Its subfields can be divided into a variety of theoretical and practical discipl

ines. Some fields, such as computational complexity theory (which explores the f
undamental properties of computational and intractable problems), are highly abs
tract, while fields such as computer graphics emphasize real-world visual applic
ations. Still other fields focus on the challenges in implementing computation.
For example, programming language theory considers various approaches to the des
cription of computation, while the study of computer programming itself investig
ates various aspects of the use of programming language and complex systems. Hum
an computer interaction considers the challenges in making computers and computati
ons useful, usable, and universally accessible to humans.
large capital lamdeals with the theoretical foundations of information and compu
tation, together with practical techniques for the implementation and applicatio
n of these foundations
Cont
1 History
1.1 History
2 Philosophyng language theory
3.1.5 Formal methods
3.2 Applied computer science
3.2.1 Artificial intelligence
3.2.2 Computer architecture and engineering
3.2.3 Computer Performance Analysis
3.2.4 Computer graphics and visualization
3.2.5 Computer security and cryptography
3.2.6 Computational science
3.2.7 Computer networks
3.2.8 Concurrent, parallel and distributed systems
3.2.9 Databases
3.2.10 Health informatics
3.2.11 Information science
3.2.12 Software engineering
4 The great insights of computer science
5 Academia
5.1 Conferences
5.2 Journals
6 Education
7 See also
10 Further reading
11 External links
History
Main article: History of computer science
Charles Babbage is credited with inventing the first mechanical computer.
Ada Lovelace is credited with writing the first algorithm intended for processin
g on a computer.
The earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the inven
tion of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical ta
sks such as the abacus have existed since antiquity, aiding in computations such
as multiplication and division. Further, algorithms for performing computations
have existed since antiquity, even before sophisticated computing equipment wer
e created. The ancient Sanskrit treatise Shulba Sutras, or "Rules of the Chord",
is a book of algorithms written in 800 BCE for constructing geometric objects l
ike altars using a peg and chord, an early precursor of the modern field of comp
utational geometry.
Blaise Pascal designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator,
Pascal's calculator, in 1642.[3] In 1673 Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated a digita
l mechanical calculator, called the 'Stepped Reckoner'.[4] He may be considered
the first computer scientist and information theorist, for, among other reasons,
documenting the binary number system. In 1820, Thomas de Colmar launched the me

chanical calculator industry[note 1] when he released his simplified arithmomete

r, which was the first calculating machine strong enough and reliable enough to
be used daily in an office environment. Charles Babbage started the design of th
e first automatic mechanical calculator, his difference engine, in 1822, which e
ventually gave him the idea of the first programmable mechanical calculator, his
Analytical Engine.[5] He started developing this machine in 1834 and "in less t
han two years he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern com
puter. A crucial step was the adoption of a punched card system derived from the
Jacquard loom"[6] making it infinitely programmable.[7] In 1843, during the tra
nslation of a French article on the analytical engine, Ada Lovelace wrote, in on
e of the many notes she included, an algorithm to compute the Bernoulli numbers,
which is considered to be the first computer program.[8] Around 1885, Herman Ho
llerith invented the tabulator, which used punched cards to process statistical
information; eventually his company became part of IBM. In 1937, one hundred yea
rs after Babbage's impossible dream, Howard Aiken convinced IBM, which was makin
g all kinds of punched card equipment and was also in the calculator business[9]
to develop his giant programmable calculator, the ASCC/Harvard Mark I, based on
Babbage's analytical engine, which itself used cards and a central computing un
it. When the machine was finished, some hailed it as "Babbage's dream come true"
.[10]
During the 1940s, as new and more powerful computing machines were developed, th
e term computer came to refer to the machines rather than their human predecesso
rs.[11] As it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathe
matical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study computati
on in general. Computer science began to be established as a distinct academic d
iscipline in the 1950s and early 1960s.[12][13] The world's first computer scien
ce degree program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science, began at the Unive
rsity of Cambridge Computer Laboratory in 1953. The first computer science degre
e program in the United States was formed at Purdue University in 1962.[14] Sinc
e practical computers became available, many applications of computing have beco
me distinct areas of study in their own rights.
Although many initially believed it was impossible that computers themselves cou
ld actually be a scientific field of study, in the late fifties it gradually bec
ame accepted among the greater academic population.[15] It is the now well-known
IBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time.
IBM (short for International Business Machines) released the IBM 704[16] and la
ter the IBM 709[17] computers, which were widely used during the exploration per
iod of such devices. "Still, working with the IBM [computer] was frustrating ...
if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program woul
d crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again".[15] During t
he late 1950s, the computer science discipline was very much in its developmenta
l stages, and such issues were commonplace.
Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of com
puting technology. Modern society has seen a significant shift in the users of c
omputer technology, from usage only by experts and professionals, to a near-ubiq
uitous user base. Initially, computers were quite costly, and some degree of hum
an aid was needed for efficient use - in part from professional computer operato
rs. As computer adoption became more widespread and affordable, less human assis
tance was needed for common usage.
History
The German military used the Enigma machine (shown here) during World War II for
communication they thought to be secret. The large-scale decryption of Enigma t
raffic at Bletchley Park was an important factor that contributed to Allied vict
ory in WWII.[18]
Despite its short history as a formal academic discipline, computer science has
made a number of fundamental contributions to science and society - in fact, alo

