36. PARTICLE DYNAMICS Particle dynamics deals with the relative motion between a particle, (solid or Liguid) and a surrounding fluid (Liquid or gas). The particle may be moving in @ stationary fluid or may be suspended in a moving fluid in which case it will appear stationary relative to a solid boundary. The solid ‘may be moving counter-current to, or parallel with the fluid, although not necessarily at the sane velocity. The basic theory which follows relates to the motion of a single particle in an infinitely large volume of fluid, this is free motion or free settling. hen particles interfere with each other the motion is said to be hindered and their settling rates are reduced considerably. With lov concentrations of solids, the behaviour of the particles may not be very different from that of a single particle. ‘The analysis of single particle dynamics lends itself to theoretical, ‘as well as experimental treatment, and thus offers a firm reference point for the study of the more complex multi-particle systens. ‘The theory of settling finds extensive application in a number of industrially important processes, the particle shape is a very important ‘parameter in these processes. If the particles are Liquid drops, circulatory currents are generated in them, and rapid oscillations or changes in drop shape may occur. Additional drag is necessary to supply the energy required to maintain these motions in the drop itself. 3.1_Drag Th section will consider the forces acting on ¢ rigid solid particle in a fluid stream. These forces are conventionally termed drag forces. There are essentially two types of drag forces: skin friction drag (or wall drag), and form drag (or pressure drag). The former is associated with the energy loss which occurs due to skin or wall friction which exists between solid surface and a fluid in relative motion. The latter is associated with the37. pressure loss due to the fluid accelerating and decelerating as it changes its path to flow round a solid body, i.e. due to the shape or form of the body. ‘The total drag force on an elenent of area of the particle is a coubination of skin friction drag and form drag. The relative contribution of each depends fon the shape or form of the immersed body in the direction of flow, and the Reynolds nunber. Drag is a force and has the units of N (or kem 8). When a solid boundary or wall of the inmersed body is parallel to the direction of flow, for example a thin flat plate (figure 3.1a), the only drag force is the skin friction or wall shear, “, (Wm), acting on an area of the surface. When the fluid flows at an angle to the immersed solid, only the component of the wall shear in the direction of flow contributes to wall drag. A Limiting case is the drag on a flat plate at right angles to the direction of flow (figure 3.1). ‘The fluid pressure, which acts in a direction normal to the solid has a component in the direction of flow, and this component contributes to the drag as form drag. Figure 3.2 shows the shear and pressure forces acting on an element of area inclined at an angle of (90° - 0) to the direction of flow. The drag ftom wall shear is: %,sino.dA (remember T, = pdv/dt) and from pressure is: pcos %.dA. ‘The total integrated drag from wall shear, evaluated over the entire surface of the body in contact with the fluid, is the skin friction drag (or wall drag). The corresponding integrated drag due to pressure change is called form drag. As already mentioned, the total drag on the body is the sum of wall drag and form drag. ‘The phenomena causing both skin friction drag and form drag in an actual fluié-particle system are complicated and cannot in general be calculated. one exception however, is the behaviour of small spherical particles at low velocities. Here a mathematical analysis has been derived which agrees with observed results.38, The total drag associated with other bodi is generally obtained by experiment and conventionally correlated with Reynolds numbers in terms of a drag coefficient, C,, which is analogous to the use of a friction factor in pipe flow friction losses. As we shall see later, plots of C, against Re are drawn in an analogous way to that of the friction factor ~ Reynolds number plots. 