Mechanical-condition

assessment of transformer
windings using Frequency
Response Analysis (FRA)
Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26
Convener: Patrick Picher, Canada

Scope of CIGRE WG A2.26

1. To provide an introduction for interested parties

with limited previous experience in FRA
2. To compare the various FRA practices and
make relevant recommendations for
standardisation
3. To develop a guide for data interpretation and
make proposals for research activities to
support further improvements.

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26

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What is FRA?
Introduction to FRA

Frequency Response Analysis

A tool to detect mechanical changes to
transformer windings
When:
Post fault (examples: through-fault or tap
changer fault)
After relocation (transportation damage)
Baseline measurement : in the factory or
when the transformer is commissioned at site

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26

What is FRA?
Introduction to FRA

The frequency response of a winding is a

function of the RLC network of the windings
related to the physical geometry
Mechanical changes within the test specimen
alter the RLC network, and in turn can alter the
frequency response
The major transformer resonances are in the
range from a few kHz to a few MHz, depending
on the voltage and type of the winding

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26

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What is FRA?
Introduction to FRA

Measurement of
input voltage

Measurement of
voltage response

Vs

Vr

Application of a
voltage signal
(swept frequency or impulse)

End-to-end connection
(source on phase terminal)
Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26

What is FRA?
Introduction to FRA

0
-10
Amplitude (dB)

-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
0,1

10
100
Frequency (kHz)

1000

10000

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26

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Winding Deformation Failure Mode

Radial buckling of inner winding

Introduction to FRA

Conductor tilting

Spiralling in the LV winding

Collapse of winding end support

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26

Example: Axial Collapse after Clamping

Failure

Introduction to FRA

35-year-old 400/132-kV 240-MVA autotransformer

FRA signatures before and after axial
collapse due to clamping failure

Axial collapse after clamping failure

-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
0

0.5
Frequency (MHz)
A phase

B phase

C phase

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26

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Example: Conductor Tilting

Introduction to FRA

40-year-old 275/132-kV 240-MVA autotransformer

FRA measurements across the tap winding
(conductor tilting deformation in phase A)

Conductor tilting (normally conductors

should be completely vertical)

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26

FRA test types defined by CIGRE WG

A2.26
(a) End-to-end (source on phase terminal)
Vs

Vs

Vr

Vr

Vs

(d) End-to-end short-circuit (source on

neutral terminal)

**

(e) Capacitive inter-winding

Vs

FRA Practices

(b) End-to-end (source on neutral terminal)

Vr

(c) End-to-end short-circuit (source on

phase terminal)

(f) Inductive inter-winding

Vr

Vs

Vr

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Standard method for referencing the test

leads
FRA Practices

Signal and source measurement cables tapped

together near the top of the bushing.
Earth lead extension run along the body of the
bushing, down to the flange, to connect the
cables shields to the tank.
Same principle for the response cable.
Coaxial cable

Earth lead

11

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26

Objectives of WG Workshops
FRA Practices

Characterise the differences in FRA practices

(impulse, sweep frequency, measurement
impedance, test leads, grounding, etc)
Compare FRA measurement types and
determine the usefulness of each for diagnosing
transformer defects
Standardise good FRA practices and point out
practical limitations

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Nuremberg FRA Test Workshop

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26

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Northfleet FRA Test Workshop

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Test setup Nuremberg Workshop

FRA Practices

Test
Set-up

Sweep or
impulse

Test Lead Details

Response Measurement
Impedance

Sweep

300 mm wide aluminium foils

Optical transducer with 10 M

input impedance

Impulse

Coaxial cables to terminals + shortest

25 mm wide braid to tank.

2 M (input impedance of
instrument)

Sweep

Coaxial cables to terminals + shortest

wire to tank.

50 (input impedance of
instrument)

Sweep

Coaxial cables to terminals + shortest

wire to tank.

50 (input impedance of
instrument)

Sweep

Coaxial cables to terminals + shortest

wire to tank.

CT (0.5 V/A)

Impulse

For LV: coaxial cables to splitter box,

then 5-m wire to terminals.
For HV: Coaxial cables to terminals +
shortest wire to tank.

50 (input impedance of
instrument)

Sweep

Coaxial cables to terminals + shortest

wire to tank.

50 (input impedance of
instrument)

Impulse

Coaxial and triaxial cables to terminals +

shortest braid to tank.

10 shunt

Sweep

Coaxial cables to terminals + shortest

wire to tank.