ng with electronics, it is
ory called the Information
as the third major leap in
olution (1750-1850 CE) and

a founding science of the current epoch of human hist

Age and a driver of the Information Revolution, seen
human technological progress after the Industrial Rev
the Agricultural Revolution (8000-5000 BCE).

These contributions include:

The start of the "digital revolution", which includes the current Informatio
n Age and the Internet.[19]
A formal definition of computation and computability, and proof that there a
re computationally unsolvable and intractable problems.[20]
The concept of a programming language, a tool for the precise expression of
methodological information at various levels of abstraction.[21]
In cryptography, breaking the Enigma code was an important factor contributi
ng to the Allied victory in World War II.[18]
Scientific computingcomputer-generated imagery have become ubiquitous in mod
ern entertainment, particularly in television, cinema, advertising, animation an
d video games. Even films that feature no explicit CGI are usually "filmed" now
on digital cameras, or edited or postprocessed using a digital video editor.[cit
ation needed]
Simulation of various processes, including computational fluid dynamics, phy
sical, electrical, and electronic systems and circuits, as well as societies and
social situations (notably war games) along with their habitats, among many oth
ers. Modern computers enable optimization of such designs as complete aircraft.
Notable in electrical and electronic circuit design are SPICE, as well as softwa
re for physical realization of new (or modified) designs. The latter includes es
sential design software for integrated circuits.[citation needed]
Artificial intelligence is becoming increasingly important as it gets more e
fficient and complex. There are many applications of the AI, some of which can b
e seen at home, such as robotic vacuum cleaners. It is also present in video gam
es and on the modern battlefield in drones, anti-missile systems, and squad supp
ort robots.
Philosophy
Main article: Philosophy of computer science
A number of computer scientists have argued for the distinction of three separat
e paradigms in computer science. Peter Wegner argued that those paradigms are sc
ience, technology, and mathematics.[24] Peter Denning's working group argued tha
t they are theory, abstraction (modeling), and design.[25] Amnon H. Eden describ
ed them as the "rationalist paradigm" (which treats computer science as a branch
of mathematics, which is prevalent in theoretical computer science, and mainly
employs deductive reasoning), the "technocratic paradigm" (which might be found
in engineering approaches, most prominently in software engineering), and the "s
cientific paradigm" (which approaches computer-related artifacts from the empiri
cal perspective of natural sciences, identifiable in some branches of artificial
intelligence).[26]
Name of the field
The term "computer science" appears in a 1959 article in Communications of the A
CM,[27] in which Louis Fein argues for the creation of a Graduate School in Comp
uter Sciences analogous to the creation of Harvard Business School in 1921,[28]
justifying the name by arguing that, like management science, the subject is app
lied and interdisciplinary in nature, while having the characteristics typical o
f an academic discipline.[27] His efforts, and those of others such as numerical
analyst George Forsythe, were rewarded: universities went on to create such pro
grams, starting with Purdue in 1962.[29] Despite its name, a significant amount
of computer science does not involve the study of computers themselves. Because
of this, several alternative names have been proposed.[30] Certain departments o
f major universities prefer the term computing science, to emphasize precisely t