3.2 Potential flow Potential flow is associated with the flow of @ fluid which hi viscosity and hence does not undergo shear at a solid boundary; since there is not shearing there is no loss of energy due to skin or wall friction. Figure 3.3 illustrates the flow of an ideal or non-viscous fluid past an infinitely: long cylinder, in a direction perpendicular to its axis. The angle @ is the angular distance from A, the forward stagnation point. In such 2 system the flow is only two directional, there being no flow parallel to the axis, as would be the cas for a short cylinder or sphere ete. The velocity and direction of flow vary round the circumference of the cylinder. The fluid approaching the centre of the front face will impinge upon the body and be split into tvo portions, one half of which moves to each side of the body. The most forvard point of a submerged body is called the stagnation point. Fluid particles striking the stagnation point are brought to rest; the pressure at the stagnation point increases approximately one velocity head above the pressure in che approaching free stream. Hence at position A the fluid velocity is zero, it increases to a maximm at positions B and C and reduces to zero at the rear stagnation point D. Since the fluid is ideal (i.e. non-viscous and incompressible) the sum of the kinetic energy (v7/2) and pressure energy (p/a) is constant at all points on the surface. The kinetic energy is a maximim at B and C, and zero at A and D. The pressure therefore decreases from A to B (and A to C), and increases from B to D (and C to D) ~ Bernoulli's theorem. Since the fluid is39. ideal, there is no pressure loss and the pressure at A and D is the same. ‘The pressure distribution around the cylinder is shown as the solid line in figure 3.4, There will therefore be no net force exerted by the fluid on the cylinder. 3__Revision of boundary layer theory When a real fluid flows along a surface, irrespective of whether the flow is laminar or turbulent, the fluid particles in the vicinity of the surface are decelerated due to viscous forces. At the instant an element of moving fluid contacts the solid surface, the velocity of that fluid element immediately decreases to zero, this is consistent with the concept of no slip at a solid boundary. Successive layers of fluid in the vicinity of the solid surface are retarded as a result of shear due to fluid viscosity, In laminar flow this ‘cous shear and takes place between molecules on 3 phenomenon is called vi submicroscopic scale. In turbulent flow, turbulent shear on a macroscopic scale is superimposed on the viscous shear. The effects of the viscous forces originating at the solid surface extend out into the body of the fluid, until at a short distance from the solid surface the velocity of the fluid particles approaches that of the undisturbed free stream velocity, vj, The fluid contained in the region of substantial velocity change is called the hydrodynamic boundary layer. It is usual to define this boundary layer as the distance from the solid surface at which the local velocity reaches 992 of the undisturbed free stream velocity. Boundary layer growth begins at the forvard stagnant point. ‘The boundary Layer, introduced by Prandtl, divides the flow field sround a body into two regions: a relatively thin layer covering the solid surface where the velocity gradient is great (and hence high shear stresses), and a region outside this layer vhere the velocity is “equal” to the free stream velocity and the effects of viscosity are negligible. Using the boundary Layer concept the Navier-Stokes equations of motion40. can be reduced to a form vhich can be solved. The effect of viscosity on the flow can be determined and the frictional drag on a surface can be calculated. It has already been explained that the shape of the velocity profile within the boundary layer depends on the nature of the flow, i.e. the Reynolds nusber. The boundary layer will be laminar unless the Reynolds number exceeds a critical value, after which the boundary layer becomes turbulent. It has also bemexplained that the boundary layer increases in thickness with increase in distance from the leading edge of the solid. If the pressure of the systen is decreasing in the direction of flow, the retardation of the fluid will be less and as a consequence the boundary Layer will be thinner. If the system pressure is incr sing, there will be a greater retardation of the fluid and the thickness of the boundary layer will increase. It is therefore possible that the force acting on the fluid at sone point in the boundary layer may be sufficient to bring the fluid to rest or cause it to flow in the opposite direction, with the consequent production of an eddy current. Figure 3.5 illustrates the situation vhere the boundary layer separates from the solid