CT (1 V/A)

15

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26

Comparison of results Nuremberg

Workshop

FRA Practices

20
Effect of
test leads

Amplitude (dB)

0
-20

LVI vs. SFRA

and dynamic range

-40
-60
-80

Almost identical results

from 10 kHz to 500 kHz

-100
0.1

10
100
1000
Frequency (kHz)

10000

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Summary of results Northfleet

Workshop

FRA Practices

Measurements using various cabling practices and one instrument

-20

-25
Amplitude (dB)

Amplitude (dB)

-10
-20
-30
-40
-50

-30
-35
-40
-45
-50
-55

-60

-60
0

T1

500000

T2

T3

1000000
1500000
Frequency (Hz)

T4

T5

T10

T11

2000000

T52

T53

T1

100000

T2

T3

200000 300000
Frequency (Hz)

T4

T5

T10

400000

T11

500000

T52

T53

-20

-10

-25

-20

-30

Amplitude (dB)

Amplitude (dB)

Measurements using different instruments and a standardised cabling practice

-30
-40
-50
-60

-35
-40
-45
-50
-55

-70

-60
0

T15

500000
T32

T16

1000000
1500000
Frequency (Hz)
T33

T34

T35

T36

2000000
T38

T37

0
T15

100000
T32

T16

200000 300000
Frequency (Hz)
T33

T34

T35

400000
T36

500000
T38

T37

17

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26

Summary of WG Workshops
FRA Practices

Good cabling practice is necessary to take

advantage of the demonstrated sensitivity of
FRA.
Measuring system should not impact the
measurement result in the frequency range
covered by the test equipment.
The value of the measurement impedance can
have a significant impact on the FRA response.
More research is needed to compare the
sensitivity of each test in detecting various faults.

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Summary of rules to perform a good

FRA measurement

FRA Practices

1. Use three shielded high-frequency cables terminated

in their matching characteristic impedance
2. Keep the grounding leads as short as possible
(without coiling the leads) and use flat braid (20 mm
width minimum) instead of wire.
3. Use good connectors for attaching the test leads to
terminals.
4. The test setup should be the same for the reference
and repeated measurements.
5. Disconnect all unused cables from the bushing
terminal.

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26

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FRA Interpretation
FRA Interpretation

Assist FRA users by providing a description of

typical responses and controlling factors,
together with a collection of case examples
which illustrates how various types of winding
movement and other faults can be detected by
FRA.

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Presentation of FRA Responses

Amplitude (dB) vs. log frequency

Amplitude (dB) vs. linear frequency

Amplitude (dB)

Amplitude (dB)

0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
-100
0.1

10
100
Frequency (kHz)

1000

0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
-100
0

10000

Linear amplitude vs. log frequency

0.1

10
100
Frequency (kHz)

1000

500

1000
1500
Frequency (kHz)

2000

Linear amplitude vs. linear frequency

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

Amplitude

Amplitude

FRA Interpretation

10000

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0

500

1000
1500
Frequency (kHz)

2000

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26

Expected Resonance Frequency Range

21

FRA Interpretation

Frequency range for natural frequencies of large transformer windings.

Transformer
component
(> 100 MVA/limb)

Typical range for natural frequency

start [kHz]
stop [kHz]

HV disk winding

10

200

LV layer winding

10

1000

Regulating winding

100

1000

Frequency range for natural frequencies of medium transformer windings.

Transformer
component
(< 30 MVA/limb)

Typical range for natural frequency

start [kHz]
stop [kHz]

HV disk winding

10

1000

LV layer winding

50

1500

Regulating winding

100

1500

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Typical FRA Responses

FRA Interpretation

HV winding response of large autotransformers

(6 three-phase-autotransformers, 400/275 kV, delta-connected tertiary winding

Amplitude (dB)

Second maximum typical

for autotransformers

Core
inductiveresponse
-20dB/decade

Capacitiveresponse
+20dB/decade

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26

Typical FRA Responses

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FRA Interpretation

Generator transformer LV winding responses (3 phases of a transformer)

At low frequencies, there is the usual first core-related minimum (with significantly
less attenuation than for HV windings) followed by a maximum at about 8 kHz,
with an intermediate maximum and minimum if the transformer is three-phase
rather than single-phase

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Typical FRA Responses

FRA Interpretation

Double-wound transmission transformer LV responses

In the higher frequency range, the typical response is a series of
multiple resonances with a characteristic M shape

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26

Frequency range for interpretation

...

Uwinding > 100 kV

...

Uwinding < 100 kV

100

1k

10 k

100 k

25

FRA Interpretation

1M

5M

Frequency (Hz)
Check:
Residual flux (LF)
Repeatability problem (HF)

Typical interpretation range

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Interpretation methodology
FRA Interpretation

Fingerprint measurements on the same unit.

Measurements on identical (twin) transformers.
Measurements on separately tested limbs or
phases.

