Beruflich Dokumente
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Revision Notes
Experiments
Independent variable the variable that you manipulate (cause)
Dependent variable the variable that you measure (effect)
Experimental design
Design
Repeated measures
Explanation Performance of participants in
one condition compared with
performance of the same
participants in another
condition
Independent measures
Performance of participants in
one condition compared with
performance of different
participants in another
condition
Strengths
Avoids participant
variables/individual
differences, as the same
participants are used
Weaknesses
Problem of participant
variables/individual
differences because different
participants are being used
and everyones different, so
there could be differences in
performance of participants.
Type of experiment
Experiment
Laboratory
Explanation Conducted in highly controlled
conditions and usually in
laboratory settings
Strengths
There are high levels of
control (objective), so
extraneous variables are
avoided, and the IV can be
isolated to measure the effect
on the DV, and therefore we
can infer cause and effect
Field
Conducted in the participants
own environment
High in ecological validity,
because it is conducted in the
participants natural
environment, so therefore
they will act normally, and the
results will be representative
of everyday life and can be
generalised to other settings.
Matched pairs
Participants in each condition
matched to eac other on
variables, such as age, sex, IQ,
etc (so its like they are the
same person in different
conditions)
Overcomes problems of
individual differences and, as
they are matched on traits and
also overcomes problem of
order effects, because
different participants are
used
Can be costly and timeconsuming because there
needs to be some technique of
matching the participants.
Quasi (natural)
The independent variable is
naturally-occurring, and
therefore not manipulated
The IV is not manipulated, so
there is less control, making
the situation more ecologically
valid, so it is more
generalisable to other
situations/people.
Weaknesses
Self-Report
Self-report
method
Explanation
Strengths
Questionnaire
Interview
Psychometric test
Weaknesses
gained if it is unstructured
because the researcher can
dig deeper.
Rating/likert scale;
On a scale of 1-5 (1 being very happy and 5 being very sad), how happy are you with your life?
1
2
3
4
5
+ Quantitative numerical data collected, which is easy to analyse and easy to compare with other results as no
interpretation of the researcher is needed
- Participants choices limited, so no in-depth information gathered, so researchers do not know why the
participants rated themselves at a particular level
Fixed choice response; (closed question)
Are you male or female? (Please circle)
Male
Female
+ - Same strengths and weaknesses as above
Open ended question;
What do you think of the current issues facing England today?
+ In-depth qualitative data can be gathered as the participants can give reasons for their answer and explain
themselves. This gives the participant freedom to write what they want and to gain their opinion
- Researchers may interpret a participants answer in the wrong way or differently from how another
researcher may interpret it. It is also harder to compare responses from open-ended questions because it is
not quantitative data
Interviews;
You can have different types of interviews, including structured, where you pre-plan the questions you will ask,
and only ask those questions to obtain responses, unstructured, where you do not plan the interview at all and
let it flow freely or semi-structured, where you partially plan the questions but then let it flow naturally.
These different types of interview all have their advantages and disadvantages. With structured interviews,
you only obtain the information you have set out to obtain, but with unstructured, you can get lots of
information which may not be completely relevant to what you are trying to find out.
Observation
Type of
observation
Explanation
Naturalistic
Controlled
Participant
Participants behaviour
recorded in their own
Participants behaviour
recorded in a situation created
Researcher pretends to be a
participant to observe them
Strengths
Weaknesses
environment
High ecological validity,
because they are in their own
natural environment, and so
wont respond to demand
characteristics or socialdesirability bias due to high
levels of control (as it isnt
highly controlled)
by the researcher
Levels of control quite high, as
the situation is manually
created by the researcher, so
therefore extraneous
variables are controlled, so
the observation is reliable, and
can be repeated again in the
same way (standardised
procedure)
As well as participant observation, there is non-participant observation, which is where the researcher is
not part of the group, and observes them from outside of the group.
There are two more different types of observation, which include;
Covert observation where the researcher doesnt inform the participants that they are being observed and
doesnt gain permission to study them.
Overt observation where the researcher informs the participants that they are being observed and gains
permission to study them.
Event sampling recording behaviours every time a particular behaviour occurs.
+ No behaviour is missed, so a full set of data is gathered
- Difficult to record behaviour if many behaviours are displayed at once
Time sampling recording behaviours at particular time intervals ie, every minute.