surface due to a flow reversal. The velocity increases from zero at the surface, to a maximum negative value and then decreases again to zero; it then increases in the positive direction, until it reaches the main stream velocity at the edge of the boundary layer. Along the Line PQ the velocity in the X-direction is zero and the direction of flow in the eddy currents must be in the Y-direction. Even when the contour of the solid surface is curved, the flow in the boundary layer is qualitatively similar to that in the boundary layer on a flat plate. The contour of the solid does however becone very important in the determination of the point at which the boundary layer separates fron the solid surface. This separating of flow is due mainly to the dissipation ofa. kinetic energy by viscosity within the boundary layer. Figure 3.6 is a typical illustration of the separation of the boundary layer on a curved surface. In general, a turbulent boundary will not separate as easily as a laminar boundary because the kinetic energy of the fluid particles is greater in the former case, i.e. there is more energy to be dissipated and hence the boundary layer can exist for a longer time, and hence distance. Figure 3.7 iNlustrates the relative separation points of a laninar and turbulent boundary layer from a curved surface. 4_Flow of a res £1 4 Except at Reynolds numbers less than unity, a real fluid will not adhere to the surface of a solid and hence certain drag forces caused by ‘skin friction (or wall shear) and pressure differentials are exerted upon the body. An equal and opposite net force is exerted by the body on the fluid (ieuton's third lav of motion). Figure 3.8 illustrates the streanlines for a real fluid flowing, with a particular Reynolds number, round an infinitely long cylinder. At point A the fluid is decelerated, resulting in an increase in pressure ~ Bernoulli's theorem. In passing from point A to point B, the fluid accelerates (result~ ing in a decreased pressure at 8) and simultaneously dissipates energy to overcone skin friction due to fluid shearing at the surface. In flowing from B to D, the fluid again decelerates and should by Bernoulli's theorem be accompanied by an increase in preseure to restore it to the upstream pressure. However, thi energy is not available, since it has been dissipated at the surface due to shearing of the Eluid (a consequence of the fluid’s viscosity). The fluid mst therefore follow flow pattern requiring less deceleration; the result of this is a widening of the streanlines downstream from the surface at point D. Since a complete void cannot exist (unless velocities are sufficiently high to cause cavitation), a portion of the fluid is drawn into the wake region42. by reverse flow to form a circulating pocket of fluid, know as the vortex. In the situation represented by figure 3.8 the boundary layer in the regions A to B and A to C is thin (due to decreasing pressure) and the flow is similar to that obtained vith a non-viscous fluid. However, from B to D and from € to D the pressure is increasing and the boundary layer thickens rapidly with the result that it tends to separate from the sides of the solid surface when the pressure rise along the surface becomes too large. The separation of the boundary layer and the resultant wake at the rear of the cylinder give rise to the pressure distributions show for different Reynolds number in figure 3.4. It will be observed that there is a reasonable agreement between the ideal and real pressure distribution in the viscinity of the front stagnation point. In the rear of the cylinder there is however considerable difference between the ideal and actual pressure distributions. When separation of the boundary layer occurs, eddies are formed which pass off into the wake of the cylinder. Since the kinetic energy associated with these eddies is dissipated and hence not recoverable, boundary layer separation is accompanied by relatively large pressure losses. Thus the pressure distributions downstream from the point of boundary layer separation are very different to those obtained with potential flow. The separation of the boundary 1a; x prevents the closing of the stream Lines at the rear of the body. This includes a low pressure region at the rear of the body. When there a pressure difference between the front and the rear of the body, an additional drag, called form drag or pressure drag, is created which exerts an additional force on the body. It is expected that the shape of the body presented to the flowing