the chemical formulas of CO; and H0. 4. If the compound contains an element other than C and H, find the mass of the other element by subtracting the sum of the masses of C and H (obtained in step 3) from the mass of the sample. Finally, convert the mass of the other element to moles. ‘5. Write down a pseudoformuta for the compound using the number of moles | ofeach element (from steps 3 and 4) | as subscripts. 6, Divide all the subscripts in the formula by the smallest subscript. (Round all subscripts that are within 0.1 of a whole number.) | Caonetxeo Lmol C 1 moF€O; = 0.0416 mol C 2molH T mebHg0 = 0,100 mol H 0.0416 mok€Os x 0.0500 mob HO ‘The sample contains no elements | other than C and H, so proceed to the next step, ‘Coons aso. —> CH, ConssssHaossaoansss CogssssFfoocesoOounsss LmolC T mole; = 0.05556 mol C 0.05556 mokCox x. 2mol H 1 moO = 0.06662 mol H 0.03331 mol#j0" x t= 0462 mot 8 ot MassO = 0.8233 g ~0.6673g + 0.06715 ) 0.0889 g mol MolO = 0.088936 x —! 59% 75.0086 0.00556 molo a a —o onss6 mss agus” C20Fife steps aac woe‘ Gg XS > Ca rors malay al he etsxps | The coe empire armas Cit By nama whole mmber oe ‘whole-number subscripts. | | i FOR PRACTICE 3.20 Upon combustion, a compound containing only carbon and hydrogen | produced 1.60 g CO, and 0.819 HO. Find the empirical formula of the | Combustion analysis (which we just examined in Section 3.10) employs a chemical reaction, a process in which one or more substances are converted into one oF more dif- erent ones. Compounds form and change through chemical reactions. As we have seen, ‘water can be made by the reaction of hydrogen with oxygen. A combustion reaction is 4 particular type of chemical reaction in which a substance combines with oxygen to form ‘ne or more oxygen-containing compounds. Combustion reactions also emit heat. The heat ‘produced in a number of combustion reactions is critical to supplying our society's energy needs. For example, the heat from the combustion of gasoline expands the gaseous combus- tion products in a car engine's cylinders, which push the pistons and propel the car. We use the heat released by the combustion of natural gas to cook food and to heat our homes, ‘We represent a chemical reaction with a chemical equation. For example, we repre- sent the combustion of natural gas with the equation CH, + 0; —> CO, + 1,0 rests procs ‘The substances on the left side of the equation are the reactants and the substances ‘onthe right side are the products, We often specify the states of each reactant or product in parentheses next to the formula as follows: CHA) + O,(¢) — COxg) + HrO(@) ‘The (g) indicates that these substances are gases in the reaction. Table 3.6 summarizes © the common states of reactants and products and their symbols used in chemical equations. ‘The equation just presented for the combustion of natural gas is not complete, ~liowever. If you look closely, you should immediately spot a problem, CHA) + Ong) — COA®™ + oe 20atoms 2 0atoms + 1 010m 30 atoms ‘The left side of the equation has two oxygen atoms while the right side has three. The _ eection as writen, therefore, violates the law of conservation of mass because an oxygen | tom formed out of nothing. Notice also that the left side has four hydrogen atoms while the right side has only two. Hale) + O2(—) —> COxl) + 1,0) / } vats 2iatoms Two hydrogen atoms have vanished, again violating mass conservation To correct these problems—that is, to write an equation that more closely represents what actually 2pens—we must balance the equation, We need to change the cosficients (he aur. | Per in front ofthe chemical formulas), not the subscripts (the numbers within the 3.11 whiting and Balancing Chemical Equavens 149 ‘The subscripts are whole numbers; 1 additional multiplication is needed. The correct empirical formula is CygH,0. FOR PRACTICE 3.21 Upon combustion, a 0.8009 g sam- ple of a compound containing only | carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen produced 1.6004 g CO; and | compound, | 0.6551 ¢ HO. Find the empirical formula ofthe compound, TABLE3.6 States of Reactants and Products in Chemical Equations Abbrovation © o ° (eq) State Gas uid Sold Aqueous (water solution)er 120 caper Molecules, Compounds and Chena Equations https nt sgt —_cemia formula) cas that th number f each ype of som onthe let side ofthe fmvsmntinigecensetson cquatn sequal to the aumberon te right side. New atoms do not form during ea ee eee tion, nor do atoms vanish—matter must be conserved. aire i cnrtinent |e a cutclens ote eactans and iodo blane an equation, ve ttn noma red oe pe mer of molecules tthe equation Dt wat he Rnd of molec. To bal ic taltwaoel sacete equation forthe combonion of mean, we pu the coefent 2 before Oxi rae caepns. tye eactant and the coeficien 2 efoe #0 inthe prods CH® + 20x) ——— CO.@) + 24,0 The equation is now balanced because the numbers of each type of atom on either side of the equation are equal. The balanced equation tells us that one CH, molecule reacts with two O; molecules to form one CO, molecule and two HO molecules. We verify that the equation is balanced by summing the number of each type of atom on ceach side of the equation. CHa(g) + 203(9) > COxg) + 2H,0(e) Reactants Products Latom (1X CH) 1.C.atom (1 X03) “4H atoms (1X CHa) ‘4H atoms (2X20), 40 atoms (203) AO atoms (1 X00 +230) "The number of each type of atom on both sides of the equation is now equal—the ‘equation is balanced, How to Write Balanced Chemical Equations We can balance many chemical equations simply by trial and error. However, some guidelines are useful. For example, balancing the atoms in the most complex substances first and the atoms in the simplest substances (such as pure elements) last often makes the process shorter. The following illustrations of how to balance chemical equations are presented in a two- or three-column format. The general guidelines are shown on the left, with examples of how to apply them on the right. This procedure is meant only as a flexible