hat difference. Danish scientist Peter Naur suggested the term datalogy,[31] to
reflect the fact that the scientific discipline revolves around data and data tr
eatment, while not necessarily involving computers. The first scientific institu
tion to use the term was the Department of Datalogy at the University of Copenha
gen, founded in 1969, with Peter Naur being the first professor in datalogy. The
term is used mainly in the Scandinavian countries. Also, in the early days of c
omputing, a number of terms for the practitioners of the field of computing were
suggested in the Communications of the ACM
turingineer, turologist, flow-charts
-man, applied meta-mathematician, and applied epistemologist.[32] Three months l
ater in the same journal, comptologist was suggested, followed next year by hypo
logist.[33] The term computics has also been suggested.[34] In Europe, terms der
ived from contracted translations of the expression "automatic information" (e.g
. "informazione automatica" in Italian) or "information and mathematics" are oft
en used, e.g. informatique (French), Informatik (German), informatica (Italy, Th
e Netherlands), informtica (Spain, Portugal), informatika (Slavic languages and H
ungarian) or pliroforiki (p????f?????, which means informatics) in Greek. Simila
r words have also been adopted in the UK (as in the School of Informatics of the
University of Edinburgh).[35]
A folkloric quotation, often attributed to but almost certainly not first formulat
ed by Edsger Dijkstra, states that "computer science is no more about computers th
an astronomy is about telescopes."[note 2] The design and deployment of computer
s and computer systems is generally considered the province of disciplines other
than computer science. For example, the study of computer hardware is usually c
onsidered part of computer engineering, while the study of commercial computer s
ystems and their deployment is often called information technology or informatio
n systems. However, there has been much cross-fertilization of ideas between the
various computer-related disciplines. Computer science research also often inte
rsects other disciplines, such as philosophy, cognitive science, linguistics, ma
thematics, physics, biology, statistics, and logic.
Computer science is considered by some to have a much closer relationship with m
athematics than many scientific disciplines, with some observers saying that com
puting is a mathematical science.[12] Early computer science was strongly influe
nced by the work of mathematicians such as Kurt Gdel and Alan Turing, and there c
ontinues to be a useful interchange of ideas between the two fields in areas suc
h as mathematical logic, category theory, domain theory, and algebra.
The relationship between computer science and software engineering is a contenti
ous issue, which is further muddied by disputes over what the term "software eng
ineering" means, and how computer science is defined.[36] David Parnas, taking a
cue from the relationship between other engineering and science disciplines, ha
s claimed that the principal focus of computer science is studying the propertie
s of computation in general, while the principal focus of software engineering i
s the design of specific computations to achieve practical goals, making the two
separate but complementary disciplines.[37]
The academic, political, and funding aspects of computer science tend to depend
on whether a department formed with a mathematical emphasis or with an engineeri
ng emphasis. Computer science departments with a mathematics emphasis and with a
numerical orientation consider alignment with computational science. Both types
of departments tend to make efforts to bridge the field educationally if not ac
ross all research.
Areas of computer science
As a discipline, computer science spans a range of topics from theoretical studi
es of algorithms and the limits of computation to the practical issues of implem
enting computing systems in hardware and software.[38][39] CSAB, formerly called
Computing Sciences Accreditation Board
which is made up of representatives of t
he Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), and the IEEE Computer Society (IEE