fluid and the Reynolds number, have a considerable influence on the magnitude of form drag. A low Reynolds nunber and a body which has a gradually narrow ing section in the rear of the greatest cross sectional area of the body will ensure a slowly increasing fluid pressure at the surface and this will prevent, or at least considerably reduce, separation of the boundary layer; such a body43. is called streamlined (see figure 3.9a). High Reynolds nunbers and a rapidly changing section at the rear of the body facilitates boundary layer separation (see figure 3.95). Non streamlined bodies are called bluff bodies. For streamlined bodies there is little, if any, separation of the boundary layer, and hence Little, if any, form drag, the loss in energy is due only, oF mainly, to skin friction drag. For bluff bodies, the skin friction drag is small compared with form drag, the relative contributions depending on body shape and particle Reynolds number. 3.5 Flow separation and wake formation for inc g Reynolds number ‘The point of separation depends on the shape of the inmersed body and the Reynolds number, For reasons of simplicity the remainder of this discussion will be confined to two directional flow round bodies with a circular cross section. Although this means long cylinders only, it will also give a qualitative picture of the flow past a sphere. The character of the flow pattern and the boundary layer depend on the particle Reynolds number: Res av pee Gwe where d, * diameter of cylinder, m v= relative velocity between the fluid and the body, ms Pr > fivid density, ken? pe * flvid viscosity, New? ‘The flow pattern around the cylinder undergoes a series of changes as the Reynolds number is increased, as shown in figure 3.10. 2) For a Reynolds number of unity or less, the flow adheres to the solid surface and the streamlines follow those predicted from potential-flow theory. The pressure forces are extremely small and the drag is caused only by viscous44. forces, since there is no flow separation, i-e. skin friction drag only. b) At Reynolds numbers of about 10, the pres: wre forces become appreciable and two weak eddies stand in the rear of the cylinder. the teta drag now accounts for about one-half form drag and about one! walf skin friction drag. ©) For a Reynolds number of about 100, vortices separate alternatively from both sides of the cylinder and stretch a considerable distance downstream. These vortices are referred to as "von Karman vortex-streets". Form drag now predominates. 4) In the Reynolds nunber range 10? - 10°, the skin friction drag becomes negligible compared to the form drag caused by turbulent eddies in the wake. ‘The drag coefficient remains essentially constant because the boundary layer remains laminar from the leading edge to the point of separation. €) For Reynolds numbers in excess of about 10°, the kinetic energy of the fluid in the laminar boundary layer over the forvard part of the cylinder is sufficient to overcome the unfavourable pressure gradient without separating. The flow in the boundary layer becomes turbulent while it is still attached, and the separation point moves toward the rear of the cylinder. The closing of the streamlines reduces the size of the vake, the pressure drag is therefore also substantially reduced. For the Reynolds nunber range 10? - 10° separation occurs at @ point just forard of the polar plane, @ = 85°, see figure 3.1la. Once the boundary Layer has become turbulent, the separation point moves toward the rear of the cylinder, and separation will not occur before @ equals sbout 130°, see figure 3.11b. The Reynolds number at which the attached boundary layer becones turbulent is called the critical Reynolds nuaber for drag. ‘The magnitude of the form drag decreases as the separation point moves farther to the rear of the body. ‘A complete plot of skin, form and total drag as a function of Reynolds number is shown in figure 3.12 for cylinders. Thom showed that, over the range of Reynolds numbers 30 - 10°, the skin friction drag coefficient is45. : 0.5) aean closely approximated by 4 Re ">, The boundary layer is laminar up to the point of separation of streanlines behind the cylinder. At higher Reynolds nunbers where the laminar layer undergoes transition to a turbulent layer, separation is delayed, the wake becomes smaller, and the form drag is sharply reduced. The drag caused by skin friction is simultaneously increased, but ite magnitude is too small to have an affect on the total drag. ‘As the Reynolds munber increases, the vortex or wake length, W,, (see figure 3.8) also increases. Below a Reynolds number of about 100, it has been shown (reference 4 page 226) that for spheres of diameter é,, the wake length may be approximated: Wp = 0.1 Re g 3.2) It is possible to artifically induce turbulence in the boundary layer before separation occurs. Prandtl (reference 2 page 483) roughened the forward face of a sphere by attacking a trip loop to it, with the result that the drag was considerably reduced. Other investigations in drag red- uction have been carried out in which small particles of say sand were stuck to the front face of the main particle. 