guide, not a rigid set of steps. PROCEDURE FOR... EXAMPLE 3.22 EXAMPLE 3.23 Balancing Chemical Equations | Balancing Chemical Equations | Balancing Chemical Equations Write a balanced equation for the ‘Write a balanced equation for the | reaction between solid cobalt(1) combustion of gaseous butane (C,H). oxide and solid carbon to produce | a fuel used in portable stoves and grills, solid cobalt and carbon dioxide gas. | in which it combines with gaseous oxygen to form gaseous carbon dioxide | and gaseous water . Write a skeletal equation by wnit- | CoyOx(s) + C(s) —> CiHig(@) + O36) —> ing chemical formulas for each of Cols) + COxg) COxs) + 06) the reactants and products, Review Sections 3.5 and 3.6 for nomencla- | ture rules. (Ifa skeletal equation is | provided, goto step 2.)sat Woting and Balancing Chemica! Equations 121 2, Balance atoms that occur in more ‘complex substances first. Always balance atoms in compounds before atoms in pure elements, Begin with C0,046) + Cl) CoG) + COxa) 30u10ms=2.0 ome To halance O, pt a2 before Co,0,4s) and a 3 before CO4(¢), 2.Co,0xs) + C(s) —> Cols) + 3 COxAg) 60 atoms +60 atoms Begin with C: CaHyo(g) + Og) —> COx(g) + H,O(e) 4 Catoms—+1C wom To balance C, puta 4 before CO,(e). | Cotte) + Ong) —> 4COxg) + 1,069) Calon 4 Catoms Balance Ht: CHio(g) + Ox(¢) —> 4 COs) + H:0(g) 10H atoms 2H atoms ‘To balance H, put a 5 before H,0(g): CiHole) + Ox() —> 4.COxg) + 5 Ha0(@) 10H atloms—> 10 H etoms 4, Balance atoms that occur as free elements on either side of the equation last. Always balance free ‘elements by adjusting the coefficient fon the free element, Balance Co: 2.C0,0,65) + Cl) —> Cols) + 3 COA) 4 Co tome 1 Co stom ‘To balance Co, put a 4 before Co(s). 2.Co,0,(9) + C(3) —> 4Cols) + 3.COAg) 4 Costome +4 Co atoms Balance C: 2.C0,0x68) + Cl) —> 4Co(s) + 3. COAe) 1 atom +3 € atoms ‘To balance C, put a3 before Cs), 2.Co,05(5) + 3.C(s) —> 4Cols) + 3. COAG) Balance O: | Cattiola) + Oxl2) —> 4 COxg) + 5H,0(9) 20.atoms+80 + 50 = 13 Octons ‘To balance O, put a 13/2 before O2(g): CaHio(s) + 13/2 Ox(g) —> 4 COxg) + 5H:O(@) | 13 0am 13 O atoms 4, Ifthe balanced equation contains coefficient fractions, clear these by ‘multiplying the entire equation by the denominator ofthe fraction, ‘This step is not necessary in this ‘example. Proceed to step 5. [CHyo(@) + 13/2 0g) — 4COx(g) + 5 H,0(g)] x 2 2.CHiola) + 13 O3(g) —> 8.COxg) + 104,08) 5. Check to make certain the equation is balanced by summing the total number of each type of atom on both sides of the equation, | 2ce,050) +306) —> | 4 Coq) +3 COs) | ‘The equation is balanced. FOR PRACTICE 3.22 Wiite a balanced equation for the reaction between solid silicon dioxide and solid carbon to produce solid silicon carbide and carbon ‘monoxide gas. 2CiHyo(g) + 13 Ox) —> 8COxg) + 101,018) 2600 atoms ‘The equation is balanced, FOR PRACTICE 3.23 ‘Write a balanced equation for the ‘combustion of gaseous ethane (C,H), minority component of natural gas, in which it combines with gaseous oxygen to form gaseous carbon dioxide and aseous water.122 chapter Moleoes, Compounds, an Cneizal Eauations Q Canal, ‘Onnection 3.9 Balanced Chemical Equations j Which quantity or quantities must always be the same on both sides of a chemical equation? (a) the number of atoms of each kind (b) the number of molecules of each kind (c) the number of moles of each kind of molecule (@ the sum of the masses of all substances involved EXAMPLE 3.24 Balancing Chemical Equations Containing Tonic Compounds with Polyatomic Ions Write a balanced equation for the reaction between aqueous strontium chtoride and aqueous lithium phosphate to form solid strontium phosphate and aqueous | lithium chloride. | SOLUTION | 1. Write a skeletal equation by writing | SrClx(ag) + LigPO,(ag) —> Sr(PO,)as) + LiCl(ag) chemical formulas foreach of the | reactants and products. Review | Sections 3.5 and 3.6 for naming rules. (a skeletal equation is provided, gotostep2) p _ 4 2, Balance metal ions (cations) firs. | Begin with Sr Ifa polyatomic cation exists on both | SrCl,(aq) -+ LigPO,(ag) > Srs(PO,)x(5) + LiCKag) sides ofthe equation, balance it as 182" ion —» 3" one a | To balance Sr", put a 3 before StCl,(aq). | 3 SiCl(ag) + LisPO,(aq) > Srs(PO,)2{8) + LiCl(ag) 3S8P* ion > 3 S1** fons: | | Balance Li": | 3 SxCiy(aq) + LigPOd(ag) —> Sr(POa6) + LiCKag) 3 ions + 11" ‘To balance Li*, put a3 before LiCKag). 3 SrCl(ag) + LisPO,(ag) > Srs(PO,)2(s) + 3 LiCi(ag) 31 ions + 1s }. Balance nonmetal ions (anions) | Balance PO,* second, Ifa polyatomic anion exists | 3 SrCl{ag) + LigPO,(ag) —> Sr4(PO,)a(s) + 3 LiCl(ag) ‘on both sides of the equation, balance 1P02" ion —» 2 PO" ions | Hasaunit, ‘To balance PO,*”, put a 2 before Li3PO4(aq). 3 SiCL{aq) + 2Li:PO,(ag) > Srs(POHa(S) + 3 LiCKag) 2209 ion + 202 font Balance CI 3 SrCly(aq) + 2LisPO,(ag) —> Srs(PODzs) + 3 LiCKag) CI fone > 5 fon ‘To balance CI replace the 3 before LiCl(ag) with a 6. This also corects the | balance for Li*, which was thrown off inthe previous step | 3 SrCl,(ag) + 2LisPO.(ag) > Sr(PO,)x(s) + 6 LiCK(ag) q 6 C1 fone > 6 Cons3.12 Onanic Compounds 123 {Check to make certain the equation is | 3 SrClx(aq) + 2LisPO,(ag) — Sr,(PO,)x(s) + 6 LiCK(ag) balanced by summing the total number cof each type of ion on both sides of the Left Right equation 3sPtions 3 SF ions Li ions | 20," ions 2 PO," ions ‘The equation is balanced, FOR PRACTICE 3.24 Write a balanced equation forthe reaction between aqueous lead) nitrate and aqueous chloride to form solid lead(l}) chloride and aqueous potassium nitrate 3.12 Organic Compounds arly chemists divided compounds into two types: organic and inorganic. They des ignated organic compounds as those that originate from living things. Sugar—from sugareane or the sugar beet—is a common example of an organic compound, Inorganic compounds, on the other hand, originate from the earth, Salt—mined from the ground or from the ocean—is a common example of an inorganic compound. ‘Not only did early chemists view organic and inorganic compounds