E-CS)[40]
identifies four areas that it considers crucial to the discipline of c
omputer science: theory of computation, algorithms and data structures, programm
ing methodology and languages, and computer elements and architecture. In additi
on to these four areas, CSAB also identifies fields such as software engineering
, artificial intelligence, computer networking and telecommunications, database
systems, parallel computation, distributed computation, computer-human interacti
on, computer graphics, operating systems, and numerical and symbolic computation
as being important areas of computer science.[38]
Theoretical computer science
Main article: Theoretical computer science
The broader field of theoretical computer science encompasses both the classical
theory of computation and a wide range of other topics that focus on the more a
bstract, logical, and mathematical aspects of computing.
Theory of computation
Main article: Theory of computation
According to Peter J. Denning, the fundamental question underlying computer scie
nce is, "What can be (efficiently) automated?"[12] The study of the theory of co
mputation is focused on answering fundamental questions about what can be comput
ed and what amount of resources are required to perform those computations. In a
n effort to answer the first question, computability theory examines which compu
tational problems are solvable on various theoretical models of computation. The
second question is addressed by computational complexity theory, which studies
the time and space costs associated with different approaches to solving a multi
tude of computational problems.
The famous "P=NP?" problem, one of the Millennium Prize Problems,[41] is an open
problem in the theory of computation.
DFAexample.svg Wang tiles.png P = NP ?
GNITIRW-TERCES Blochsphere.svg
Automata theory
Computability theory
Computational complexity theory
Cryptography
Quantum computing theory
Information and coding theory
Main articles: Information theory and Coding theory
Information theory is related to the quantification of information. This was dev
eloped by Claude E. Shannon to find fundamental limits on signal processing oper
ations such as compressing data and on reliably storing and communicating data.[
42] Coding theory is the study of the properties of codes (systems for convertin
g information from one form to another) and their fitness for a specific applica
tion. Codes are used for data compression, cryptography, error detection and cor
rection, and more recently also for network coding. Codes are studied for the pu
rpose of designing efficient and reliable data transmission methods.
Algorithms and data structures
Algorithms and data structures is the study of commonly used computational metho
ds and their computational efficiency.
O(n^2) Sorting quicksf computer science that deals with the design, implementat
ion, analysis, characterization, and classification of programming languages and
their individual features. It falls within the discipline of computer science,
both depending on and affecting mathematics, software engineering and linguistic
s. It is an active research area, with numerous dedicated academic journals.
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Compiler.svg
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Type theory
Compiler design
Programming languages
Formal methods
Main article: Formal methods
Formal methods are a particular kind of mathematically based technique for the s
pecification, development and verification of software and hardware systems. The
use of formal methods for software and hardware design is motivated by the expe