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26

Evaluation using fingerprint (baseline)

measurement

27

FRA Interpretation

Comparison with fingerprint result, end-to-end test

(shunt reactor, 110 Mvar, 735/kV)
0
-10

Amplitude (dB)

-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
-100
10

100

1000

10000

100000 1000000 1E+07

Frequency (Hz)
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Comparison of real twin units

FRA Interpretation

Two single-phase autotransformers

370 MVA, HV 700/kV, LV 300/kV
10
0

Amplitude (dB)

-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
10

100

1000
10000 100000 1000000 1E+07
Frequency (Hz)
H1X1 (T2-A)

H1X1 (T2-B)

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26

Comparison of sister units

29

FRA Interpretation

Same manufacturer, same specificationbut different design

= FRA interpretation not possible
20.0

|UB(f)/UN(f)| [dB]

10.0
0.0

-10.0
-20.0
-30.0

Tr. 1

Tr. 2

Tr. 3

Tr. 4

Tr. 5

Tr. 6

Tr. 7

Tr. 8

Tr. 9

Tr. 10

Tr. 11

-40.0

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Symmetry of transformer windings

FRA Interpretation

FRA comparison of 2 separately tested limbs

End-to-end tests on LV windings (GSU, 266 MVA, 420// 21 / 21 kV)

10

Amplitude (dB)

0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
0

0.5

1.5

Frequency (MHz)
Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26

Examples of FRA interpretation

31

FRA Interpretation

Amplitude (dB)

Identical single-phase generator transformers

(from a bank of single-phase units)

Hoop buckling failure of inner

phase B LV winding

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Examples of FRA interpretation

FRA Interpretation

-20

0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40
-45
-50

-30
Amplitude (dB)

Amplitude (dB)

Measurements on the tap windings and HV windings at tap 1

120/26.4 kV, 47 MVA transformer (wye-delta)

Tap winding

-40

HV winding (tap 1)

-50
-60
-70
-80

500000

1000000

1500000

2000000

phase A

phase B

500000

1000000

1500000

2000000

Frequency (Hz)

Frequency (Hz)

H1H0 tap 1

phase C

H2H0 tap 1

H3H0 tap 1

Localized winding displacement on

the phase A tap winding caused by
a tap changer fault.

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26

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Examples of FRA interpretation

FRA Interpretation

End-to-end and capacitive inter-winding tests

Three-phase 42-MVA transformer, 115/46 kV (delta-wye)
End-to-end tests

Capacitive inter-winding tests

Floating shield strips

between HV and LV of
phase B

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Examples of FRA interpretation

FRA Interpretation

FRA responses before and after repair

three-phase transformer rated 250 MVA, 212 kV / 110 kV / 10.5 kV

Shorted core laminations

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26

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Examples of FRA interpretation

FRA Interpretation

Effect of the oil on the FRA measurement

HV winding, 400-MVA three-phase autotransformer, 230/120 kV
10

Amplitude (dB)

-10
-20
-30
-40
-50

Higher permittivity of the oil increases

the capacitance, which in turn reduces
the resonance frequencies

-60
-70
-80
10

100

1000
10000 100000 1000000 1E+07
Frequency (Hz)
without oil

with oil

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Examples of FRA interpretation

FRA Interpretation

Effect of shorted turns on phase C tertiary winding

140-MVA autotransformer (220/69 kV with tertiary winding)
0
-10
Amplitude (dB)

-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
10

100

1000
10000 100000 1000000 1E+07
Frequency (Hz)
H1X1

H2X2

H3X3

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26

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Examples of FRA interpretation

FRA Interpretation

Effect of core residual magnetisation

0
-10

Amplitude (dB)

-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
10

100

1000
10000 100000 1000000 1E+07
Frequency (Hz)

without residual flux

with residual flux

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Examples of FRA interpretation

FRA Interpretation

0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0

Phase ()

Amplitude

Effect of a bad connection (higher contact resistance) to the

transformer terminal (response cable)

0.5

Reference

1
1.5
Frequency (MHz)

200
150
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200

Bad response contact (+5 ohms)

0
Reference

0.5

1
1.5
Frequency (MHz)

Bad response contact (+5 ohms)

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Perspectives in FRA Interpretation

FRA Interpretation

Tools:

Statistical indicators (error functions, correlation

coefficients, etc.) provide an objective method
for measuring the differences between FRA
measurements
Pole-Zero representation creates a framework
to facilitate assisted interpretation algorithms

Challenges:

To determine the limits for the indicators

sensitive only to abnormal differences
Future research work required
Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26

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For more information: CIGRE Brochure 342

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26

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Thanks to CIGRE WG A2.26 members

P. Picher (CA) Convenor

J. Lapworth (UK) Leader of Task Force 1
T. Noonan (IR) Leader of Task Force 2
J. Christian (DE) Leader of Task Force 3
M. Alpatov (RU), D. Bormann (SE), R. Breytenbach (ZA), P. Dick (CA),
A. Drobyshevski (RU), I. Dumbrava (RO), R. Fisher (CH), H.K.
Hoidalen (NO), P. Jarman (UK), I. Kispal (HU), A. Kraetge (AT), T.
Leibfried (DE), R. Malewski (PL), R. Ocon (MX), E. Perez (SP),
J. Rickmann (US), Y. Shirasaka (JP), S. Tenbohlen (DE), M. Tiberg
(CH), Z. Wang (UK), P. Werelius (SE), R. Zaleski (PL).

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