6 Drag coefficient In treating the flow of a fluid through a pipe, the Fanning (or equivalent) friction factor, %/0.5pv", was introduced, An analogous factor, called the drag coefficient, is used in the analysis of flow over an immersed body. The total drag coefficient, C,, is defined as the ratio of the drag force (N or kgn s”*) per unit projected area (n’) Fy/A, to the product of the fluid density (kgm?) and kinetic energy (n’s*), pel : Tate - 2/ee G3" vp aye a46. ‘The projected area, A, is the maximm area obtained by projecting the body on a plane at right angles to the direction of flow. For a sphere, diameter the projected area is a circle: A= ways G5) Yor non-spherical bodies it is necessary to specify the size ané geometric form of the body and its orientation with respect to the direction of flow of the fluid. For a cylinder, dianeter d and length L, with its axis at right angles to the direction of flow, the projected area is a rectangle, area d.L. The total drag coefficient of a smooth solid in an incompressible fluid depends upon the Reynolds number and the sphericity of the particle, §. For a given shape, the total drag coefficient is: = gre 3.6) A different C, - Re relationship exists for each shape and orientation. In general, the relationship must be determined by experiment, the results be: plotted as"drag diagrams", In compressible fluids where the Mach number is greater than about 0.6, the drag coefficient increases with increase in Mach number. Drag diagrams Figures 3.13 - 3.17 show typical C, ~ Re curves plotted on a log-log basis. From the complex nature of drag, it is to be expected that the relation ship of Cy to Re would be more complex than is the case of the friction factor to Re in pipe flow. Over the whole Reybolds number range both wall and form rag operate to sone extent, it is this interplay which creates the variations in slope of the curves in the drag diagran. Figure 3.13 is the drag diagram corresponding to the flow regimes for the infinite cylinder in figure 3.10, the drag diagram for a sphere has been included for comparison. It will be observed that for Reynolds numbers inar excess of about 50, the drag coefficient for « sphere is lower than the drag coefficient for an infinitely long cylinder. Figure 3.14 is similar to figure 3.13, but includes @ much wider range of Reynolds numbers, it also incorporates the drag diagram for discs. Figure 3.15 is a series of drag diagrams for different sphericities, it emphasises the point that particle shape has a considerable influence on the drag coefficient. Figure 3.16 illustrates that the continuous drag diagram for a sphere may be approximated by a number of straight Lines vhich correspond to the nathenatical correlations discussed in subsection 3.8. Figure 3.17 is a smoothed drag diagram for a sphere, showing the four Reynolds number ranges: the Stokes or laminar range, Re < 0.25 G (Gi) the Allen or transitional range, Re = 0.2 ~ 5003 (iii) the Newton or turbulent range, Re = 500 Gv) _the fully turbulent boundary layer range, Re> 2 x 10°. It will. be observed that in the Stokes range the relationship between C, and Re is linear. Im the Nevton range C, is a constant, independent of Re; this 8 also the case in the fully turbulent range. 