as different in their origin, they also recognized them to be different in their properties. Organic compounds are easily decomposed. Inorganic compounds, however, ae typically more difficult to decompose. Eighteenth-century chemists could synthesize inorganic com pounds in the laboratory, but not organic compounds, so this was considered another sreat difference betwoen the two different types of compounds. Today, chemists can syn- thesize both organic and inorganic compounds, and even though organic chemistry is a subfield of chemistry, the differences between organic and inorganic compounds are now viewed as primarily organizational (not fundamental. Organic compounds are common in everyday substances. Many smells—such as those in perfumes, spices, and foods—are caused by organic compounds. When you ‘ArTwe organic compound cinmamslde. sprinkle cinnamon onto your French toast, some cinnamaldehyde—an organ thie slegely roponsble forte ste pound present in cinsamon—evaporates into the ai. As you inhale cinnamaldehyde snd mel of cinnamon. rolecules, you expetience the unique smell of cinnamon. Organic compounds are the ‘major components of living organisms. They are also the min components of most of cour fuels, such as gasoline, oil, and natural gas, and they are the active ingredients in ‘most pharmaceuticals, such as asprin and ibuprofen Organic compounds are composed of carbon and hydrogen and a few other ele- ments, including nittogen, oxygen, and sulfur, The key element in organic chemisty, however, is carbon. In its compounds, carbon always forms four bonds. The simplest organic compound is methane, or CH. ‘The chemistry of carbon is unique and complex because carbon frequently bonds to Methane, Cy itself to form chaia, branched, and ring structures ‘ Structural formula Spacefiling model Propane (CH) Isobutane (CH) Cyclohexane (CH) Carbon can also form double bonds and triple bonds with itself and with other elements124 hydrocarbons. Tho ter functional group ders tom the onstionaltyor chee charate ‘pect tom or group of toms imparts ‘8 ogaie compound Ete a carbon oable bond can js beled 9 unetional group” Chater 3 Molecules, Cmpourds and Chemis Fzustons Alkane (-ane), alkene -ene), or alkyne (-yne). H ° f \ aed / \ Ho ‘oH Bthene (CaEI) ihyne (CHa) Acetic acid (CHCOOH) This versatility allows carbon to serve as the backbone of millions of different chemical compounds, which is why a general survey of organic chemistry is a yearlong Hydrocarbons ‘We can begin to scratch the surface of organic chemistry by categorizing organic com. pounds into types: hydrocarbons and functionalized hydrocarbons, Hydrocarbons are organic compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen, Hydrocarbons compose common fuels such as oil, gasoline, liquid propane gas, and natural gas, Hydrocarbons containing only single bonds are called alkanes, while those contain- ing double or triple bonds are alkenes and alkynes, respectively. The names of simple, straight-chain hydrocarbons consist of a base name, which is determined by the number of carbon atoms in the chain, and a suffix, determined by whether the hydrocarbon is an Base name determined by umber of Catoms | The base names for a number of hydrocarbons are listed here: meth = 1 hex = 6 eth =2 hept = 7 prop = oct but = 4 non = 9 pent = 5 dec = 10 Table 3.7 lists some common hydrocarbons, their names, and their uses. Functionalized Hydrocarbons Functionalized hydrocarbons can be thought of as hydrocarbons in which a fumetional ‘group—a characteristic atom or group of atoms—is incorporated into the hydrocarbon. For ‘example, aleohols are organic compounds that have an ~OH functional group. We designate3.12 Owpanie Compounds 125 ‘Structural Spacefiling Formula Model amma tees | Cty HoH ( Primary component i of natural gas 4 wu Cate H—C—C—C—H ¢ LP gas for grills and el ‘outdoor stoves Ca ‘Commen fuel for ightrs istho Cotta Component of gasoline Cota Ripening agent in ft Cotte Fuel for welding torches Hiydrocarbon (R) group ‘CHSOH Methanol og functional group CH,CHOH Isopropanol (2-propancl) Biydrocarbon (R) group ~ ‘OH functional group -S group of organic compounds with the same functional group forms a family. Methanol — [718 isopropyl alcohol are both members of the alcohol family of compouncs. 4a Robbing slctot ie aoprogy leah ‘The addition of a functional group to a hydrocarbon usually alters the properties of ‘compound significantly. Take methanol, which can be thought of as methane with an 1H group substituted for one of the hydrogen atoms. It isa liquid at room temperature,126 choptar’_woleces, compounds, and Chenies Equssons while methane isa gas. While each member of a family is unique, the common functional group bestows some chemical similarities on members ofthe same family. The names of fanctional groups have suffixes or endings unique to that functional group. Alcohols, for example, always have names that end in -ol. Table 3.8 provides examples of some ‘common functional groups, their general formulas, and their characteristic. suffixes or endings. TABLE 3.8. Families of Organic Compunds ‘Name Family ee Example Name Occuronce/Use Nobels a on Ccisc#, — OH Ethanol ‘oobal in (ety leon) femented boverages eters ether (CHyCHy—O—CHaCHs ity eter Anestietics laporatory solvent dehyées al R Hyo—¢. anal (acetaldehyde) Perfumes; favors Ketones one Ho—C—CHs Propanone acetone) Fingal polish mover i Hec—C—0H Ccarbayjc aces acid oats acts Vinegar Esters ate 1 Meth acetate Laboratory solvent Hyc—C —ottls aH | Amines sine NH HycH —N—H Et aine ‘mel of rate fish CHAPTER IN REVIEW Self Assessment Quiz QL. What s the empirical formula of a compound with the molecular formula CoH? a) City >) Cy 2 GH a) CH (2, Which substance is anionic compound? a) Sth b) NOs ©) He & Cy @. ow ‘What isthe correct formula forthe compound formed ‘between calcium and sulfur? 2) CaS ») Cas 9) CaS, &) CaS Name dhe compound Stl, 8). strontium iodide 1). strontium diiodide ©) stroatinm() iodide strontium) éifodideQS. Whats the formula for manganese(1V) oxide? 