+ Less intensive as there arent many behaviours displayed at one time
- Behaviour that occurs outside of the time intervals cannot be recorded and are therefore missed
Correlation
Correlation Hypothesis
Alternate hypothesis (two-tailed [non-directional]) There will be a significant correlation between the
Null There will be no significant correlation between the
One-tailed (directional) There will be a significant positive/negative correlation between the
REMEMBER correlations are NOT experiments, therefore you cannot say there will be a significant
difference between You cannot infer cause and effect, as one variable does not cause the other, and you do
not isolate the IV to measure the effect of the DV. In effect, you have two variables which you measure,
which may or may not have some sort of relationship.
Positive Correlation
Negative Correlation
No Correlation
Sampling
Type of
sampling method
Explanation
Strengths
Weaknesses
Volunteer
Opportunity
Random
Unlikely to be
representative of the
target population because
they have volunteered and
could be motivated in
some way (ie, money)
Nominal data involves data being in categories or frequencies (for example, frequency of how many said yes)
Ordinal data involves numbers that can be put in order but do not have any mathematical properties, like
rating scales. It is like a ranking order (individual scores and not necessarily equal units)
Interval data involves using a scale that has equal intervals between the units (for example, minutes or
seconds)
Independent Measures
Design
Chi-squared
Correlation
Nominal Data
Sign test
N/A
(categories)
Ordinal Data
Mann Whitney
Wilcoxon
Spearmans Rho
(numbers)
Usually, in the paper, you will get a question asking you what statistical test you would use for the practical
project you have designed and why. Make sure you tell the examiner the exact statistical test you would use,
and tell them you would use it because your project uses either nominal or ordinal data and because it is either
independent measures, repeated measures or a correlation study. This is all that you can say, and you do not
need to tell them how you use the test!
NICK IS COOL
NOMINAL INDEPENDENT MEASURES CHI-SQUARED
NICK RIDES SCOOTER
NOMINAL REPEATED MEASURES SIGN TEST
OLLIE IS MAD
ORDINAL REPEATED MEASURES MANN WHITNEY
OLLIE RUNS WILD
ORDINAL REPEATED MEASURES WILCOXON
OLLIE CAN SWIM
ORDINAL COLLERATION SPEARMANS RHO
Approaches
Physiological/Biological Approach
Assumptions;
1. All behaviour has a genetic basis, and is therefore influenced by our DNA, genes and biological
molecules.
Strengths
Very scientific and objective, and often uses
laboratory experiments, with high levels of control.
The independent variable is isolated and manipulated
to measure the effect on the dependent variable, so
cause and effect can be inferred.
Weaknesses
Very reductionist, as the approach simplifies complex
human behaviour down to one simple factor. It ignores
the interaction of elements, such as the environment,
causing human behaviour, and simply explains behaviour
as a result of our biology.
Cognitive Approach
Assumptions;
1. The human brain is like a computer; it receives, interprets and responds to information.
2. Peoples problems often arise due to faulty or irrational thinking, which can be traced and often
remedied using cognitive therapy.
Strengths
Tends to use laboratory experiments, which are highly
controlled and objective, so the independent variable
can be isolated and manipulated to measure the effect
on the dependent variable, as there are no extraneous
variables, which means cause and effect can be
established.
Weaknesses
As laboratory experiments are often used, research is
low in ecological validity, because the situation is too
controlled, and therefore doesnt relate to everyday
life, so we need to be careful when generalising the
results.
Developmental Approach
Assumptions;
1. All behaviour in adulthood is affected by experiences in childhood.
2. Changes occur over a persons lifetime as a result of inherited factors or lifetime experiences (both
nature and nurture).
Strengths
Often studies behaviour over a long period
of time, and therefore uses a longitudinal
study. The development of a person or a
group of people can be studied, without the
issue of individual differences, because the
same person is being followed. This provides
in-depth rich qualitative data of one person
over a period of time.
Weaknesses
It is difficult to replicate longitudinal studies, as it is expensive
and extremely time-consuming. Therefore, they are not reliable,
because they cannot be repeated in the same way to check for
consistent results.
It would be hard to replicate Farringtons study because he looks at
people for 40 years of their life, so it would be very time consuming and
also very unreliable, because there is absolutely no way it could be
repeated in the same way as the original study.
Social Approach
Assumptions;
1. Behaviour is influenced by the people around us and the society they have created (the situation).
2. All behaviour occurs in a social context, even when nobody else is present.
Strengths
The approach often uses real life situations to study
the social context of situations. Therefore, the social
approach is often high in ecological validity, as the
results relate to everyday life, and can be generalised
to other situations.
