The Hallwachs-Effect

1887 Heinrich Hertz

(1857-1894)

The photoelectric effect, gate to quantum physics

1888 Wilhelm Hallwachs

(1859-1922)
1899 Philipp Lenard
(1862-1947) Nobel prize 1905

1900 Max Planck

(1858-1947) Nobel prize 1918
1905 Albert Einstein
(1879-1955) Nobel prize 1921
1906 Robert A. Millikan
(1868-1953) Nobel prize 1923

Original page 983

Annalen 31 (1887)

1901

1905

Fig. 2: Gold-leaf
elektroscope (19th c.)

Original pages 301/2 (cuttings )

Annalen 33 (1888)

Original page 359

Annalen 2 (1900)
(Lenard 1899)
Original page 237, Verhandlungen der
Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft 2 (1900)

Original page 132

Annalen 17 (1905)
Fig. 1: Hertzs experimental arrangement
for free electromagnetic waves in space

Observations (theme relatet selection):

Light (of spark A, Fig. 1) is able to promote the formation

of electrical sparks (spark B, Fig. 1). Accidentally observed
while generating and studying oft the electromagnetic
waves predicted by Maxwell.
Glas doesnt pass the effect.
The effect decreases with growing distance between A and
B.
The material oft he electrodes has no remarkable
influence on the effect, but the poles must be clean and
unruffled.
The effect of spark A spreads in all directions straightlined, exactly following the geometric-optical laws of the
motion of light, including reflection.
The effect increases in rarefied air in a tire manual pumpbell with a window from Bergkrystall .
Ultraviolet's light has the ability to increase the flash-over
distance of a spark discharge.
Supposition is made, that the cathode of the spark plug
gaps is the actual formation-place of the photoelectric
effect. A proof is missing because of to coarse appliances.

Model-ideas:

Hertz understands light as electromagnetic wave.

In Hertzs lifetime the light-ether, a not perceptible
material, that should fill the entire universe, even if
somewhere would be matter (material body) was thought
of as bearer of this wave.
In Berlin Hertz, as assistant of Hermann von Helmholtz
(1821-1894) worked with acoustic resonators. When
lateron investigating electomagnetic waves Hertz used the
idea of electromagnetic resonators as indicators of free
waves in the space.

Uses results of:

Fig. 3: Schematic drawing for the basic experiment:

unloading of a negativ charged plate by UV-light

Original page 149 Annalen 8 (1902),

continuation of Lenard 1899

Fig. 4: Lenard#s
multi-electrode-tube

Model-ideas:

Phenomenological base approach, enforced methodically very

well, hardly demonstrably from
Model-ideas escorted. No model of the light recognizably.
Diffuse concept-formation: "electrische Ladung, Electricitt "
goes away from electrically negative loaded bodies and "
dass eine Scheidung (divorce) der Electricitten eintrete (would
happen).". But also: ... negative electric particles go away from
the metal-plates. The term electron" was not yet known in
1888. This term was shaped in 1891 by George J. Stoney. (Mason
1997).

According to the ideas of the wave-model of light

the photoelectric effect should be to observe with each frequency,
should be observed in a time-lag with lower light intensity,
should the energy of the caused charge carriers depend on the intensity
of the light and not on its frequency.
No one of these necessary consequences of the wave-theory could be
observed with the photoelectric effect:
Fig. 5: Schematic diagram for quantitative analysis of
the photoelectric effect with evacuated photocell and
counter-field method

Observations (selection of observations not yet mentioned):

L. on the basis of Elsters and Geitels as well as Wieds and Righis
groundwork, carried out experiments with his own, evacuated
glass tube with several electrodes. Diverse, exactly planned and
documented experiments show:
the bearers of the caused electricity are no atoms of the metal.
Photoelectric effect is strictly unipolar.
Photoelectric effect starts momentarily" with the illumination.
The observed amount of eletricity is gifted with inertia,
determined in a vertically directional magn. Field.
The escaped amount of eletricity is largely independent from
the negative potential, beginning with
-45000 volts at the irradiated electrode in the El. Field between
it and a counter-electrode appropriate in the vacuum. It only
decreases from approximately -100 volts and only vanishes with
+2,1 volts. In the constant area it only depends on the light
intensity.