ctation that, as in other engineering disciplines, performing appropriate mathem

atical analysis can contribute to the reliability and robustness of a design. Th
ey form an important theoretical underpinning for software engineering, especial
ly where safety or security is involved. Formal methods are a useful adjunct to
software testing since they help avoid errors and can also give a framework for
testing. For industrial use, tool support is required. However, the high cost of
using formal methods means that they are usually only used in the development o
f high-integrity and life-critical systems, where safety or security is of utmos
t importance. Formal methods are best described as the application of a fairly b
road variety of theoretical computer science fundamentals, in particular logic c
alculi, formal languages, automata theory, and program semantics, but also type
systems and algebraic data types to problems in software and hardware specificat
ion and verification.
Applied computer science
Applied computer science aims at identifying certain computer science concepts t
hat can be used directly in solving real world problems.
Artificial intelligence
Main article: Artificial intelligence
This branch of computer science aims to or is required to synthesise goal-orient
ated processes such as problem-solving, decision-making, environmental adaptatio
n, learning and communication found in humans and animals. From its origins in c
ybernetics and in the Dartmouth Conference (1956), artificial intelligence (AI)
research has been necessarily cross-disciplinary, drawing on areas of expertise
such as applied mathematics, symbolic logic, semiotics, electrical engineering,
philosophy of mind, neurophysiology, and social intelligence. AI is associated i
n the popular mind with robotic development, but the main field of practical app
lication has been as an embedded component in areas of software development, whi
ch require computational understanding and modeling such as finance and economic
s, data mining and the physical sciences.[citation needed] The starting-point in
the late 1940s was Alan Turing's question "Can computers think?", and the quest
ion remains effectively unanswered although the "Turing Test" is still used to a
ssess computer output on the scale of human intelligence. But the automation of
evaluative and predictive tasks has been increasingly successful as a substitute
for human monitoring and intervention in domains of computer application involv
ing complex real-world data.
Nicolas P. Rougier's rendering of the human brain.png Human eye, rendered from
Eye.png
Corner.png
KnnClassification.svg
Machine learning
Computer vision
Image processing
Pattern
recognition
User-FastFission-brain.gif
Julia iteration data.png
Sky.png
Earth.png
Cognitive science
Data mining
Evolutionary computation
Informat
ion retrieval
Neuron.svg
English.png
HONDA ASIMO.jpg
MeningiomaMRISegmentatio
n.png
Knowledge representation
Natural language processing
Robotics
Medical image computing
Computer architecture and engineering
Main articles: Computer architecture and Computer engineering
Computer architecture, or digital computer organization, is the conceptual desig
n and fundamental operational structure of a computer system. It focuses largely
on the way by which the central processing unit performs internally and accesse
s addresses in memory.[43] The field often involves disciplines of computer engi
neering and electrical engineering, selecting and interconnecting hardware compo
nents to create computers that meet functional, performance, and cost goals.
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Digital logic Micro Network Library LAN.svg
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Operating systems
Computer networks
Databases
Information secu
rity
Roomba original.jpg
Flowchart.png Ideal compiler.png
Python add5 synt
ax.svg
Ubiquitous computing
Systems architecture
Compiler design
Programm
ing languages
Computer Performance Analysis
Main article: Computer performance
Computer Performance Analysis is the study of work flowing through computers wit
h the general goals of improving throughput, controlling response time, using re
sources efficiently, eliminating bottlenecks, and predicting performance under a
nticipated peak loads.[44]
Computer graphics and visualization
Main article: Computer graphics (computer science)
Computer graphics is the study of digital visual contents, and involves synthese
and manipulations of image data. The study is connected to many other fields in
computer science, including computer vision, image processing, and computationa
l geometry, and is heavily applied in the fields of special effects and video ga
mes.
Computer security and cryptography
Main articles: Computer security and Cryptography
Computer security is a branch of computer technology, whose objective includes p
rotection of information from unauthorized access, disruption, or modification w
hile maintaining the accessibility and usability of the system for its intended
users. Cryptography is the practice and study of hiding (encryption) and therefo
re deciphering (decryption) information. Modern cryptography is largely related
to computer science, for many encryption and decryption algorithms are based on
their computational complexity.
Computational science
Computational science (or scientific computing) is the field of study concerned
with constructing mathematical models and quantitative analysis techniques and u
sing computers to analyze and solve scientific problems. In practical use, it is
typically the application of computer simulation and other forms of computation
to problems in various scientific disciplines.
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Numerical analysis
Computational physics Computational chemistry
Bioinformatics
Computer networks
Main article: Computer network
This branch o
A database is intended to organize, store, and retrieve large amounts of data ea
sily. Digital databases are managed using database management systems to store,
create, maintain, and search data, through database models and query languages.
Health informatics
Main article: Health Informatics
Health Informatics in computer science deals with computational techniques for s
olving problems in health care.
Information science
Main article: Information science
Earth.png
Neuron.png
English.png
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g
Information retrieval Knowledge representation
Natural language process