8) MnO b) MAO, ©) Ma,0 8) MnO; 8). leed( earbonate bp lead acetate 1) lead bicarbonate 4) ead diacetate Name the compound Ply 2) phosphorus iodide 1) phosphorus diiodide ©) phosphorus) iodide 4) iptosphomustersiodid (Q8. Name the compound HNO 4) hydrogen nitrogen dios 1b). ydrogea nitrate ©) lei acid 4) nitrous acid Q9. Determine the number of CHCl, molecules in 25.0 g cHLCh, 2) 0.294 molecules b) 1.77 x 107 molecules ©) 1.28 X 10" molecules 4). 151 X 10% molecates ) C>F>a ») F>a>c 9 a>coF a a>F>c Ost Or On OT [Name the compound Pb(C3Hs02s (ag). ide {QU0, List the elements in the compound CF.Cl, in order of decreasing mass percent composition. On Or @~6 Chepterin Review 127 QUT. Determine the mass of potassium in 35.5 g of KB a 14g b) 0298 ¢ ©) 119g @ 3298 (Q12, A compound is 52.14% C, 13.136 H, and 34.73% O by sass, What isthe empirical formula of the compound? 8) CoHOs b) CHO ©) COs @ CHO, 13. A compound has the empirical formula CH,O and a formula mass of 120.10 amu, What isthe molecular formals of the compound? =) CHO ') CaHiOe ©) CHAO, CHO Q14. Combustion of 30.42 g ofa compound containing only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen produces 35.21 g CO, find 14-42 g HO. What isthe empirical formula ofthe compound? 8) CAFO, ») HO, ©) CalLOs CHO Q1S, What are the cortectcosicionts (reading from left ight) sven the chemical equation is balanced? ~_PCi(:) + HOU) > _H3POx(ag) + _HCKag) 8 OL M9 OS OY OF OT OTspasuy Key Terms Section 3.2 ionic bond (89) covalent bond (90) Section 3.3 chemical formula (90) cempiciel formula (90) molecular formula (90) structural formula (90) ball and-stick molecular ‘model 91) space-filling molecular model om Section 3.4 atomic element (93) __ molecular element (93) ‘molecular compound (94) ionic compound (94) formula uit (94) polyatomic ion (94) Section 3.5 common name (97) systematic name (97) binary compound (87) ‘oxyanion (100) hydrate (100) Section 3.6 acid (102) binary aca (103) oxyacid (104) Section 3.8, orraula mass (107) Section 3.9 Section 3.2 mass pereent composition ‘organic compound (123) (ass parcent (109) hydrocarbon (124) si alkane (124) Section 3.30 alkene (124) empirical formola molar ‘oem mass (116) functional group (124) combustion analysis (117) gjeohal (124) Section 3.44 ‘amily 125) chemical reaction (119) combustion reaction (119) chernical equation (119) reactants (119) products (119) balanced chemical ‘equation (119)128 chapter Wolees, Compouncs, end Chemica Equations Key Concepts Chemical Bonds (3.2) > Chemical bond, the forces thathold atoms together in compounds, arise from the interactions between nucle and electrons in atoms. > In anionic bond, one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another, forming a cation (positively charged) and an ‘anion (negatively charged). The two ions are then drawn together by the attraction between the opposite charges, > Inacovalent bond, one or more electrons are shared between two atoms, The atoms are held together by the attraction between their nuclei andthe shared electrons Representing Molecules and Compounds (3.3, 3.4) > A.compound is represented with a chemist formula, which indi- ‘ates the elements present and the numberof atoms ofeach, > An empirical formula gives only the relative number of atoms, ‘while a molecular formula gives the actual number of atoms present inthe molecule. > Structural formulas show how the stoms are bonded together, ‘while molecular models portray the geometry ofthe molecule. > Compounds can be divided into two types: molecular com= pounds, formed between two or more covalently bonded nonmet- als, and ionic compounds, usually formed between a metal ‘onially bonded to one or more nonmetal. The smallest identfi- able unit of a molecular compound is a molecule, and the small- est identifiable unit of an ionic compound isa formula nit: the smallest electrically neutral collection of ions. >> Elements can also be divided into wo types: molecular elements, ‘hich occur as (mostly diatomic) molecules, and atomic ele~ ‘ments, which occur as individual atoms. Naming Inorganic lonic and Molecular Compounds and Acids (3.5-3.7) > A flowchart for naming simple inorganic compounds is provided in Section 37 Formula Mass and Mole Concept for Compounds (3.8) > The formula mass of a compound isthe sum ofthe atomic masses cof all the atoms in the chemical formula. Like the atomic masses of lements, the formula mass characterizes the average mass of a molecule (ora formula uni) > The mass of 1 mole of @ compound is called the molar mass and equals its formula mas (in grams) Key Equations and Relationships Formula Mass (3.8) atoms of Istelement atomic es) : ( in chemical formula ™ of Ist element, Mass Proent Composition (3.9) Mass % of element Empirical Formula Molar Mass (3.40) Molecular formula # atoms of 2nd element Chemical Composition (3.9, 3.10) The mass percent composition of a compound indicates each ele- ‘ment’s percentage of the total compound's mass, ‘The mass pee cent composition can be determined from the compound's chemical formuta and the molar masses of its elements. ‘The chemical formula of« compound provides the relaive num. of atoms (or motes) ofeach element in compound snd can fore be used to determine numerical relationships between ‘moles ofthe compound and moles of its onsen! element Ts lanshipcan be extended to as by wing he ol Bases ofthe comupound nd its consent elements {Fhe mass percent composition and molar mass of «compound ae lnown, its empires! and. molcslse formas can determined, a Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations (3.14) In chemistry, we represent chemical reactions with chemical ‘vations. The substances on the left-hand side of a chemical — ‘uation are the reactants, and the substances on the tight-hand Side are the products Chemical equations are balanced when the number of each type ‘ftom on the let side ofthe equation i xual othe umber on the right side. “ Organic Compounds (3.12) > Ormmic