Model-ideas:

Theory-formation:

Hertz expressly gives up the development of an individual

theory, communicates only test results, that appeared as byproducts with the experimental verification of Maxwell's
theory of electric and magnetic fields on the basis of
Helmholtz's theory corresponding to Maxwell.

Picture credits:
Portraits: IGN (Hertz), Wikipedia, de and en (Einstein) (GNU-license for
free documentation).
Fig. 1 und 2: www.sparkmuseum.com (1.5.2012).
Fig. 3, 5: Hallwachs 1916. Fig. 4: Lenard 1899.
Fig. 6: Metzler Physik, 3. Ed., 1998.
Fig. 7: Wikipedia (GNU-license for free documentation).

Theory-formation:

Hypotheses:
" that Electricity goes away from negatively loaded bodies
with the exposure to ultraviolet rays of light and that it
follows the acting electrostatic forces in the field.
" that at the surface some kind of a divorce of the
Electricities may happen".

Bibliography and literature (selection, specifics in the associated text):

Annalen der Physik. WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.
Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft. Leipzig.
Physikalische Zeitschrift. Leipzig.
Physical Review Letters. American Physical Society (Hrsg.).
Herrmann, Klaus H.: Der Photoeffekt. Braunschweig, 1994.
Mason, Stephen F.: Geschichte der Naturwissenschaft. Bassum 1997.
Grehn, J.; Krause, J.: Metzler Physik. Oberst. Gymn., 3. Ed. Hannover 1998.

Version: posterv3en Print: 23.07.2012

This Poster is associated a declaring text

Original page 217

Phys. Zeits. 17 (1906)

Current problem-situation 1905:

Observations (selection):
H. simplifies Hertzs test setup, takes up his results. Uses naked,
electrically loaded metal-plates, bow-lamp and magnesiumlight, makes quantitative measurements using an Elektroskop
with line-division.
Negatively loaded plate is unloaded by light (basic
experiment), positively loaded plate remains unchanged in
the light. The discharge begins, " as soon as the rays of light
strike upon the plate,."
Proof, that the photoelectric effect is created by ultraviolet
light and not by red light or thermal radiation.
Proof, that the effect is created at the plates surface.
Plates from different metals show differently strong effect.
Discharge of a plate correspondents with a (weaker) charge
of a close, opposite, isolated plate.
An unloaded plate is loaded positively by ultra violet light
up to 2,1 Volts.

Wilhelm Wien (1864-1928): Law of black radiation

Philipp Lenard, Annalen 8, 1902, 165-198.
Max Planck, Annalen 4, 1901, 553-563.
Lateron:
Robert A. Millikan, Physikalische Zeitschrift 17, 1906, 217-220.

Lenard uses the concept "quantum" 1899 for the first time, but
related exclusively on outgoing electricity. With him that means
on an idea of bodies attached with mass, negatively electrically
loaded. The name " electron " was not yet known, see remark
at Hallwachs about Drude.
Compare with the known cathode rays.
Particularly in the second Lenard article (1902) definit
corpuscular ideas of the escaped charge carriers.

Theory-formation (theme-relevant selection):

Definition: / is the relationship between carge of quantum and
inertia of quantum (nowadays e/me is used).
The initial speed is independent of the intensity oft he light (s.a.
observations).
Theoretical proof an "inner structure" of the electricity, i.e.
according to Helmholtz (Faraday-speech 1881) " one finds the
electricity divided in elementary-quanta of always the same size
bound up at material bearers".
Cathode rays: electricity free from matter!
Different light-types yield different initial-speeds.

The photoelectric effect or Hallwachs Effect

cannot be explained with the wave-model.

Model-ideas:

Einstein analyses the incompatibility of Newtons model-ideas of

movements "ponderabler" (ponderable), therefore attached with mass,
physical light-bodies and the optical processes in terms of the
"Undulationstheorie" of Huygens and Fresnel understood as a waveprocesses in the void. A "more fundamentally formal difference" is that
the condition of a body is made certain by a final number of single data,
for example for mass, volumes, impulse and energy, while one for the
wave-like description of the electromagnetic, therefore also the optical
condition of space requires continuous spatial functions. Optical
observations therefore refer to temporal median values, not however on
momentary values, with which otherwise movements are described.
Einstein, 1905, for the moment still used the descriptive model of the
light-ether as bearer of the electromagnetic light waves. Only from 1910
on, he considered this idea superfluous.
For the better understanding of some optical observations, as he said,
Einstein suggests the assumption of an abstract idea, namely that the
energy of the light is distributed discontinuously in space in form of lightquanta.