ing
Human computer interaction
Software engineering
Main article: Software engineering
Software engineering is the study of designing, implementing, and modifying soft
ware in order to ensure it is of high quality, affordable, maintainable, and fas
t to build. It is a systematic approach to software design, involving the applic
ation of engineering practices to software. Software engineering deals with the
organizing and analyzing of software it doesn't just deal with the creation or ma
nufacture of new software, but its internal maintenance and arrangement. Both co
mputer applications software engineers and computer systems software engineers a
re projected to be among the fastest growing occupations from 2008 and 2018.
See also: computer programming
The great insights of computer science
The philosopher of computing Bill Rapaport noted three Great Insights of Compute
r Science[45]
Leibniz's, Boole's, Alan Turing's, Shannon's, & Morse's insight: There are o
nly 2 objects that a computer has to deal with in order to represent "anything"
All the information about any computable problem can be represented using on
ly 0 & 1 (or any other bistable pair that can flip-flop between two easily disti
nguishable states,such as "on"/"off", "magnetized/de-magnetized", "high-voltage/
low-voltage", etc.).
See also: digital physics
Alan Turing's insight: There are only 5 actions that a computer has to perfo
rm in order to do "anything"
Every algorithm can be expressed in a language for a computer consisting of
only 5 basic instructions:
*
*
*
*
*

move left one location

move right one location
read symbol at current location
print 0 at current location
print 1 at current location

See also: Turing machine

Bhm and Jacopini's insight: There are only 3 ways of combining these actions
(into more complex ones) that are needed in order for a computer to do "anything
"
Only 3 rules are needed to combine any set of basic instructions into more c
omplex ones:
sequence:
first do this; then do that
selection :
IF such-&-such is the case,
THEN do this
ELSE do that
repetition:

WHILE such & such is the case DO this

Note that the 3 rules of Boehm's and Jacopini's insight can be further simplifie
d with the use of goto (which means it's more elementary than structured program
ming.)
See also: Elementary function arithmetic Friedman's grand conjecture
Academia
Conferences
Further information: List of computer science conferences
Conferences are strategic events of the Academic Research in computer science. D
uring those conferences, researchers from the public and private sectors present
their recent work and meet. Proceedings of these conferences are an important p
art of the computer science literature.
Journals
Further information: Category:Computer science journals
Education
Some universities teach computer science as a theoretical study of computation a
nd algorithmic reasoning. These programs often feature the theory of computation
, analysis of algorithms, formal methods, concurrency theory, databases, compute
r graphics, and systems analysis, among others. They typically also teach comput
er programming, but treat it as a vessel for the support of other fields of comp
uter science rather than a central focus of high-level study. The ACM/IEEE-CS Jo
int Curriculum Task Force "Computing Curriculum 2005" (and 2008 update)[46] give
s a guideline for university curriculum.
Other colleges and universities, as well as secondary schools and vocational pro
grams that teach computer science, emphasize the practice of advanced programmin
g rather than the theory of algorithms and computation in their computer science
curricula. Such curricula tend to focus on those skills that are important to w
orkers entering the software industry. The process aspects of computer programmi
ng are often referred to as software engineering.
While computer science professions increasingly drive the U.S. economy, computer
science education is absent in most American K-12 curricula. A report entitled
"Running on Empty: The Failure to Teach K-12 Computer Science in the Digital Age
" was released in October 2010 by Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) and
Computer Science Teachers Association (CSTA), and revealed that only 14 states h
ave adopted significant education standards for high school computer science. Th
e report also found that only nine states count high school computer science cou
rses as a core academic subject in their graduation requirements. In tandem with
"Running on Empty", a new non-partisan advocacy coalition - Computing in the Co
re (CinC) - was founded to influence federal and state policy, such as the Compu
ter Science Education Act, which calls for grants to states to develop plans for
improving computer science education and supporting computer science teachers.
Within the United States a gender gap in computer science education has been obs
erved as well. Research conducted by the WGBH Educational Foundation and the Ass
ociation for Computing Machinery (ACM) revealed that more than twice as many hig
h school boys considered computer science to be a "very good" or "good" college
major than high school girls.[47] In addition, the high school Advanced Placemen
t (AP) exam for computer science has displayed a disparity in gender. Compared t
o other AP subjects it has the lowest number of female participants, with a comp
osition of about 15 percent women.[48] This gender gap in computer science is fu
rther witnessed at the college level, where 31 percent of undergraduate computer
science degrees are earned by women and only 8 percent of computer science facu
lty consists of women.[49] According to an article published by the Epistemic Ga
mes Group in August 2012, the number of women graduates in the computer science
field has declined to 13 percent.[50]