3.8 Analytical relationships for drag coefficient Tt has already been mentioned that the continuous drag diagram for sphere may conveniently be represented by four separate Reynolds number range Each one of these ranges will now be examined in detail and analytical relation~ ships developed from then. Stokes range Theoretically the Stokes or laminar range extends to a Reynolds number of about 0.2, in practice hovever it may be assumed, vith small error, to extend to a Reynolds number of about 2 (sone authors claim a Reynolds nusber fof about 5). It will therefore be assumed in this discussion that the Stokes range extends to a Reynolds number of 2.0.48. For lov Reynolds nuabers the total drag force on a sphere, moving at a low velocity in an infinite medium, conforas to a theoretical equation, called Stokes’ Law: aval The total drag force in thie range is two-thirds wall drag and one-third ane form drag. Substituting equation (3.4) into equation (3.7), the drag coefficient predicted by Stokes’ law is: 2 B= OA pwl2 = army ay or = Sry dy /Ap v and ven A = 3rd,7/6 Gy 2hpla, vp = 26 Re G8)" Equation (3.8) is the equation of the straight line portion of the logarithmic drag diagran (log C, = 24 - log Re) for a sphere in the Stokes’ law region ~ see figure 3.17. For the low velocities at vhich Stokes' lav is valid, the sphere moves through the fluid by deforming it - so called creeping flow. The motion of the sphere affects the fluid at considerable distances from the body. Indeed if there is a solid wall within 20 to Jo diameters from the sphere, Stokes’ Law must be correct for the wall effect, this will be discussed in more detail in subsection 3. Stokes’ lav is applicable for very small particles, such as dusts or fogs moving through gases or Liquids of low viscosity, or for the motion of larger particles through very viscous liquids. Allen range Im the Reynolds range 2 - 500 the boundary layer separates just forvard of the polar plane as shown in figure 3.11a, and a wake covering the entire rear hemisphere is formed. This wake increases the form drag contribution to49. the total drag. The total drag is one-half wall drag and one-half form drag. No regular relationship existe between the drag coefficient and the Reynolds number for the Allen or transitional range. The slope of the logarithaic drag diagram changes gradually from -1 to zero, if hovever the curve in this range is approximated by a straight Line (figure 3.17) it may be correlated by the relationship: G, = 18.5 nee G9) Substituting equation (3.4) into equation (3.9), the drag force is: 2, HT DApyR G4) atta + Gymay’ pv x2) 18.3 Sy dg? pv (3.10) Schiller and Naumann (reference 2 page 485) proposed an empirical equation which is reliable for the Reynolds range 2 to 500: Gy = 2H Re? a + 0,15 Re0687) ey ‘The corresponding drag force on a sphere in this Reynolds range i 0-687) (3.12) = Srey + 0.15 Re! pt Srey a, ._Newton range It will be observed that in the drag diagram for a sphere (figure 3.17) the drag coefficient remains approximately constant at 0.44 for the Reynolds range 500 to 2x 10°, From equation (3.4) the drag force is then: Ce Apen aa) 2 25 2, 0.46 ra? v8 13) In the Newton range, wall drag is negligible.50. ‘The fully turbulent range When the Reynolds number exceeds about 2 x 10°, the flow in the boundary layer changes from streasline to fully turbulent and separation occurs nearer the rear of the sphere (figure 3.11b), the wake shrinks and the drag force is reduced considerably. In this Reynolds region, val drag is negligible and the drag coefficient is constant at 0.10. ‘The Reynolds number at which the attached boundary layer becomes turbulent called the critical Reynolds number for drag. The drag diagrams for spheres and other shapes apply only when the fluid approaching the body is non~ turbulent, or when the sphere is moving through a stationary static fluid. ‘Turbulence in the free stream fluid decreases the drag on the inmersed body (reference 4 pages 222-226). ‘The general analytical relationship for the drag coefficient for the four regions of flow il Gym b Re 3.8a)* where the values of b and n are: ange, 2 2 stokes 2 1.0 Alten 18.5 0.6 Newton 0.46 ° Fully turbulent 0.10 ° Non-spherical particles A spherical particle is unique in that it presents the sane projected surface area (qrd"/4) to the fluid, irrespective of its orientation. Generally, the orientation of a non-spherical particle is constantly changing as it falls through the fluid, This change consumes energy, increasing the effective drag on the particle and the drag coefficient is greater than for the motion of a fluid past a stationary particle. As a consequence the terminal velocity, v,, especially for discs and other platelike particles,sh. is 1 than would be predicted from drag diagrans for a fixed orientation. Reference 4 pages 209-216 discusses the drag diagrams and analytical relationships for the drag coefficients in terms of Reynolds nunbers for discs, cylinders and isometric particles (cubes, tetrahedrons, and cctahedrons) In the Stokes region the flow is entirely laminar and the practical data suggests that C, may be correlated: a oy = K Re’ (3.80) where K varies slightly