For example, Piliavins study was a field experiment, which
had high ecological validity as it was set in the participants
natural environment on the New York subway. Therefore,
the participants wouldnt have known they were being
studied, and couldnt have responded to demand
characteristics or social-desirability bias in terms of helping
behaviour.
Weaknesses
There is a huge problem with ethics in these types of
studies, as the participants usually do not know they
are being studied, so they cannot give their consent.
They also are not given the right to withdraw because
they do not know they are being studied in the first
place. In some social approach studies, the
participants are subjected to psychological harm and
physiological harm
Assumptions;
1. Behaviour which deviates from the norm is seen to be abnormal.
2. To understand the complexity of human behaviour, it is necessary to study the differences between
people, from looking at the unique characteristics of the individual, rather than by looking at the
similarities between people.
Strengths
Many useful applications to real life and allows us to
understand human behaviour as we can find causes for
some disorders.
For example, Rosenhans study led to the improvement of
peoples lives who had mental health disorders, as they
changed the way that they diagnosed and treated them, as
they found out that labelling could have serious effects
with their health, as the label stayed with them forever,
even if they didnt relapse.
Weaknesses
As case studies are used, there are very few
participants, and therefore we cannot really generalise
the findings to other people/groups, especially as it is
to do with individual differences people experience
different symptoms, etc. Therefore, we can question
if it is useful to real life, because the symptoms are so
wide-ranging.
For example, Freuds case study on Little Hans is individual,
and his problems reflect his experiences. His phobia of a
horse which reflected his phobia of his dad is unique, and it
is unlikely someone else would have this exact problem
because they would have different experiences and a
different upbringing, so we cant generalise the results to
other people.
For example, was Eves case of MPD real or was she just a
good actor??
Perspectives
Behaviourist Perspective
Assumptions;
1. All behaviour is the result of learning (conditioning) from the environment.
2. Conditioning involves associative learning association between stimuli and responses which did not exist
before learning took place.
3. Psychologists should only study directly observable and measurable behaviour.
Weaknesses
As laboratory experiments tend to be used, the
studies are very low in ecological validity, so we have
to be careful when applying the findings to everyday
life. This issue could cause demand characteristics or
social-desirability bias.
Psychodynamic Perspective
Assumptions;
1. The mind is split into 3 the preconscious, unconscious and conscious. The unconscious forms a large
part of our mental life, and can influence our thinking and physical well-being.
2. Childhood experiences have an effect on our behaviour in later life, as they are very important in
shaping our adult personality.
Strengths
Often uses the case study method, with one
participant, and studies them over a long period of
time, so in-depth rich qualitative data can be gathered
into the experiences of one person.
Weaknesses
As case studies are used, the samples are extremely
small and so the results or information obtained
cannot be generalised to other samples, because it is
not representative. Case studies are also very
Confidentiality;
Participants should not be named or identified in the write-up of the study, or when showing the results in a
graph. The participants should also not talk about their performance with anyone. This is to respect their
privacy and the individuals should be told that their results and information will remain confidential.
Psychological/Physical Harm;
It is essential that research avoids presenting participants with tasks that might induce unpleasant emotions or
states of mind such as anxiety, fear, stress, unhappiness, etc as well as avoiding physical harm.
To avoid this type of harm, researchers could inform the participants of what they might come across in the
study that could cause them harm when they obtain consent, and in a way this offers them the right to
withdraw.
In Milgrams study, the participants could have experienced psychological harm because they were administering deathly
electric shocks to the students, which caused them to become stressed, anxious and upset, which was determined by the
observation of the participants, as they were sweating a lot.
Debriefing;
At the end of the study, the participants should be told the real aims, and they should be given the opportunity
to ask the researchers questions. The participants should be allowed to ask for the results of the study and
they should be informed that any discussion or publication of the study will ensure anonymity of the
participants.
Right to withdraw;
The researcher must tell the participants that they have the right to withdraw from the study when they give
their informed consent, and that they also have the right not to answer any question.
Ecological Validity
Ecological validity refers to the extent that the situation or task in the study truly reflects behaviour in real
life settings. Using an environment which is natural or normal to the participant is likely to be higher in
ecological validity, and is more likely to obtain results that represent everyday life, and in that way, are more
generalisable to the target population and to other settings. However, if a study is set up in laboratory settings
or where this is high control, it is not in the participants natural settings and does not reflect everyday life, so
the ecological validity is low. Where the task that the participant is asked to do is not reflective of a normal
task a person would do, for example, sleeping in a laboratory, it would be said to be low in mundane realism.