A 2014 Mother Jones article, "We Can Code It", advocates for adding computer lit
eracy and coding to the K-12 curriculum in the United States, and notes that com
puter science is not incorporated into the requirements for the Common Core Stat
e Standards Initiative.[51]
See also
Main article: Outline of computer science
Portal icon
Computer science portal
Academic genealogy of computer scientists
Informatics (academic field)
List of academic computer science departments
List of computer science conferences
List of computer scientists
List of publications in computer science
List of pioneers in computer science
Technology transfer in computer science
List of software engineering topics
List of unsolved problems in computer science
Women in computing
Computer science
Notes

Wikipedia book

In 1851
See the entry "Computer science" on Wikiquote for the history of this quotat
ion.
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the study of the structure of knowledge from an imperative
point of view, as opposed to the more declarative point of view taken by classic
al mathematical subjects."
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Further reading
Overview
Tucker, Allen B. (2004). Computer Science Handbook (2nd ed.). Chapman and Ha
ll/CRC. ISBN 1-58488-360-X.
"Within more than 70 chapters, every one new or significantly revised, o
ne can find any kind of information and references about computer science one ca
n imagine. [...] all in all, there is absolute nothing about Computer Science th
at can not be found in the 2.5 kilogram-encyclopaedia with its 110 survey articl
es [...]." (Christoph Meinel, Zentralblatt MATH)
van Leeuwen, Jan (1994). Handbook of Theoretical Computer Science. The MIT P
ress. ISBN 0-262-72020-5.
"[...] this set is the most unique and possibly the most useful to the [
theoretical computer science] community, in support both of teaching and researc
h [...]. The books can be used by anyone wanting simply to gain an understanding
of one of these areas, or by someone desiring to be in research in a topic, or
by instructors wishing to find timely information on a subject they are teaching
outside their major areas of expertise." (Rocky Ross, SIGACT News)
Ralston, Anthony; Reilly, Edwin D.; Hemmendinger, David (2000). Encyclopedia
of Computer Science (4th ed.). Grove's Dictionaries. ISBN 1-56159-248-X.
"Since 1976, this has been the definitive reference work on computer, co
mputing, and computer science. [...] Alphabetically arranged and classified into
broad subject areas, the entries cover hardware, computer systems, information
and data, software, the mathematics of computing, theory of computation, methodo
logies, applications, and computing milieu. The editors have done a commendable
job of blending historical perspective and practical reference information. The
encyclopedia remains essential for most public and academic library reference co
llections." (Joe Accardin, Northeastern Illinois Univ., Chicago)
Edwin D. Reilly (2003). Milestones in Computer Science and Information Techn
ology. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-57356-521-9.
Selected papers
Knuth, Donald E. (1996). Selected Papers on Computer Science. CSLI Publicati
ons, Cambridge University Press.
Collier, Bruce. The little engine that could've: The calculating machines of
Charles Babbage. Garland Publishing Inc. ISBN 0-8240-0043-9.
Cohen, Bernard (2000). Howard Aiken, Portrait of a computer pioneer. The MIT
press. ISBN 978-0-2625317-9-5.
Randell, Brian (1973). The origins of Digital computers, Selected Papers. Sp
ringer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-06169-X.
"Covering a period from 1966 to 1993, its interest lies not only in the
content of each of these papers
still timely today but also in their being put t
ogether so that ideas expressed at different times complement each other nicely.
" (N. Bernard, Zentralblatt MATH)
Articles
Peter J. Denning. Is computer science science?, Communications of the ACM, A
pril 2005.
Peter J. Denning, Great principles in computing curricula, Technical Symposi
um on Computer Science Education, 2004.
Research evaluation for computer science, Informatics Europe report. Shorter
journal version: Bertrand Meyer, Christine Choppy, Jan van Leeuwen and Jorgen S

taunstrup, Research evaluation for computer science, in Communications of the AC

M, vol. 52, no. 4, pp. 31 34, April 2009.
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