Biochemistry and the

Organization of Cells
Chapter 1

Levels of Structural Organization in the

Human Body

Why is study of Biochemistry

important?
Biochemistry describes life processes
Multidisciplinary nature allows it use other
sciences to answer questions about molecular
nature of life processes
Some biomolecules act in multiple ways and
some take part in specific series of reactions
More complex cells are found in larger
organisms than simpler organisms

How is Biochemistry related to

Organic Chemistry?
Organic Chemistry is study of compounds of
carbon and hydrogen and their derivatives
Biomolecules are made up of carbon
Many carbon compounds are not found in any
organism
Biomolecules of life can be synthesized in
laboratories (synthesis of urea from
ammonium cyanate by Friedrich Wohler in
1828)

 Functional group: an atom or group of atoms that

shows characteristic physical and chemical properties

What makes biomolecules special?

Biomolecules have important functional groups
Emphases of functional groups differ in Organic
chemistry (alkyl halides and acyl chlorides) and in
Biochemistry (carbonyl groups, hydroxyl groups,
carboxyl groups, amines, amides and esters).
Derivatives of phosphoric acid such as esters and
anhydrides are also important (in Biochemistry)
ATP contains both ester and anhydride linked by
phosphoric acid (in Biochemistry) (figure 1.2)

How and when did the Earth come to be?

Big bang theory explains the origin of earth formed
from matter
Due to explosion (released Hydrogen, Helium and
some Lithium), temperature of Universe raised to (15
billion K)
Decrease in temperature led to formation of stars and
planets
Rest of chemical elements i) by thermonuclear
reactions that take place in stars, ii) in explosions of
stars, iii) by the action of cosmic rays outside the stars

How did elements arise from stars?

Age of earth 4 to 5 billion years ago
Second generation of stars formed from
supernovas led to formation of sun
Atmosphere of earth is always been debated
Existence of Co2 from 3.8 billion years
N2 in atmosphere source for formation of
proteins and nucleic acids

How were biomolecules likely to have

formed on the early earth?
Miller-Urey experiment
Occurred in earths early
ocean
Occurred on early earths
clay particles
Simple compounds can react
(polymerize) abiotically to
produce biologically
important components of
proteins and nucleic acids

Formation of biomolecules on early

earth

HCN present in nucleic acids and HCHO present in sugars

Biomolecules
Living cells include very large molecules, such as
proteins, nucleic acids, polysaccharides, and lipids
these biomolecules are polymers (Greek: poly + meros,
many + parts)
they are derived from monomers (Greek: mono + meros,
single + part)
--amino acids --> proteins
--nucleotides --> nucleic acids
--monosaccharides --> polysaccharides
--glycerol and 3 fatty acids --> lipids

Informational Macromolecules

How is cellular activity determined?

Enzymes: a class of proteins that are biocatalysts
the catalytic effectiveness of a given enzyme depends on its
amino acid sequence

Genetic code: the relationship between the

nucleotide sequence in nucleic acids and the amino
acid sequence in proteins

Which came first the catalysts or the

hereditary molecules?
Cellular activity depends upon presence of
catalysts and its synthesis by genetic code
Discovery of enzyme Ribozyme RNA
RNA has both catalytic and genetic coding
properties
Life originated from RNA
Peptide bond formation is catalyzed by RNA
portions of Ribosome

Stages in the Evolution of Self-replicating RNA

Molecules

Vital importance of a cell membrane in

origin of life

Assignment 1
Write down the structure and
function of all organelles in
eukaryotes.

Differences between prokaryotes and

eukaryotes
Prokaryotes before
nucleus and absence of
membrane bound
organelles
DNA is present in
nuclear region and not
separate from the cell
Plasma membrane is
present surrounding the
cell

Eukaryotes true
nucleus and presence of
membrane bound
organelles
DNA is well defined

Differences between prokaryotes and

eukaryotes
Mitochondria is absent and
enzymes for oxidative
reactions are located on
plasma membrane
Endoplasmic reticulum is
absent
Ribosomes are found freely
floating in cytosol
Chloroplasts are absent.
Photosynthesis takes place
in chromatophores which
are extensions of plasma
membranes

Plasma membrane is present

surrounding the cell
Mitochondria is present
Endoplasmic reticulum is
present
Ribosomes are bound to
Endoplasmic reticulum
Chloroplasts present in
plants and absent in animals

Some more points

Polysaccharide cellulose present in prokaryotic
and eukaryotic cell walls (plant cells only)
Some protists and all animal cells lack cell
walls and chloroplasts
Three important organelles nucleus,
mitochondria and chloroplast separated from
rest of the cell by double membrane
Mitochondria and chloroplasts contain DNAcarry out transcription and protein synthesis

Five Kingdom classification of living

organisms
Prokaryotes
Kingdom: Monera
Bacteria and Cyanobacteria
are members
Unicellular

Eukaryotes
Kingdom: Protists, Fungi,
Plants and Animals
Unicellular protists are
Euglena, Volvox, Amoeba
and Paramecium
Multicellular protists are
algae
Fungi, plants and animals
are multicellular
Fungi like yeasts and molds
are unicellular

Three Kingdom classification of living

organisms
Bacteria and Archaea form prokaryotes
Eukarya forms eukaryotes
Bacteria (true bacteria) and Archaea (early
bacteria) have different biochemical features
molecular structure of cell walls, membranes
and some types of RNA
Archaebacteria live in extreme environments
extremophiles Methanogens, Halophiles and
Thermoacidophiles

Did symbiosis play a role in development

of eukaryotes?
Theory of Endosymbiosis
Proposal that eukaryotic
organelles evolved through
a symbiotic relationship
One cell engulfed a second
cell and a symbiotic
relationship developed
Mitochondria and
chloroplasts are thought to
have evolved this way

Evidence for Endosymbiosis

Mitochondria and chloroplasts:
-have 2 membranes
-possess DNA and ribosomes
-are about the size of a prokaryotic cell
-divide by a process similar to bacteria

What is thermodynamics?
Sun is ultimate source of energy on earth
Energy released or absorbed can be measured
in Biochemistry
Energy is converted from one form to another
Thermodynamics deals with changes in
energy that determine whether a process will
take place
Spontaneous reactions will take place without
outside intervention

How can we predict what reactions

will happen in living cells?
Spontaneity of reaction at a given
temperature and pressure is decided by
changes in free energy (G)
G is negative, G<0, spontaneous
reaction, energy will be released
G is positive, G>0, reaction is not
spontaneous, energy will be required
G=0, reaction is in equilibrium

Is life thermodynamically possible?

Free energy: the energy available to do
work
-denoted by the symbol G (Gibbs free
energy)
enthalpy: energy contained in a molecules
chemical bonds
free energy = enthalpy (entropy x temp.)
G = H - TS

Laws of Thermodynamics
First Law of Thermodynamics energy cannot
be created or destroyed
-energy can only be converted from one form
to another
For example:
sunlight energy
chemical energy
photosynthesis

Is life thermodynamically possible?

In spontaneous reactions entropy of universe is
always increasing
Living organisms (local decreases) can reduce
entropy with an increase in entropy of
surroundings

Laws of Thermodynamics
Second Law of Thermodynamics:
disorder is more likely than order
entropy: disorder in the universe
The 2nd Law of Thermodynamics states that
entropy is always increasing.

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