Strengths and limitations of conducting psychological
2010)
Strengths
Where ecological validity is low, there are likely to be
controlled conditions, where the IV is isolated and
manipulated to measure the effect on the DV, so
cause and effect can be inferred.
Loftus and Palmers experiment into the effect of changing
a verb in a question on the participants speed estimate of
how fast the car was going when it ****** another car
Reliability
Reliability refers to how consistent the findings are. If we were to repeat the study, would we find exactly the
same or similar findings? The only way we can accurately repeat a study is if we have high levels of control or a
standardised procedure, because we need to be able to repeat the study in exactly the same way. We need to
manipulate the independent variable to measure the effect on the dependent variable, and therefore the most
reliable method is the laboratory experiment. A field experiment does not infer high reliability because not all
variables are controlled, as field experiments are the participants natural setting. Therefore, we are not able
to repeat the study in exactly the same way, because the environment could have changed slightly between
studies.
Strengths and limitations of psychological research with low reliability
Strengths
Weaknesses
Low reliability means that the levels of control are not Low reliability infers that the situation is not highly
high, so the situation is more natural, and therefore it controlled, and therefore extraneous variables have
has higher ecological validity. This means the
not been avoided, so we cannot isolate the IV to
environment is representative of everyday life, so the
measure the effect on the DV, so it is harder to infer
results can be applied to everyday life and to other
cause and effect.
natural settings.
As there is less control, there is likely to be less
We can question the internal validity of this type of
chance of demand characteristics or socialpsychological research, because if there is low
desirability bias because the situation is not artificial
reliability, there are not many controls, and so we
and it is less likely that the participant will change
cannot be sure we are measuring what we are supposed
their behaviour to suit the aim.
to measure, because there may be extraneous
variables.
Validity
Validity is a wide topic area as it covers many different aspects. The term validity basically means are you
measuring what you are supposed to measure? If there are extraneous variables, then you cannot be sure youre
measuring what youre supposed to be measuring because extraneous variables could be affecting the
measurement and you cannot infer cause and effect because you have not isolated the independent variable, so
you cant be sure it is just the independent variable that is having the effect on the dependent variable. There
are many different types of validity, which include internal, external, concurrent, face, ecological, population
and content validity.
Internal
External
Concurrent
Face
Ecological
Population
Content
Does the study measure what its supposed to within the study itself?
Does the study measure what it claims to outside the study?
Comparing the measure with an already existing established measure of the same variable to
check for concurrent validity (and hence reliability because you are checking the measure works
and measures what it is supposed to [validity])
Are you measuring what you want to measure? Does it do what it says it does?
Does the study (situation and task) reflect everyday life?
The extent to which the results of a study can be generalised to the target population
Does the measure cover all the variables it is supposed to cover?
These different terms are very confusing be aware that you dont need to be able to define all of
these different types of validity. If you are going to get a question on validity, it will ask you about
ecological validity or validity itself. It is just good to know about the different types because it shows
you are more aware of the issue. Try to learn some of the terms to impress the examiners (ie,
concurrent validity is used in Baron-Cohens study into autistic/aspergers/tourettes people because he
uses the Happes Strange Stories Task to check the measure of the Eyes Task.
Strengths and limitations of psychological research that is highly valid
Strengths
Weaknesses
Research that is highly valid is often highly reliable,
because if youre measuring what youre supposed to
measure, then you are isolating the IV to measure the
effect on the DV, so there are no extraneous
variables and it can be repeated in exactly the same
way.
Longitudinal a study carried out over a long period of time, and usually looks at the development of a person
and their behaviour (classified as longitudinal if it aims to look at the effect of variables over time)
Snapshot a study conducted on one occasion. It looks at a persons behaviour in one moment of time, and this
type of study usually looks at many different individuals, and then cross compares data to come to a conclusion
Refers to the length of time of each participants involvement, rather than how long it takes for the
researchers to collect the data.
Strengths and limitations of psychological research using longitudinal studies
Strengths
Weaknesses
Longitudinal studies are carried out over a long period
These types of studies are very expensive and timeof time, so researchers can look at the development of consuming, and also need a high level of commitment
individuals, and come to conclusions about particular
from participants. Some participants may drop out
stages everyone passes through or patterns.
because they are ill or they may not want to be part of
the study.
