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21

Structure and Function of Carbohydrates

GCSE

A-level

You will be familiar with different

groups of carbohydrates in our diet,
especially sugar and starch. You will
recognise sucrose as the sugar found
most commonly in our diet, as a
source of energy. You should also
know that starch is found in potato,
bread, rice and cereals.

You will need to know the structural differences

between sugars, starches, cellulose and glycogen.
You will need to be able to classify carbohydrates
according to their size, and link functions of these
carbohydrates to their structure and location.

What will I need to know about

carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates contain the elements carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen. Carbohydrates include sugars, starches,
cellulose and glycogen.

As carbon is the central element in

carbohydrates, they are sometimes
referred to as organic molecules.

Carbohydrates can be subdivided into three groups:

1

monosaccharides

disaccharides

polysaccharides

What are monosaccharides?

These are simple, single sugars, or monomers.

They have a general formula CnH2nOn.

They dissolve easily in water to form sweet solutions.

The most common examples of a six-carbon sugar (hexose) are glucose, fructose and
galactose.

Glucose has the formula C6H12O6.

Glucose is the main respiratory substrate and building block for both disaccharides and
polysaccharides.

The structure of glucose can have two forms:

alpha () glucose

beta ( ) glucose

CH2OH
H

OH

CH2OH
O

H
OH

OH

H
OH

OH

O
H
OH

OH

OH
H

The numbers in the diagrams, left,

refer to the C (carbon) number in the
formula.
The only difference between  and 
glucose is the position of the hydroxyl
(OH) group on C 1. A useful way to
remember this is:
  OH is pointing away from the
oxygen
  OH is beside the oxygen

Both forms of glucose are important in the formation of

polysaccharides.

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Structure and Function of Carbohydrates

CH2OH
C H
HO

CH2OH
H

O
OH C

HO
C

CH2OH

OH

fructose

OH

C
H
OH
C

OH

C
H

galactose

How do monosaccharides join together?

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Other hexose sugars you should be familiar with are fructose (C6H12O6) and galactose (C6H12O6).
These are structural isomers of glucose, as they have the same formula but different
structures.

Two monosaccharides are joined together by a condensation reaction in which water is

released. The bond formed between the two molecules is called a glycosidic bond.
CH2OH
H

HO

CH2OH

CH2OH
O

H
OH

OH

glucose

OH

HO

O
H
OH

OH

H2O

HO

OH

O
H
OH

OH

1 4
glycosidic
H linkage H
1

glucose

CH2OH
O
H
OH

OH

H
OH

maltose

What are disaccharides?

They have a general formula of C12H22O11.

They transport energy or respiratory substrate.

Two monosaccharides are linked together to form a disaccharide through a condensation

reaction (in which water is removed).

They contain a glycosidic bond (see diagram above).

Glycosidic bonds can be broken by hydrolysis reactions, using water and enzymes.

Disaccharide
example

Source

Enzyme required
to break down
disaccharide

Monosaccharides

maltose

malt

maltase

glucose and glucose

sucrose

cane

sucrase

glucose and fructose

lactose

milk

lactase

glucose and
galactose

What are polysaccharides?

Cn(H2O)n1  H2O

(n  number)

They have a general formula

Many single sugars are joined together by condensation reactions to form large
macromolecules.

They can have a range of functions, including energy storage and structural roles in
plant cells.

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Structure and Function of Carbohydrates

Examples of polysaccharides include:

1

Starch found as a storage molecule in plant cells. It is a mixture of two types of polymers
of glucose: amylose and amylopectin.

Different plants have different

percentages of amylose (unbranched,
spirals held by hydrogen bonds, or
H-bonds) and amylopectin (branched,
forms a slightly packed brush like
molecule).

CH2OH
O
OH

O
CH2OH

CH2OH

H
OH

_
O

HO

CH2OH

_1,6 glycosidic linkage

branch point
(shown here in grey)

6 CH2OH

H
OH

OH
OH
_1,4 glycosidic linkage (shown here in grey)

OH

O
4

OH

OH

OH
amylopectin

amylose

Starch is a compact structure, therefore many glucose molecules can be stored in a small
space. Starch is insoluble and does not affect the osmotic potential of the cell.
2

Cellulose found in plant cells and is the main component of the cell wall, made from
glucose. It forms long fibres that provide structural support and extra strength, allowing the
cell wall to expand slightly when the cell takes up water by osmosis.
CH2OH

CH2OH
O

O
CH2OH

O
CH2OH

cellulose

Glycogen a storage carbohydrate in animal cells made up of glucose. It is very similar

to amylopectin but very highly branched.
CH2OH
H
O
glucose
monomer
CH2OH
H
O

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O
H

OH O

H
OH

OH

H
O

branching
occurs here

CH2

CH2OH
O

H
OH

O
H
OH

OH

H
O

CH2OH
O

H
OH

OH

H
O

O
H
OH

OH

H
O

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Structure and Function of Carbohydrates

Tasks and Questions

Task 1

Complete the table below by placing a tick () in the box if the statement is correct for each
type of molecule.
Statement

Glucose

Starch

Cellulose

Glycogen

Has the formula

C6H12O6

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Glycogen can be hydrolysed to release glucose; this can be used in respiration to release energy
in the form of ATP.

Formed by a
condensation
reaction
Building block is
glucose
Joined by
glycosidic bonds
Found as a
component of cell
wall
Highly soluble
Found as storage
molecule in
mammals
Made from
amylose and
amylopectin

Task 2
Use the diagrams below to help you answer the following questions.
A

B
CH2OH

OH

C
CH2OH

O
H
OH

OH

H
OH

OH

CH2OH

CH2OH
O

H
OH

OH

OH
H

HO

O
H
OH

OH

H
OH

OH

OH

H
O

Which molecule/molecules (A, B or C):

1

Has a glycosidic bond?

Is the main respiratory substrate?

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Structure and Function of Carbohydrates

3

Is the monomer used to build cellulose?

Is formed by a condensation reaction?

Is only found in plant cells?

Has the formula C6H12O6?

Questions
1

What is the general formula of glucose?

Name the monomers that make up lactose.

What is the name of the carbohydrate storage molecule in animal cells?

What is released as a waste product during a condensation reaction?

Apart from lactose, what are the other two disaccharides?

How many monomers make up monosaccharides, disaccharides and

polysaccharides?

What reaction is involved in the breakdown of sucrose?

Taking it Further
Make more detailed notes about the structure and functions of different carbohydrates. You may
find it useful to summarise the key differences in structure and relate these to their functions.
Drawing diagrams of these molecules would also be good for revision.
The questions below can help you to structure and organise your notes. Use your course text
book to add further information.
What are carbohydrates?
What is a structural isomer?
Name the three different hexose monomers?
What is the function of the disaccharides?
Explain what causes the difference in structure of amylose and amylopectin?
How does cellulose provide structural support to a plant cell wall?
What is the difference between amylopectin and glycogen?
Which polysaccharide has the monomer glucose?
Where would you find starch in a leaf?
Find out what causes lactose intolerance in some people.

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