Theory-formation:
In his "annus mirabilis" 1905 Einstein published four basic articles in the
Annalen der Physik, the first explaining the photo-effect.
Einstein based his theory on the results and considerations of Wien and
Lenard and takes up Plancks theory of the black radiation, which
according to Planck is emitted and absorbed in discreet energy quanta h.
For the better understanding of some optical observations, Einstein
suggests the assumption of an abstract idea namely that the energy of
light is distributed discontinuous in space in form of light quanta. The
photo-effect can be explained well with this hypothesis. Einstein got:
= /, in modern form: eU = hf - Wa, the equation of the
photoelectric straight line. The validity of this equation was experimentally
confirmed by Millikan.

Fig. 6: Oil drop experiment for messuring the

elementary charge according to Millikan.
Graphical presentation of a data series.

Uses results of:

Einstein, to check about them. Millikan confirms the
correctness of the Einstein equation. But: " Nonetheless, the
physical theory, on which the equation is based, appears to
me fully untenable "., Physikalische Zeitschrift 17 (1916),217.

Observations (selection):
Result of the experiment with oil drops: The electric charge of
mechanical (through stripping) loaded oil drops only exists in
whole-number multiples of a smallest charge, the elementary
charge e.

Model-ideas:
Only the pure corpuscular idea of electrons and ions is clearly
recognizable, since M. only deals with electric and physical
properties of bodies with visible sizes. The corpuscular idea of
quanta of electromagnetic radiation refuses Millikan as untenable
without justifying this attitude.

Theory-formation:
The size of the elementary charge is a universal constant:
e = 1,60218 S 10 -19 C.

Developments: Quantum mechanics, matrix-mechanics, wave-mechanics, fuzziness-principle, problems of the causality.

Applications, theory: Atom-models, subatomic particles, Compton effect, -radiation.
Applications, appliances: Photocell, photomultiplier.
Applications, procedures: astronomic photometry, spectroscopy, optoelectronic and - in connection with scintillationcrystals - nuclear applications (-ray detectors.

Fig. 7: Radiation of a Black body, comparison of results of

Rayleigh-Jeans, Wien and Planck.

Uses results of:

Gustav Kirchhoff (1824-1887): research program radiation-law
to the thermal radiation, model-concept "Black Emitters",
Ludwig Boltzmann (1844-1906): statistics
Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894): resonator model,
Wilhelm Wien (1864-1928): radiation law as well as Rayleigh,
Third Baron, John William Strutt (1842-1919) and James Jeans
(1877-1946): alternative radiation law.

Model-ideas:
Plancks idea of electromagnetic radiation was exclusively wavetheoretically oriented. The basis of the calculation of the power
distribution of the radiation was the model of the "Black Body"
introduced by Kirchhoff, or "Black Emitter", who absorbs the
striking radiation of each wavelength completely, and whose
spectrum of radiation as thermal emitter, specifically its
maximum, only depends on the temperature. The Black Emitter
works as a Hertzs resonator, therefore as an oscillator which
emits and absorbs radiation with solid frequency. It is realized
best by a cavity with intransparent inside-walls and small
opening. Planck combined this model with the idea that the
inside-walls of the Black Emitter are covered with very many
homogeneous, but with different frequencies of monochrome
vibrant resonators. So emission and absorption are possible with
any frequencies.

Theory-formation:
The big number of deceased vibrant resonators forces a
statistical calculation of the total energy E of the radiation.
Plancks revolutionizing assumption was that E is "composed by
a quite certain number of finite equal parts", therefore by
elements of energy proportional to the frequency number
with the constants h: = h. The distribution of energy
calculated with this assumption can be described by the same
law as the spectral formula, which Planck half intuitively
developed previously by trying and which he called improvement
of Wiens formula.