Lots of qualitative data can be collected, which gives
Qualitative data is subjective, and therefore down to
reasons for behaviours, and is rich and in-depth.
the interpretation of the researcher. It is hard to
analyse and also hard to compare with other data.
Debates
There are many new debates in psychology that you have to know for this exam, and there are often two sides
to the debate. Make sure you look at both sides before coming to any conclusion. These debates include;
1. Determinism V Free will
2. Reductionism V Holism
3. Nature V Nurture
4. Ethnocentrism
5. Psychology as a Science
6. Individual V Situational explanations
7. Usefulness of psychological research
For this type of question, you need to know about the debate, and be able to describe it, you need to know the
strengths and weaknesses of each side of the debate in psychology and also be able to link in synoptic examples
that explain and support the debates.
Determinism V Free will
Determinism - the view that all behaviours are determined by factors beyond our control, and are in a way
determined before we actually do them.
o Hard determinism
o Soft determinism
Free will the view that our behaviours are the products of our own choice and will.
Strengths and limitations of psychological research that is deterministic
Strengths
Weaknesses
Deterministic views are often scientific views, and so
Reductionist, as it is heavily scientific and therefore
there are high levels ofcontrol, which avoids
only looks at one aspect of complex human behaviour
extraneous variables so the IV can be isolated to
and ignores other factors. This affects the usefulness
measure the effect on the DV and therefore cause
of research because it simplifies human behaviour.
and effect can be established.
Ethnocentric to some extent, because it assumes
findings can be applied to all cultures, when only the
Western ways have been studied. Western ways are
different from other cultures, so research cannot be
applied to other cultures.
As deterministic views are based on scientific
information, research would be low in ecological
validity, so we have to be careful when applying the
Reductionism V Holism
Reductionism the process of breaking down complex human behaviour into their constituent parts.
o It over-simplifies complex human behaviour down to simple factors
Holism an approach that takes into account a wide range of factors to explain complex human behaviour.
o It does not break it down into smaller sub-sections, and looks at behaviour as a whole
Nature V Nurture
Nature describes behaviours that are innate (born into us or genetically determined by genes and DNA)
Nurture describes behaviours that are acquired as a result of experience or because of environmental
influences
Strengths and limitations of the nurture side of the nature/nurture debate
Strengths
Weaknesses
Deterministic because it offers no scope for free will.
It assumes that behaviour is learnt from the
environment and that the environment will change our
behaviour.
Ethnocentrism
The belief that ones own ethnic group or culture is superior to another ethnic group or culture. It is the
inability to think outside ones own cultural experience and a tendency to assume that what happens in our
own culture is common to other cultures.
o
o
Sometimes psychologists draw conclusions from studies focused on one culture or group and assume it
can be generalised to other groups or cultures.
This is common when research is based on the Western way.
Psychology as a Science
Psychology is generally seen as being a Science, because if it wasnt a Science, it wouldnt be seen as a
valid or reliable subject.
Strengths and limitations of the psychology as a science debate
Strengths
Weaknesses
Highly controlled, so that the independent variable can High control means the situation will be artificial and
be isolated meaning there are no extraneous variables
therefore would not reflect a persons normal
which allows us to measure the IVs effect on the
environment, hence it would be low in ecological
dependent variable. This means it is also highly valid
validity, and we would have to be careful about
because we are measuring what we are supposed to be
applying results because there could be demand
measuring cause (IV) and effect (DV).
characteristics or social-desirability bias.
Reliable, as standardised procedures are commonly
Reductionist and deterministic as it assumes that
used, with high levels of control, which therefore
everyone will go through the same patterns, etc and
makes them more replicable.
that a particular behaviour is a cause of something
else, and also it doesnt look at things as a whole, and
simplifies complex human behaviour down to very small
factors.
Objective, as it does not take into account any
No qualitative data is collected when using scientific
subjective opinions of people, and only looks at fact.
methods and therefore we do not obtain reasons for
Produces quantitative data, which is easy to analyse
peoples behaviour or obtain opinions.
and compare with other quantitative data, providing
straight forward conclusions.
Situational looks at the situation a person is in and assumes that the behaviour of a person depends on the
situation the person is in.
Ie, Reicher looked at the way we identify within a group, and how the guards failed to develop a strong group identity but
the prisoners were the complete opposite.