compounds are composed of cabon,hydogen, and pote elements such as ntogen oxyze, and slr simplest organic compounds are hyérocarbons, compounds {omposed of only carbon and hydrogen, {xSrocurbons canbe ctegrized into thre types based onthe bonds they contain: alkanes contain single bonds, alkenes contin double Bonds, and alkynes contain pl bands. coer organic compounds can be though of as hydrocarbons With one or more funetional groups—characteristie atoms of 2705p of atoms. CCoramon functionalized hydrocarbons include alcohols, eter, Aldehydes, Ketones, carboxylic aids, ester, and amines. > Indi oman cae) * mass of Xin mol compound ‘ass FT mel compound * 100% 2X (empitical formula) __molar mass empl formula mclarmassChapterinRewew 129 Key Learning Outcomes Chapter Objectives ‘Assessment ‘Writing Molecular and Empirical Formulas (3.3) ‘Example 3.1 For Practice 3.1 Exercises 4, 23-26 tasting Substanoss as Nomi ements, rample32. ForPracice 32 Freres 27-32 Molecular Elements, Molecular Compounds, or onic Compounds (3.8) \Wting Formulas for lonie Compounds (3.5) ‘Examples 33,34 ForProctice 23,34 Exercises 33-36, 43, 44 Naming lonic Compounds (3.8) Examples 35,3.6 ForPrectice 35,36 For More Practice 35,3.6 Bxercses 37-40 ‘Naming onic Compounds Containing Plyatomic ons (3.5) Example 3.7 For Practice 3.7 For More Practice 3.7 ‘Exercises 41-44 Naming Molecular Compounds (3.6) Example 38 ForPractice 38 For More Practice 38 Exercises 47-50 Examples 3.9, 3.10 ForPractice 393.10 For More Practice 3.10 Naming Acids (3.6) os ' ne * ne epee aT Tawi MAGGI wees Calculating Formula Mass (3.8) Example 3.12 For Practice 3.12 Exercises 59, 60 igre hare ComoccssbywoaNgGa] Ragas FOmOLA ROME haa aS eee Sscay asoe ora al Raga MALIA Goan Using Mass Percent Composition as @ Conversion Factor (3.9) Example 3.15 For Practice 3.15 ForMore Practice 3.15, Exercises 77, 78 Using Chemical Formulas as Conversion Factors (3.9) Example 3.16 For Practice 3.16 For More Practice 3.16 Bxercises 83, 94 Obtaining an Empirical Formula from Experimental Data (8.10) Examples 3.17, 3.18 For Practice 3.17, 3.18 Exercises 85-92 Calculating a Molecular Formula from an Empirical Formula Example 3.19 For Practice 3.19 For More Practice 3.19 {and Molar Mass (3.10) Exercises 93-94 Obtaining an Empiical Formula from ‘Examples 320,321. For Practice 320,321. Bxercses 95-98 Combustion Analys's (3.40) Examples 322, 323,324 For Practice 3.22, 3.23, 324 Exercises 99-110 > Balancing Chemical Equations (3.41)me 130 chapter Molecules, Compounds and Chemical Equations EXERCISES Review Questions — 1. How do the properties of compounds compare tothe properties ofthe elements from which they are composed? +2, What is a chemical bond? Explain the difference between an ionic bond and a covalent bond. 43, Explain the different ways to represent compounds. Why are there so many? 44, What is the difference between an empirical formula and a molecular formula? 5, Define and provide an example for each of the following: atomic clement, molecular element, ine compound, molecular compound. 6. Explain how to write a formola for an ionic compound given the ames of the metal end nonmetal (or polyatomic ion) in the compound. 1B. 4. 18 16. 1. 18. wv. ‘Explain how te information ina chemical formla can be used to determine how much ofa particular element is present in a given amount of a compound, Provide some examples of why ‘his might be important ‘What is mass percent composition? Why is it useful? “What kinds of conversion factors ate inherent in chemical formulas? Provide an example. “What kind of chemical formula can be obtained from experi rental data showing the relative masses of the elements in a ‘compound? How can @ molecular formula be obtained from an empirical formaila? What additional information is required? ‘What is combustion analysis? What is it used for? “Which elements are normally present in orgenie compounds? a. bopein bow to mae binary ionic sompoonés. How do You 20, What ste difeesce between an allan, am alee, and an ‘ame anionic compound fit contain a polyatomic ion? atkyne? Why do the names of some ionic compounds include the charge 24. What are functionalized hydrocarbons? Give an example of a ofthe meal ion while otbers donot? fincionlized hydrocarbon. 9. Explain how to name molecular inorganic compounds 22, Wiite a generic formula for each of the families of organic 10, How many atoms are specified by these prefines: mono, di, ‘compounds, Ire tetran, peta, hex? a, aleohols bi. ethers 11, Explain now to name binary and oxy ac aldehydes a ketones 412, What the formula mass for a compound? Why i it useful? «. carboxylic acids £ eaers . amines Problems by Topic ‘Note: Anowers to all odd-numbered Problems, numbered in blue, con 27. Classify each element as stomic or molecu. be foun in Appendix IT. Exercises in the Problems by Tope section a. neon . fluorine tre paired, with each odd-nenbered problem jltowed by a similar © potasiom 4. nirogen ae a poblen Ears tn he Cuma Problem section 2, eniythe elements that have molecules their base writs te also pared, but somewhat more loses. (Challenge Problems and a. hydrogen iodine Conceptual Problems, because oftheir nature, are unpaired.) © lead aecaieen 28, Classify each compound as ionie ot molecular. Chemical Formulas and Molecular View of Elements CL NIC, & Nal a. PCy and Compounds 230, Clasify each compound a ionic or molecular: 23, Determine the numberof each typeof atom in each formula a CRCh BCC PO SOs a. MPO): . BaCh, ‘i. Based on the molecular views, clasify each substance os an o RANODe 2. caORD, atomic element, a molecular element, an ionic compound, oF & 24, Detemin the numberof each type of atom in each formula: molecular compound a. Ca(NO:)2 ’b. CuSO, Qe 2 @ © AlGNOS), a. Mg(HCO3, 2 25, Write a chemical formula for each molecvlar “model (See Appendix TA for color codes.) o 2 @ e @ 26, Write a chemical formula for (Gee Appendix ILA for color codes.) @ © @ &, og” o® @ wo32, Based on the molecular views, classify each