depending on the shape and orientation of the particle, but always has a value of about 24. In this flow region a particle falling freely in the fluid under the action of gravity, will usually move with its longest surface parallel to the direction of motion. ‘At higher values of Reynolds number, the slope of the drag diagram grad— ually changes until ¢, becomes independent of the Reynolds nunber. The Allen range represents transitional conditions, a freely falling particle will tend to change its orientation as the value of the Reynolds number changes and sone instability may occur. Im the Newton range the particle will tend to fall with its maximum possible projected surface presented to the fluid. Typical values of C, for non-spherical particles in the Newton region are: (@) thin rectangular plates, arranged with ¢ their planes perpendicular to the direction of motion, length/breadth = 1 - 5 12 = 20 15 = 00 1g Gi) cylinders with axes parallel to the direction of motion, length/diameter = 1 0.952. (iii) cylinders with axes at right angles to the direction of motion length/diameter = 1 0.6 =5 0.7 = 20 0.9 = 0 1.2 Tt will be observed that all the above values of C, are higher than the corresponding value of 0.44 for a sphere. As indicated in figures 3.13 to 3.15 the critical Reynolds number for drag is a function of particle shape. For a cylinder of infinite length with the axis perpendicular to the flow, the critical Reynolds number and drag coefficient are 5 x 10° and 0.33 respectively. The corresponding values for a circular dise with the flat side perpendicular to the flow are 10° and 1.12 respectively. 9 Terminal velocity of a particle A particle falling from rest, under the action of gravity, in an infinite gue volume of stationary fluid vill first accelerate, then/to the resisting force, its acceleration will be retarded. Since the resisting force increase with velocity, it willasympotically reach a value equal to that of the gravitational force. From this point on, the two forces will be balanced and the particle will continue to fall with constant velocity, the terminal velocity. In practice the acceleration period is extrenely short for small particles, usually less than one second. It is therefore usual to ignore this period in all practical problens concerned with settling processes involving small particles. The magnitude of the terminal velocity is closely related to the physical properties of the fluid and the particle, the relationship can be obtained from a balance of the forces acting on the particle. ‘The forces acting on a particle moving in one direction only, under the influence of gravity are shown below.owe Poa, 3g, Pr sig around Dreanre! @ nage measured from rageatan poi a seo wnocity zm TT NTIITTOTvr (Seamed shape separation. secre CEE (W Ronscaminsdshope—eparation of the Bounds y= Figwe 39, Flow round submerged hoi. ia, ip Sketches ilstating Bow pattern for erow over sPirelar cinder at waous Heya numbersvin 2 SESS SES SuEEE Sas eas anesmeceaoe eon coe ook... ree Tome — Tones ano Flo. $15 Diag ceficent ys. Reyolds number fr long circular eyinders ng coc spheres erro 0 ‘3 Gre Giger Y © ef o ca o ina Cote ne Figura Sb Drag cred fr pevar i — ry f fd | | 1 ‘so | orae cogrricient AND CYLINDERS | . Sor Flawe But Figwe 318. Dragcorfcient as function of Rey umbero2 300 2x10 — FIGURE 3.17 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN Cp AND Re FOR A SPHERE FIGURE 3.18Table 3.1 Re ¢ Re’ Re? > © Re = =r = 1x10 2400) 1x10 2.4 x10 2.4 x 10 2x10? 1200 axio% | 48 x10 | 6.0 x 10° 5 x10? 480 25x10? | 1.2 x10° | 96 x10 1x10? 240 roxio? | 24 x 10% | 24 x 10% 2x10 126 a.ox10? | 5.04x10° | 6.3 x 107 5x10? 52.6 | 2.5x107 | i.a1x10' | 1.05 x 107 1x10? 27.6 | 1.0x10° | 2.76x10' | 2.76 x 10 x 10° 14.9 | 4.0 x10° | 5.96 x 10% 7205 10° 5x10? 6.98 | 2.5 x 10° 1.76 x 107 1.39 x 10° 1x10! 416 | 10x10 | 4.16 x10? | 4.16 x 10 2x10! 2.60 | 4.0 x 107 1.04 x 10% | 1.3 x 107 5 x10! 1sé | 25x10? | 3.85 x10? | 3.08 x 10 1x10? La 1.0 x 108 1a x 108 Lad x 107 2x10 0.81 | 4.0 x 108 3.24 x 108 | 4.05 x 10 5x10” 0.56 | 2.5 x 10° re x10 | 1.12 x 107 1x10? o.4s | 1.0 x 10° 44 x10 | 4.4 x 107 2x10? ose | 40x10 | 1.76 x 10% | 2.2 x 10 5x 10° ous | 2.5 x 107 aa x10? | 8.8 x 10 1x08 ose | to x10® | 4.4 x 107 4.4 x 10) 2x 108 ous | 40x 10% | 1.76 x 10% | 2.2 x 107 5 x 10° oss | 2.5x108 | 1.2 x10% | 8.8 x 10% 1x10? 0.46 | 1.0 x10! | 4.4 x 10° 4.4 x 10% 2x10 10 | 4.01099 | 4.0 x 10° 5.0 x 10) 5 x 10° ono | 25x10 | 25 x iol | 2,0 x 107 1x 108 oto | 10x10! | 1.0 x10! | 2.0 x 107 A pope “oe sar