substance as an atomic element, a molecular element, anionic compound, 0 & ‘molecular compound, @ o © Formulas and Names for lonic Compounds 133, Write a formula for the ionie compound that forms between each pair of elements ‘a. calcium and oxygen ‘e mubidium and bromine >. zine and sour 4, aluminum and oxygen 34, Write a formula for the ionie compound that forms between ‘each pair of elements ‘a. silver and chlorine aluminum snd sulfur >. sodium and sur dd. potassium and chlorine '38. Write a formula for the compound that forms between calcium and each polyatomic ion a. hydroxide b, chromate e. phosphate a. cyanide 36. Write a formula for the compound that forms between potas sium and each polyatomic in, a, carbonate be. phosphate hydrogen phosphate a. acetate 37, Name each ionic compound, a MgN, —b. KF © NO 4. Liss © CSF LxL 38, Name each ionic compound, SoC, Phe, Fo,0s QC HBR fk CC, 39. Give each ionic compound an appropriate name. a Sn0) b.ChS; RB @. BaBr; 40. Give esch ionic compound an appropriate name. a. Bas bFeCh =e Pb, d. SrBy 41, Name each ionic compound containing a polyatomic ion, 1. CuNO, b, MgC3H0;), © BuO»); 4. POICAEO)2 42, Name each ionie compound containing a polyatomic in, a BaOH, NHL NaBiO, — d. Fe(OH)s 43, Write a formula foreach fonie compound, 8. sodium hydrogen sulfite by lithium permanganate «silver nitrate 4, potassium sulfate rubidium hydrogen sulfate potassinm hydrogen carbonate Gwoises 13 ‘4, Write a formula foreach ionie compound. a. copper() chloride copper) iodate Lead) chromate caleium fluoride potassium hydroxide iron() phosphate 445. Write the name from the formula or the formula from the name foreach hydrated ionic compound, a Co80,+7H,0 ‘i iidium(I) bromide tetrahydrate Mg(BrO3) 6H,0 4. potassium carbonate dihydrate 46. Write the name from the formula or the formula from the name foreach hydrated ionic compound. a. cobal() phosphate octahyrate Db, BeCl+2H,0 chyomium(ID phosphate wihydate @. LINO} -H,0 Formulas and Names for Molecular Compounds and Acids 447, Name each molecular compound, a. CO % Nis © SiCk a. NSE, 48. Name each molecular compound. a. SOs SOs © Bis NO 49. Write formula for each molecular compound a. phosphorus trichloride >, chlorine monoxide , disulfurterafluoride 4. phosphomis pentaflueride 50, Write a formula for each molecular compound, 1. boron tbromide , dichlorine monoxide ‘xenon terafluoride 4. casbon tetrabromide 51. Name each acid a. Hilag) —b. HNOS(aq)_—_¢. H,COx(aq) 152, Name each acid a. HCl{ag) —b. HCIOMag) 2 H,SO,(aq) 152, Write formulas foreach acid, a. hydrofluoric acid . hydrobromie acid . sulfurous acid ‘54, Write formulas foreach acid. ‘a. phosphoric aia Bb, hydrocyanie acid «. chlorous acid Using the Nomenclature Flow Chart 55, Use the nomenclature flow chart (Figure 3.10) to name each ‘compound. a. SiCh, © PSs ‘86. Use the nomenclature flow chart Figure 3.10) to name each, ‘compound a. BNO(0q) ©, Bah, b. Bach a. CCl;132 caper} Molecules, Compovnds, and Chee! Equations 57. Use the nomenclature flow chart (Figure 3.10) 1o name each compound. KCIO; bh LOs ©. POS, '58. Use the nomenclature flow chart (Figure 3.10) to name each ‘compound a Xe0) BE KCIO «CoS Formula Mass and the Mole Concept for Compounds 59, Calculate the formula mass for each compound. a, NOp b. CHip ©. Clue 4. CxQNO)s 60, Calculate the formula mass for each compouné. a. MsBr b. HNO, © CBr 4. Ca(NO))2 6, Celoulate the numberof moles in exch sample. a. 25 gCCk, b. 124g CHO c. 25.2kg CoH @. 123 g of dinitrogen monoxide (62. Calculate the mass ofeach sample. 8, 157 mol HNOs . L04% 10" mol HO; ©. 721 mmol SO 4, 1.23 mol xenon difluoride (63, Determine the number of moles (of molecules or formula units) in each sample, a, 255 gNO; b. 1.25 kg CO, 382g KNOs 4. 155.2 kg NaS, (64, Determine the number of moles (of molecules or formula units) in each sample. a, 5598 2CF:Ch b, 23.6kg FeNOd, &. O87 g Cots a. 195ke C20 (65, How many molecules are in each sample? a. 65.2H,0 b. 389 g CBr © 221g; 4. 193 Caio (66. How many molecules (or formula units) are in each sample? a 8526 gCCl, , 55.93 kg NaHCO «19-788 CHo a. 459 X 10! gNasPOs 67, Calculate the mass (in g) of each sample a, 594 X 10 $0, molecules b. 28 x 10710 motecules . {glucose molecule (CH: (68. Calculate the mass (in g) ofeach sample. a, 455 X 10% Os molecules b. 985 x 10" CCL; molecules ‘eT water molecule (69. A suger crystal contains approximately 1.8 X 10" sucrose (CHO) molecules, What is its mass in mg? 170. A salt crystal has a mass of 0.12 mg. How many NaCl formula ‘units does it contin? ‘Composition of Compounds 71. Calculate the mass pereent composition of carbon ine carbon-contzining compound, ie a. CH 1b. Cols eC, ad. CHSC 72, Caleulate the mass percent composition of nitrogen i 2 1 in eae nitrogen-containing compound. * a. NiO b. NO eNO; @, HNO; ee se nea NINOn nd cutee em met ete eae Ca a ee a Seen 1 fh acc ie isn then. Grom os nai or ane, 190, ours) sd FeCOs Sesto ae rete afm ae 14. Copel ete nr 59 28 by me Cac il ‘mass of fluorine (in g) contained in 55.5 g of copper(I} fluoride. tyr chic te tam of sve cdc rcs SE Here maaan apes! eee Boe ee Fe ee ca yoncien bas Coa oe ee ae aoe em a rere We oie nd ‘contains the recommended amount of fluoride? ‘oorida via ai dome te ehsbaity boven te nc a eee oon for color codes.) ste: ao ao ¥ %e ® ey 0, Weitearato shoving the reltonship teen the molar mounts of cach element foreach compo. (See Appendix TAs color codes.) fe @ » ©81. Determine the number of moles of hydrogen atoms in each sample. a. 0.0885 mot CH b, 13 mol CH, 24 mol Clg 187 mol CoBiy 82, Determine the number of moles of oxygen atoms in each sample a, 488 mol HO, b. 215 mal Nz , 010237 mal HCO; 4d. 24.1 mol CO; 83. Calculate mass (in grams) of sodium in 8.5 g of each socium- containing food additive. a NaCl (table salt) 'b. NasPO, (sodium phosphate) & NaCjH.O; (sodium benzoate) 4. NagCaHO, (sodium hydrogen citeat) 84, Calculate the mass (in kilograms) of chlorine in 25 kg of each chlorofluorocarbon (CFO) a. CRCh, b. CFC), © GAC @ CRC Chemical Formulas from Experimental Data 85. A chemist decomposes samples of several compounds; the ‘masses oftheir constituent elements are shown below. Calculate ‘he empitical formula foreach compound, a, 1.651 gAg, 0.1224 g0 i, 0.672 3 Co, 0.569 g As, 0.486 20 © 1483 g Se, 584! gBr 86. A chemist decomposes samples of several compounds; the ‘mastos of their constituent elements are shown below. Calculate the empisical formula foreach compound, a. 1245 gi, 5381 g1 b, 2677 Ba, 3.115 g Br © 2128 gBe, 1557 g5, 15.107 20 '87. Calculate the empirical formula foreach stimulant based on its clemental mass percent composition 1. nicotine (found in tobacco leaves): C 74.03%, H. 8.70%, NIT2T% caffeine (found in coffee beans): C 49.48%, H 5.19%, N28,85%, 0 16.48% Calculate the empirical formula for each natural flavor based on its elemental mass pereent composition. 8 methyl butyrate (component of apple taste and smell) C 58.80%, 19.87%, 0 31.33% ». vanillin (responsible for the taste and smell of vanilla: © 63.15%, H5.30%, 0.31.55% 89. The clemental mass percent composition of ibuprofen (an aspirin substitute) is 75.69% C, 880% H, and 15.51% O. Determine the empirical formula of ibuprofen. 90. The elemental mass pervent composition of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is 40.92% C, 4.58% H, and 54.50% O, Determine ‘the empirical formula of ascorbic aig 91. 8 0.7 mg sample of nitrogen reacts with chlorine to form 6.61 mg of the chloride. Determine the empirical formula of nitrogen chloride. Boiss 133 92. 4.45.2 mg sample of phosphorus reacts with selenium to fort 131.6 mg of the selenide. Determine the empirical formula of phosphorus selenide, 93, The empirical formula and molar mass of several compounds ae listed next. Find the molecular formula ofeach compound, 2. CGH, 186.24 g/mol 1b. CHC, 181.44 g/mol © CablNS:, 296.54 g/mol 94, The molar mass and empirical formula of several compounds sxe listed next. Find the molecular formula ofeach compound. a. CyHy, 11422 g/mol CCL, 284.77 g/mol © CAHN, 312.29 g/mol 9S. Combustion analysis of a hydrocarbon produced 33.01 g CO; ‘nd 1351 gH,0. Calevlate the empirical formula of the hydrocarbon, 96. Combustion analysis of naphthalene, a hydrocarbon used in ‘mothballs, produced 8,80 g CO» and 1.44 g H,O. Calculate the ‘empirical formula for naphthalene, 97. The foul odor of rancid butter is due largely to butyric acid, a compound containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Combus: tion analysis of a 4.30 g sample of butyric acid produced 8.59 g CO, and 3.52 g HO. Determine the empirical formula for butyric acid. 98, Trtaric acids the white, powdery substance that coats tart can- dies such as Sour Patch Kids, Combustion analysis of a 12.01 g sample of tartaric acid—which contain only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen—produced 14.08 gCO; and 432g HO. Determine the empirical formula for tartaric acid Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations 99. Sulfuric acid is a component of acid rain formed when gaseous sulfur dioxide pollutant reacts with gaseous oxygen and liquid ‘water to form aqueous sulfuric acid, Write a balanced chemical equation for this reaction. (Note: this isa simplified representa- tion ofthis reaction.) 100, Nitric acid is 8 component of acid rain that forms when gaseous nitrogen dioxide pollutant reacts with gaseous oxygen and lig- uid water to form aqueous nitric acid. Write a balanced chemi- cal equation for this reaction. (Note: this isa simplified repre- sentation of this reaction ) 101. na popular classroom demonstration, solid sodium is added to liquid water and reacts to produce hydrogen gas and aqueous sodium hydroxide. Write a balanced chemical equation for this reaction. 102. When iron rusts, solid iron reacts with gaseous oxygen to form solid iron(M) oxide. Write a balanced chemical equation for (his rexction, 103. Write « balanced chemical equation for the fermentation of sucrose (CHO) by yeasts in which the aqueous suger reacts with water to form aqueous ety] alcohol (CjHsOH) and carbon dioxide gas 104, Write balanced equation for the photosynthesis reaction in which gaseous carbon dioxide and liquid water react in the presence of chlorophyll to produce aqueous glucose (CeHi.0,) and oxygen gs.134 chapter Molecules, Compounds ond Crenical Equations 105. Write a balanced chemical equation for each reaction. au, Sold ead) sulfide reacts with aqueous ydrobromic acid to form solid leadID bromide and dihydrogen monosufide a8 '. Gaseous carbon monoxide reacts with hydrogen gusto form gaseous methane (CH,) and liquid water. «e Aqueous hydrochloric acid reacts with sold manganese) oxide to form aquecus manganese(I}) chloride, liquid water, and chlorine gas 4. Liquid pentane (CH) reacts with gaseous oxygen 0 form carbon dioxie and liguid watt 106, White a balanced chemical equation foreach reaction. a. Solid copper reacts with solid sulfr to form solid copper() sulfide ’. Sold iron() oxide resets with hydrogen gas to frm solid iron and liquid water. Sulfur dioxide gas reacts with oxygen gas to form sulfur t= oxide os, 4. Gaseous ammonia (NH) reacts with gascous oxygen to form gaseous nitrogen monoxide and gaseous Watt. 107. Write a balanced chemical equation forthe reaction of aqueous sodium carbonate with aqueous copper(I) chloride to form Solid copper(I carbonate and aqueous sodium corde 108, Write «balanced chemical equation forthe reaction of aqueous potassium hydroxide with aqueous iron) chloride to form oid iron(l) hydroxide and aqueous potassium chloride 109, Balance each chemical equation a, CO{.) + CaSiO4(0) + HOD —> Si0_) + Ce(HCO,)a2) b, CofNOpx(ag) + (NH)sS(aq) —> Co,Ss(0) + NHWNOSa) © €u0(9) + C{9) —+ Cuts) + COL) 4. Hyg) + Chg) — HCG) 110, Balance each chemical equation. a. Na,S(aq) + CuNO})(aq) —> NaNOsan) + CuS(s) b. Nall) —> NAG) + Nice) € HC\ag) + Og) —> 1:00 + Clie) 4. FeS(s) + HCl(ag) —> FeCi(an) + H,S(6) Organic Compounds 111. Classify each compound as organi or inorganic. a, CaCOs b. Cie & COs a. LF 112, Classify each compound es organic or inorganic. Cie b. CHANIE, © G20 4. FeCOs 1113, Classify each hydrocarbon as an alkane, alkene, or alkyne, ‘CH—CH, —CH—CH, a. HC—C=C—CH 11S. Write a formula based on the name, oF a name based on the forma, fr each hydrocarbon. a. propane , CH,CH,CH, a. CHCH,CH,CH,CH,, 4 116, Write a formula based on the name, or a name based on the formula, fr each hydrocarbon: a. CH.CHS Di, pentane . CH,CH,CH,CH,CH,CH, a. heptane 117. Classfy each organic compound as a hydrocarbon or a fimetionaized hydrocarbon. For functionalized hydrocarbons, Jdentify the family to which the compound belongs. a. HyC—CH,OH b. HC—CH 9 « I HyC—C—CH,~—CH, 4. HC—NHs U8. Classity each organie compound as a hydrocarbon ot functionalized hydrocarbon, For functionalized hydrocarbons, identify the family to which the compound belongs. ° . HC—C—CH, cy, 4. HC—Cl—0—CH, Cumulative Problems 119. How many molecules of ethanol (C;4,0H) (the alcohol in leoholic beverages) are present in 145 mL of ethanol? The density of ethanol is 0.789 g/cm’. 120. A drop of water has e volume of approximately 0.05 mL. How ‘many water molecules does it contain? The density of water is 10 g/em. 121. Determine the chemical formula of each compound and then, use it to caleulate the mass percent composition of each con- stituent element. ‘8. potassium chromate . sulfurous acid i, Teaddl) phosphate 4. cobalt) bromide 122, Determine the chemical formula of each compound and thea ‘use it to calculate the mass percent composition of each con- ‘iment element. a. perchloric acid i, phosphorus pentachloride nitrogen trfodide 4. cazbon dioxide 'A Freon leak in the airconditioning system of an old car releases 25 g of CCI, per month, What mass of chlorine does this car emit into the atmosphere each year?124, A Freon leak in the air-conditioning system ofa large building releases 12 kp of CHE,Cl per month If the leak is allowed 0 continue, how many kilograms of C are emitted into the atmo- sphere each year? 125. A metal (M) forms a compound with the formula MCly. Ifthe compound contains 65.57% Cl by mass, what isthe identity of the metal? 126, A metal (M) forms an oxide withthe formula M,0. If the oxide Contains 16:99% O by mass, what isthe identity ofthe metal? 127. Estradiol is a female sexual hormone that causes msturaton and maintenance ofthe female reproductive system. Elemental analysis of estradiol gives the following mass percent composi- tion: C 79.37%, H 8.889%, 0 1.756. The molar mass of esta diol is 272.37 g/mol. Find the molecular formula of estado 128, Fructose is a common sugar found in frit. Elemental analysis of fuctose gives the following mass percent composition: C 40.00%, H 6.72%, 0 53.286. The molar mass of fructose is 180.16 g/mol. Find the molecular formula of fructose. 129, Combustion analysis of a 13.42 g sample of equlin (which con- tains only cazbon, hydrogen, and oxygen) produces 39.61 g CO, and 9.01 2,0. The molar mass of equilin is 268.34 g/mol. Find its moleculae formula 130, Estrone, which contains only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, is 8 female sexual hormone that occurs in the urine of pregnant ‘women. Combustion analysis of a 1.893 g sample of estrone produces 5.545 g of CO, and 1.388 g H,O. The molar mass of| estrone is 270.36 g/mol. Find its molecular formula 131. Epsom salts is a hydrated ionic compound withthe following formula: MgSO,-24,0. A 493 g sample of Epsom salts was heated to drive off the water of hydration, The mass ofthe sam- ple after complete dehydration was 24g. Find the number of ‘waters of hydration (2) in Epsom salts 132.A hydrate of copper} chloride has the following focula CuCi,-H0. The water in 23.41 g sample of the hydrate was hiven off by heating. The remaining sample had a mass of| 2.69 g. Find the numberof waters of hydration (x) n the hydrate Challenge Problems M3, A mixture of NaCl and NaBr has a mass of 200 g end contains 0.75 g of Na. Whats the mass of NaBr inthe mixture? 14. Three pare compounds form wien 1.00 g samples of element X combine wih, respectively, 0.472 g, 0.630 g, and 0.789 g of gives 2333 g of a mixture of CO, nd $0;, Find the mass of eur in he original mixture 158. Explain the problem with the following statement and correct it. “When a chemical equation is balanced, the number of mole- cales of each type on both sides of the equation will be equal." 159, Without doing any calculations, arrange the elements in FSO, {in order of decreasing mass percent composition. 160. Element A is an atomic element and element B is « diatomic molecular element. Using circles to represent atoms of A and squares to represent atoms of B, draw molecular level views of ach element. the way that the atoms bond. The (@) answer is incorrect because ‘onic compounds do not contain molecules Nomenclature 3.5 This conceptual connection addresses one ofthe main eos you ca make in nomenclature: the failure to corecly categorize the ‘compound. Remeriber that you must first determine whether the compound is anionic compound, a molecular compound, or an ‘acid and then you must name it accordingly. NCI is a molecular ‘compound (evo of more nonmetal), and therefore in its name prefixes indicate the number of each type of stom—so NCI is nitrogen trichloride. The compound AICI, however, isan ionic ‘compound (metal and nonmetal) and therefore does not require prefixes—s0 AICI, is aluminum chloride. Molecular Models and the Size of Molecules 3.6 (¢) Atomic radi range inthe hundreds of picometers, while the spheres in these models have radii of less than 2 centimeter, The scaling factor is therefore about 10* (100 milion. ‘Chemical Formula and Mass Percent Composition 3.7 C > 0 > H Since carbon and oxygen differ in atomic mass by ‘only 4 ama, and since there are six carbon atoms inthe formule, ‘ye can conclude that carbon constitutes the greatest ration ofthe mass. Oxygen is next because its mas is 16 times that of hydrogen tnd there are oly sx hydeogen atoms to every one oxygen atom.