Running head:Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

ResearchProposal
EffectsoftheNewAgilityTestonSelfEfficacyinPreAdolescentYouthHockey
Players
Submittedby:
TylerRomas0474964
StephanieVojvodic0381048
KevinVanHaaren0488223
SelfEfficacyandSport
Kine4320YH
Instructor:Dr.ErinPearson
December2,2013

Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

Introduction
Mostyouthhockeyplayersatthecompetitivelevelhavetremendousamountsof
pressureonthemtoperform,bothbyparentsandcoaches.Everyparentandchildhasthat
dreamthattheyaregoingtobethenextsuccessfulstoryintheworldofprosports.The
abilitytoexecutetasks,ingameandintraining,goesalongwayindeterminingwhether
ornotachildwillbesuccessful.Selfefficacyisonesbeliefintheirabilitytoperforma
particularactivity.TheaffectSelfefficacyhasononessuccessandperformanceinsport
isaninterestingquestiontopose.PsychologistssuchasAlbertbandurahavelongstudied
selfefficacyanditslinktotaskcompletion.Banduraconcludedthattherearefourmain
sourcesofselfefficacy.Forthepurposeofourthesis,wearegoingtocomparetwoof
bandurassources;masterylearningandvicariouslearning.Masterylearningisbasedon
thebeliefthatonespreviousexperiencesdeterminetheirabilitytocompleteatask.
Successbuildsarobustbeliefinone'spersonalefficacy.Failuresundermineit,
especiallyiffailuresoccurbeforeasenseofefficacyisfirmlyestablished(Bandura).
Vicariouslearningisbasedonthebeliefthatsocialmodelsinfluenceanindividualsrate
ofsuccess.Seeingpeoplesimilartooneselfsucceedbysustainedeffortraisesobservers'
beliefsthattheytoopossessthecapabilitiestomastercomparableactivitiesrequiredto
succeed(Bandura).Theoppositecanalsosaidtobetrueforvicariouslearning,so
observinganotherpersonfailcanloweranindividualsselfefficacyandbeliefthatthey
cancompletesaidtask.

Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

Ourresearchcenteredontheeffectivenessofthetwomentionedsourcesofself
efficacyproposedbybandura.Throughyouthhockeygroups,weattemptedtoidentify
whichlearningstrategyhasthelargestimpactonyouthhockeyplayersperformingthe
NewAgilityTest,whichisastandardhockeyfitnesstest.Ourrationaleissimple.
Teachers,coachesandplayersalikearealwayslookingtogetthebiggestedgewhenit
comestosportperformanceandeffectiveness.Byexaminingthemasteryandvicarious
learningstyles,wecangatherinformationthatprovidesinsightastowhichsourceisthe
mosteffectivewhenchallengingyoungathleteswithnewskillsandtasks.Keepingin
mindthateveryindividualslearningprocessisunique,weacknowledgethatdepending
onthechildsquestionnairescoreandpersonalitytype,everyonewillrespondtothe
challengesinaslightlydifferentmanner.Thisisstillusefulhowever,asfindingatrend
betweenconfidence/selfefficacylevelsandlearningwillprovidebeneficialknowledgeto
coachesandteachersdealingwithchildrenofdifferentselfefficacylevelsinthefuture.
LearningstylesandselfefficacywillbetestedusingtheNewAgiltiyTestexercise.We
chosethisagilitytestasitisafairlystraightforwardactivity,onethatrequireslittle
explanation.Theagilitytestisalsorelevanttoourparticipantgroup,asitengagesthe
glutes,hamstringsandquads,whicharethekeymusclegroupsusedinthesportof
hockey.Theparticipantsinourstudywerepreadolescentpeeweelevelhockeyplayers,
aged1213.Thisagegroupwaschosenduetothefactpreadolescencemalesgenerally
haveyettohitpuberty,whichshouldprovidefortheirdevelopmentandstrengthlevelsto
befairlysimilar.

Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

Thereareafewfactorsandsituationsthatweweresuretorecognizewhen
examiningthebehavioursofbothlearninggroupsbasedonBandurasassumptions.For
masterylearning,wewillnoteifvaryinglevelsofdifficultyincreaseselfefficacytoa
greaterdegreeifthetaskissuccessfullycompleted.Iffailureoccurs,willselfefficacy
decrease?Childrenseffortlevelsandstresslevelswillalsobeexaminedtoseehowand
ifeachplayaroleinincreasingordecreasingonesselfefficacy.Frequencyoffailureis
alsoafactortorecognizewhengradingonesselfefficacy.Dependingonachildsself
esteemandpersistence,theymaybeeitherdiscouragedormotivatedtocontinuetryingto
achieveasuccessfulendresult.Withvicariouslearningweareinterestedtoseewhether
selfefficacydiffersdependingonthesocialmodel.Willobservingafamousrolemodel
successfullycompleteataskraiseoneslevelofselfefficacymorethanaregular
trainer/coach?Howaboutobservingtheirpeerscompleteataskversussomeonethatthey
havehadnopreviousrelationshipwith?Theseareallmotivationalfactorsthatmustbe
takenintoconsiderationwhenexaminingselfefficacydifferences.
Forthepurposeofourstudy,selfefficacywillbethedependentvariableandthe
typesoflearning(mastery,vicarious)willbeservingastheindependentvariables.The
extenttowhichtheindependentvariableshaveontheindependentvariableformsthe
basisofourresearch.Theobjectiveofourproposedstudyistoexaminetherelationships
amonglearningstylesandlevelsofselfefficacy.Theresultsofthisstudywillprovide
importantinformationabouteffectiveteachingandlearningstrategieswhendealingwith
youthathletes.Wehavecomeupwithtwohypothesesthatarebasedontheresultsoftask
successorfailureineachlearningstyle.Ourfirsthypothesisisthatmasterylearningwill

Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

producegreaterincreasesinselfefficacythanvicariouslearning.However,iffailure
occursduringmasterylearning,vicariouslearningshouldbemoreeffective.Webelieve
thisbecausefailuretocompleteataskthroughmasterylearningmaycauseanindividual
tobelievethatitcantbedone.However,ifonefailstocompleteataskwhenlearning
throughvicariousexperiencestheymaybemoremotivatedandconfidentintheirability
tosuccessfullycompletethetaskastheyhavealreadyseenitcompletedandknowthatit
canbedone.
LiteratureReview
ConstructofSelfEfficacy
Withinthesportsdomaintherehasalwaysbeeninterestindiscoveringnewand
improvedwaysofenhancinghumanfunction,togiveanathletethatcompetitiveedge
necessarytomaximizetheirperformancecapabilities(Feltz&Lirgg,2001).Duetothe
highdegreeofinterestwithinthisfield,therehasbeenconsiderableresearchdonein
hopesofproving,throughrobustempiricalevidence,thataparticularvariablecanbe
manipulatedtoincreaseanathletesoverallsportsperformance.Thatbeingsaid,Albert
Bandurafirstproposedatheoryofhumanfunctioningthatemphasizestheroleofself
beliefinthepublication:SocialFoundationsofThoughtandAction:ASocialCognitive
Theory,in1986(Pajares,2005).Withinthispublicationheexplainedtheconstructof
selfefficacy,whichisdefinedas,thebeliefinone'sownabilitytolearnorperforma
particularbehavioratadesignatedlevel(Bandura,1977).Morespecifically,itsthe
beliefthatoneholdsabouttheircapabilitytoperformaspecifictaskataspecificlevel,
basedoncognitiveappraisalsoftheirability,regardlessofactualobjectiveskilllevelof

Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

thatparticularindividual(Bandura,1977).Banduras(1977)theoryacknowledgesthat
skilllevelandincentivefactorsdoplayaroleinperformance,howeverhecontendsthat
theyarenotnecessarilyrequiredtoproducedesiredbehaviors.Accordingtothis
information,highselfefficacyalonecansometimesproducesuccessfuloutcomes
(Bandura,1977).SinceBanduracoinedthetermwaybackin1977,muchresearchhas
beendonetosupportthepowerthatapersonsbeliefsaboutthemselveshold,inrelation
toactualbehavioraloutcomes(Zimmerman,2000).Theseselfefficacybeliefshavebeen
showntoprovidethefoundationformotivation,wellbeingandpersonalaccomplishment
inallareasoflife,includingsportperformanceenhancement,whichisthefocusofthis
review(Pajares,2005).
Selfefficacydiffersinonemainwayfromallotherrelatedmotivational
constructs,suchasoutcomeexpectations,selfconcept,locusofcontrolandself
confidence,inthatitistaskspecificanddynamic(Zimmerman,2000).Beingso,it
allowsselfefficacytobeafarbetterpredictoroffutureperformance(Zimmerman,
2000).Manystudieshavecomparedthevariousglobaltraitsmentionedabovetoself
efficacyprovidingsupportforthisstatement.Shell,MurphyandBrunings1989study,
comparedselfefficacytooutcomeexpectationsandfoundthatselfefficacyplayeda
muchlargerroleinvariabilityofresults.ThisstudysupportsBanduras(1977)prior
research,whichconcludedthatselfefficacywasthemostaccuratepredictoroffuture
performancecomparedtoothersimilarconstructs.InanotherstudybyHattie(1992)and
Wylie(1968),researchersfoundthatselfefficacywasconsistentlyrelatedtoindividuals
academicperformanceandlesssotoselfconcept,onceagainsupportingBanduras

Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

claims.Nootherresearchwasfoundtodisconfirmthesefindings,sothisstudywill
reflectthosefindingsandonlyaimtomeasurethestrengthofthereciprocalrelationship
betweenpriorperformance,selfefficacyandfutureperformance.Almostallofthe
researcharticlesassessedinthisreviewarebasedoffoftheworkofBanduraandmention
hisfindingswithintheirownspecificresearcharea,regardlessofwhatthatmaybe.

DimensionsofSelfEfficacy.
Selfefficacycanvaryonseveraldimensionsthataffectperformanceincluding
magnitude,generalityaswellasstrength(Bandura,1977).Magnitudeisthelevelofself
efficacybeliefsatvaryingdegreesoftaskdifficulty.Forexample,whentasksare
orderedinlevelofdifficulty,selfefficacyofanindividualmayonlyextendtothe
simplertask,oritmayincludethemostdifficultone(Bandura,1977).Generalityisthe
abilityofanexperiencetocreatespecificmasteryexpectationswithintheconfinesofa
specifictask,othersmoregeneralizedsenseofefficacyextendingconsiderablybeyond
thetreatmentsituation(Bandura,1977).Overtimepeoplecanexperiencemany
situations,whichincreasetheirselfefficacybeliefsindifferentareasandhelpto
influenceselfefficacybeliefsgoingintotasksthatmaybeunfamiliar.Thatbeingsaid,
selfefficacymeasureshavemorepredictivevaluewhentasksarefamiliar(Pajares&
Miller,1994).Selfefficacybeliefsareespeciallyeasytoextinguishwhenthepersonisa
noviceanddoesnothavearobustlevelofpersonalefficacybeliefs,howeverifthe
personhasdevelopedasubstantiallyhighoveralllevelofselfefficacytheyaremore

Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

likelytopersistevenwhenmetwithfailure(Bandura,1977).Althoughselfefficacy
tendstobeataskspecificconstruct,enhancedselfefficacycangeneralizetoother
situations,asmentionedpreviously,andimprovementsinbehavioralfunctioningtransfer
notonlytosimilarsituationsbuttoactivitiesthatsubstantiallydifferaswell(Bandura,
1977).Measuresofgeneralityofselfefficacyarerarelyincludedinresearchstudieson
sport,whichwetakeintoconsiderationforourstudy(Feltz,&Lirgg,2001).Finally
strengthofselfefficacyisthedegreetowhichonebelievesintheircapabilitiesof
performingagiventask(Bandura,1977).Weakexpectationsareeasilyextinguished
throughdisconfirmingexperiences(Bandura,1977).Thosewhostartoutwithhigher
strengthofselfefficacywillcopeandcontinuewitheffortstoimproveatataskdespite
disconfirmingexperiences(Bandura,1977).Aswell,peoplewhopersistwillgain
correctiveexperiencesthatreinforcetheirsenseofefficacyandeliminatedefensive
behavior.Overall,peoplewithhighselfefficacywillemployincreasedcopingbehavior,
effortexpenditure,andamountoftimetryingtoovercomeobstaclesandadverse
experiences,whichwillleadtosuccessfulbehaviorandthusbetterperformance
outcomes(Bandura,1977).Peoplewithlowselfefficacy,ontheotherhand,fearand
tendtoavoidthreateningsituationstheybelieveexceedtheircopingskills,resultingin
performancefailureandfurtherreductioninsubsequentselfefficacylevels(Bandura,
1977).Alloftheaboveefficacyexpectationshelptobetterpredictthecomplex
relationshipbetweenselfefficacyanditseffectonsubsequentperformance.
SourcesofEfficacyInformation.

Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

Selfefficacyresultsfromaccumulationofinformationfromfourmainsources
(Bandura,1977).Thefirstandmostinfluentialsourceofselfefficacyinformationis
performanceaccomplishments,whicharebasedonpersonalmasteryexperiences
(Bandura,1977).Theypromotebehavioralaccomplishmentsandextinguishfeararousal
byprovidingtheindividualwithimmediatefeedbackbasedontheiractualperformance
(Bandura,1977).Successincreasesselfefficacybeliefs,whilerepeatedfailuresdecrease
them(Bandura,1977).Becauseithasbeenshowntohavethemostrobustimpacton
selfefficacybeliefswehypothesizethatitwillbethebestpredictoroffutureself
efficacywhenperformancesaresuccessful.Onepotentialproblem,thatwehypothesize
withmasterylearning,isthatfailureismorelikelytobeattributedtotheactualindividual
completingthetaskbecausetheirownbehaviorinfluencestheirperformanceoutcome
directly.Duringmasterysituationstheindividualhasnooneelsetoblamefortheir
failure,thereforetheirselfefficacywillbemorelikelytodrop.Thiswillalsobethecase
withsubsequentsuccessfulperformances,comparedtoperformanceduringotherforms
oflearning.AlthoughBandurasuggestsitisthemosteffectivewaytoinfluenceself
efficacy,therehasnotbeenmuchresearchdonetocompareittootherformsof
information.DuetothiswearesimplygoingoffofwhatBandurasresearchsuggestand
wehopetofurtherthescopeofresearchinthisarea.Thesecondsourceofinformationis
vicariousexperience,whichhasalsobeenfoundtobeaneffectivesourceofselfefficacy
andlearning(Bandura,1977).Itconsistsofwatchingothersperformataskorbehavior
followedbythepersoncognitivelyappraisingthatinformationtodetermineiftheycan
performthebehaviorortaskthemselves,basedonwhattheyhaveseen.Vicarious

Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

10

learningencompassesattentional,retention,motorreproductionandmotivational
processesandoccursbeforetheactualbehaviorisattempted(Manz&Sims,1981).If
anyoftheseprocessesarelackingorimpaired,theobserverislesslikelytoexhibitthe
desiredbehavior(Manz&Sims,1981).Onepotentialpositiveattributethatwefoundfor
vicariousleaning,inregardstofailure,isthattheindividualwillmostlikelyattributeitto
themodelsperformanceandnottheirown,thusmaintaininghighselfefficacybeliefsand
subsequentperformance.Pajares(2005),suggeststhatitisespeciallyusefulinsituations
inwhichyoungpeoplehavelittleornopriorexperiencefromwhichtogagejudgment.
Theparticipantsinourstudywillhavelimitedtonopriorexperiencewiththeagilitytest
sothistypeoflearningmayprovemoreeffectiveforthem.Asfarasactualmodelsgo,
peermodelshavebeenshownespeciallyusefulinthesesituations(Pajares,2005).
Bandura(1977,1997)alsosuggeststhatsimilarmodelsbeusedtooptimizeselfefficacy
beliefs.Aswell,GouldandWeiss(1981)foundthatthesimilaritybetweenthemodel
andindividualhadthegreatestinfluenceonindividualsperceptionandperformance.
Similarpeerswereshowntohavehighobservereffectintheacademicdomainaswell,
Schunkexplainsthatstudentsseepeoplelikethemperformingthetaskandtheybelieve
theycantoo(Schunk,1989).OnthehandLandersandLanders(1973),found
conflictingresults,whichunderminethoseresultsmentionedpreviously.Theirresults
showedthatwhenlearninganewtaskmodelcompetencewasmoreimportantthanmodel
similaritytoperformance(Landers&Landers,1973).Forthepurposeofthisstudywe
aregoingtouseavideomodelthatparticipantscanrelateto,notofsomeonetheyseefar
outoftheirleagueaswellassomeonetheyrespect,becausetherehasbeenmuchresearch

Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

11

onthisbeingeffectiveformofmodelingandonlyonestudysuggestingotherwise
(Bandura,1977,1997).Ontopofthesefactors,ifamodelmeetswithsuccess,the
observerismorelikelytomodelbehavior(Manz&Sims,1981).Thishasbeenalso
shownwhenmodelsdisplaysignsofapprehensionordifficultybutstillcompletethe
task,becauseobserverscanrelatetoovercomingchallengesonthewaytoobtaining
success(Manz&Sims,1981).Typesofmodelingcanincludetraditionallivemodeling,
symbolicmodeling,selfmodelingaswellasparticipantmodeling,whichencompasses
bothmodelingandmasteryexperienceallinone.Differentstudiesshowcontradictory
resultswhendeterminingwhichvariableswithinamodelingsituationaremosteffective
inincreasingperceptionandperformance(Samson&Solmon,2011).Selfmodeling
whichismadeupoftheindividualrepeatedlyobservingthecorrectorbestpartsof
his/herownperformanceandusingitasamodelforfutureperformancehasshown
conflictingresults(Dowrick&Dove,1980).Therehasnotbeenmuchresearchonthisto
datesomoreneedstobedone.WinfreyandWeeks(1993)foundnosignificanteffects
onselfefficacyonbalancebeamperformanceusingselfmodelingvideoswithfemale
gymnasts.SingletonandFeltz(1999)foundtheopposite,concludingthatcollegiate
hockeyplayersshownseveralweeksofselfmodelingvideotapesshowedgreater
shootingaccuracyandincreasedselfefficacyforgameperformancecomparedto
controls.Duetothelittleempiricalevidencefoundonselfmodelingwearegoingtoopt
formoreresearchedandprovenformsofmodelingtoeliminateanyconfounding
variables.Factorslikemodelattractiveness,credibility,highstatusandcompetence,and
similarityhaveallbeensuggestedtoincreasesuccessfuloutcomes,withvaryingresults

Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

12

basedonthespecificstudyconducted(Manz&Sims,1981).Muchhumanbehavioris
developedthroughmodeling,soitmakessensethatmodelingwillincreaseselfefficacy
(Bandura,1971).Watchingothersperformthreateningactivitieswithoutadverse
consequencesallowsthelearnertobelievethattheytoocanimproveiftheyintensifyand
persistinefforts(Bandura,1977).Bandura(1977),suggeststhatitisaneffectivewayof
avoidingneedlessandcostlyerrorsaswell.Althoughitisanimportantsourceofself
efficacyinformation,itislessdependablethandirectevidenceofonespersonal
accomplishments,achievedthroughmasteryaccordingtoBandura(1977).Astudy
conductedbyManzandSims(1981)onvicariouslearningasasourceofbehavioral
changeinorganization,supportspositivebenefitsofvicariouslearningwithinan
organizationaldomain.Observationallearningisoneofthemostwidelyadvocated
methodsofteachingmotorskillsineducationalandsportssettings(Rink,1998).This
hasbeenprovenwithinthemotorlearningdomainwithMcCullaghandWeissstudyin
2001,BlackandWrightsstudyin2000andinAshford,BennettandDavidsstudyin
2006.Ithasalsobeenprovensuccessfulinthesportpsychologydomaininastudyby
McCullaghandWeiss2001.MasteryandVicariouslearningarethetwoinformation
sourceswearecomparinginourstudybuttheothertwosourceswillbebriefly
mentionedaswell.BasedonfindingsinHarrison,Preece,Blakemore,Richards,
WilkinsonandFellingham(1999)bothtypesofinformationwillbesuccessfulin
promotingathleticachievement.Weonlywanttolookatthemostbeneficialformsof
informationbecausethegoalistoproducehighestamountofselfefficacyand
performanceaspossible.VerbalPersuasionisthethirdsourceofselfefficacy

Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

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informationanditiswidelyused,duetoitseaseandavailability(Bandura,1977).Its
commonlyutilizedbycoaches,managers,parents,andpeersandcanincludeverbal
persuasion,evaluativefeedback,expectationsbyothers,andselftalk(Feltz&Lirgg,
2001).Althoughithasbeenwelldocumentedtoinfluencehumanbehavior,itisless
successfulatdoingsothanmasteryandvicariouslearning(Bandura,1977).Anyself
efficacyexpectationsinducedbysuggestionscanbeeasilyextinguishedbydisconfirming
experience(Bandura,1977).Verbalpersuasionalonehaslimitationshoweveritcan
contributetothesuccessesachievedthroughcorrectiveperformance.Similartovicarious
experience,thecredibilityofthepersonmakingsuggestionsisalargevariable
(Zimmerman,2000).Extentofinfluencecanalsodependonprestige,expertiseand
trustworthinessofpersuader(Feltz&Lirgg,2001).Justtellingapersontheycan
performataskwithoutlettingthemactuallyattempttodoit,mostoftenleadstofailures
thatdiscreditthepersuadersandundermineindividualsperceivedselfefficacyeven
further(Bandura,1977).Bandura(1997)pointedoutthatthedebilitatingeffectsof
persuasioninformationaremorepowerfulthantheenablingeffects,whichisanother
reasonwhywechosenottouseit.Emotionalarousal/physiologicalstateisthelast
sourceofefficacyinformationmentionedbyBandura.Individualsrelypartiallyontheir
physiologicalstateofarousalwhenjudgingtheirvulnerabilitytostressandanxiety
(Bandura,1977).Forexample,apersonwithhighselfefficacymayperceivecommon
symptomsofstress(increasedheartrate,sweating,etc.)asenergizingandmotivating,
whereasanotherindividualwithlowselfefficacywillperceivethesamesymptomsas
debilitative(Ntoumanis&Biddle,1998).Thepersoninthelowselfefficacygroup

Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

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interpretsthesesymptomsasonelackingtheskillsneededtocompletethetask.
Emotionalstateslikehappiness,exhilaration,andtranquilityhaveallbeenshownto
increaseselfefficacyandperformanceaswell(Feltz&Lirgg,2001).Physiological
informationhasbeenshowntobeamoreimportantsourceofefficacyinfowithregards
tosportandphysicalactivitytasksthannonphysicaltasks(Chase,Feltz,Tully,&Lirgg,
1994)(Feltz&Riessinger,1990).Althoughitmaybemoreeffectiveinasportsdomain
westillchosetousemasteryandvicariouslearninginsteadbecausetheyhavebeen
shownasmoreeffectivepredictors.Ingeneralhigharousalisusuallyassociatedwith
debilitativeperformanceanddecreasedselfefficacy.Somepeoplemaypaymore
attentiontophysiologicalcuesandperceiveinadequaciesratherthanthetaskathand,
whichwillreduceperformance.Lastlyin1995,MadduxexpandedonBandurasfour
originalsourcesofinformation,includingimaginalexperiencesasthefifthsource.He
statesthatpeoplegenerateefficacybeliefsbyimaginingthemselvesorothersbehaving
successfullyorunsuccessfullyinanticipatedperformancesituations.Bandura(1997)
latercalleditcognitiveselfmodelingorcognitiveenactment.Wealsochosenotto
usethisformofinformationbecausethereislittleevidenceonitseffectsduetohownew
ofaconceptitiscomparedtowelldocumentedliteratureontheotherfourtypes.
VaryingDomainsofTesting.
Selfefficacytheorydevelopedwithinthedomainofclinicalpsychologyfor
treatmentofanxiety,thensuccessivelymovedtootherdomainsofpsychosocial
functioningincludinghealthandexercisebehavior(McAuley,1992;McAuley&
Mihalko,1998;Oleary,1985),andsportandmotorperformance(Feltz,1998).

Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

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Twodecadesofresearchintheacademicdomainhaveshownthatselfefficacyisa
highlyeffectivepredictorofstudentsmotivationandlearning,whichinturnarelarge
predictorsofactualperformance(Zimmerman,2000).Studieshaveconfirmedits
discriminantandconvergentvalidityinpredictingoutcomessuchasstudentsactivity
choices,effort,persistenceandemotionalreactions(Zimmerman,2000).Withinthe
academicdomain,Schunk(1996)contradictsBandurabysayingthatiftherequisite
abilityandknowledgeorskillislackingnoamountofselfefficacycanproduce
performancecompetence.Hearguesthatstudentsoftenhaveminimaltonoskillprior,so
selfefficacyforaparticulartaskismeaninglessbecausewithouttheskillstheywillfail
regardless(Schunk,1996).Justtoreiterate,Bandura(1977)suggestedthatpriorskills
werenotanecessaryrequirementforsuccess.Toovercomethisissue,Schunk(1996)
assessedselfefficacytowardslearningasopposedtoperformanceandfoundsimilar
results.Thisstudyresolvestheissuetowardsthatnovicelearner,determiningthatself
efficacystillinfluencesindividualsreadinesstolearnaparticulartasks,thuseventually
makingthemmorelikelytoachieveit.AnotherissuethatSchunkpointedoutisthat
unskilledstudentsmayperceivelowtaskdifficultywheninfactthetaskishighly
difficult,whichcouldleadtooverconfidenceandnonaccuraterelationshipresults
(Schunk,1996).Wewilltrytoreducethisvariableasmuchaspossiblebymaking
participantsfullyawaretheperformanceoutcomerequired.Studentsmayalsojudge
efficacyhighsonottoappearincapable(Schunk,1996).Thetakeawayinformation
fromthisistomakeourselfefficacytestprivatetoreducethisinourstudy.Academic
workshouldbehardenoughthatitenergizes,notsohardthatitparalyzesperformance,

Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

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wewillalsokeepthisinmindwhenconductingthisstudy(Pajares,2005).Pajares
(2005),backsBandurasclaimssayingscholarshavereportedthatregardlessofprevious
achievementofability,selfefficaciousstudentsworkharder,persistlonger,perseverein
thefaceofadversity,havegreateroptimism,andloweranxiety,stressandachievemore
overall.Regardlessofthepointofviewoftheresearcherbothselfefficacytowards
performanceandselfefficacyforlearningbothaccuratelypredictfuturesuccess.
Selfefficacyconstructisalsooneofthemostinfluentialpsychologicalconstructs
thoughttoaffectachievementstrivinginsport(Feltz,1988).ForexampleUSathletesat
theNaganoOlympicGamesratedselfefficacyandteamefficacyamongtopfactors
reportedtoinfluencetheirperformance(Gould,Greeleaf,Lauer,&Chung,1999).
Considerableresearchhasbeendoneinthesportsdomain,supportingBandurasearlier
findings.Moritz,Feltz,Fahrbach,andMack(2000)conductedametaanalysisandfound
thatconcordancebetweenselfefficacymeasuresandperformancemeasuresshowedthe
largestrelationship.Relationshiprangesfromhigh.79(Martin&Gill,1991),tolow.01
(McAuley,1985),tonegativecorrelations(McCullah,1987).FeltzandLirgg(2001)
suggestinvestigationsthatshowedlowcorrelations,eitherusedanontraditionalmeasure
ofselfefficacy,hadlongtimelaginbetweenmeasuresorhadlowconcordancebetween
selfefficacyandperformancemeasures.Thereisconsiderablevariationwithinstudies,
whichseemstopointtocontradictoryresults,howevermostresearchstillshowedthe
positiverelationshipaveragewas.38,whichissignificant(Moritz,Feltz,Fahrbach&
Mack,2000).Thisstudyalsofoundthathighestcorrelationsbetweenselfefficacyand
performancewerefoundwhenparticipantsperformedfamiliartaskscomparedtonovel

Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

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ones.Althoughtherehavebeenconsiderablestudiesdoneinthesportsdomainthereisa
gapintheresearchonhowlearningstylesaffectselfefficacyinprofessionalathlete
populations,mostresearchhasbeendoneonnoviceperformerssowewanttoseeif
resultswillbethesameinthismorespecificpopulation.Withinahealthdomain,self
efficacyhasbeenshowneffectiveinaltering:smokingcessationandrelapse,weight
control,painmanagement,compliancewithvariousmedicalregiments,cardiacrehab,
exerciseadherence,andexerciseperformance(Lewthwaite,1990).Thesearesomeofthe
areasofresearchthatselfefficacyhasbeenassessedunder,howevertherearemany
morethataresimplytoomuchinformationtocover.Overallthemajorityofstudies
supportBandurasoriginalfindingsthatthereisapositiverelationshipbetweenself
efficacyandperformance.
GuidelinesforSelfEfficacyQuestionnaires.
In1977Banduraprovidedguidelinesforhowtomeasureselfefficacybeliefs
withinvaryingdomainsofstudy.Becauseselfefficacyisataskspecificconstruct,the
measuresforitmustalsobetaskspecific,somostoftheliteraturereviewedhere
producedtheirownuniquequestionnairestoachievethis.Forexample,astudents
efficacybeliefsmaydifferforahistorytestasopposedtoachemistrytest,soself
efficacyquestionnairesmustalsodiffertomoreaccuratelypredictperformanceforboth
typesoftests.BarlingandAbelsstudy(1983),isjustoneoutofhundredswhocreated
theirownselfefficacyquestionnaire.Intheirspecificstudytheymeasuredselfefficacy
inthedomainoftennisperformanceandtailoredtheirquestionnairetoreflectthis.As
mostotherstudiesresearchedhavedone,wearegoingtocreateourownselfefficacy

Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

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questionnairebasedoffmodifiedformsofempiricallysoundmeasuresusedinpast
research.Wewilljustchangesomeofthequestionstomakethemmoretaskspecific,
whichiswhatBandurasuggeststodo.Questionnairesvaryindifficultyandcomplexity
aswell,usuallystartingwitheasytasksandbuildinguptoharderones.Inaddition,they
alsocapturedegreesofconfidence,usuallymeasuredonascaleof0100%(Zimmerman,
2000).Healsosuggestsassessingselfefficacybeforeandafterperformancewhich
reflectsacausalrelationship,whichiswhatwearegoingtodo(Zimmerman,2000).
Ryckman,Robbins,Thorton,&Cantrell(1982),developedthePhysicalSelfEfficacy
Scale(PSE),toprovideamoregeneralizedmeasureofselfefficacyinthesportand
physicalactivitydomain.Wewillmodifysomeofthemeasuresusedonthisparticular
scaleaswell.Bandura(1997)suggestsadministeringselfefficacytestwithin24hoursof
performancemeasures,andweplantoabidebythissuggestion.
ReciprocalRelationship.
Bandura(1986)proposedareciprocalrelationshipbetweenselfefficacyand
performance,wherebyselfefficacyinfluencesperformance,andperformanceinfluences
subsequentselfefficacy.Triadicreciprocallyistheviewthatpersonalfactorsinthe
formof1)cognition,affect,andbiologicalevents,2)behaviorand3)environmental
influencescreateinteractions(Bandura,1986).Behaviorisaproductofcomplex
interactionofpersonal,behavioralandenvironmentalinfluences(Samson&Solmon,
2011).Eg.StudentreceivesaB,theBismeaninglessuntiltheindividualinterpretsin
andwhatbehaviorfollowsasaresult.Humanthoughtandhumanactionareviewedasa
productofdynamicinterplayofpersonal,behavioralandenvironmentalinfluences.How

Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

19

peopleinterprettheresultsoftheirownactionsinformsandalterstheirenvironmentsand
thepersonalfactorstheypossesswhichinturnformandalterfutureactions(Pajares,
2005).Therearesubstantialamountsofresearchtosupportthisrelationshipinvarious
domains(Beattie,Lief,Adamoulas,&Oliver,2011).Inthesportsdomain(Moritz,Feltz,
Fahrbach,&Mack,2000),inmilitaryresearch(Shereretal,1982),organizationresearch
(Stajkovic,&Luthans,1998),health(Orbell,Johnston,Rowley,Davey,&Espley,2001),
education(Multon,Brown&Lent,1991).Althoughthereisoverwhelmingevidenceto
supportit,someresearchesstillhavecriticisms.Feltz(1982)andMcAuley(1985),found
thatcorrelationbetweensportskillperformanceandsubsequentselfefficacyscoreswere
strongerthanthecorrelationbetweenselfefficacyscoresandsubsequentperformance
scores.Becauseofthediscrepancyinresultsbetweenthesestudieswehopetoanswer
thequestionbyproducingcomparativeresults.Beattie,Lief,Adamoulas,andOliver
(2011),alsochallengethisrelationship.Theytestedthishypothesisinagolfputting
performancestudyandfoundthatselfefficacyhadaweaknonsignificantrelationship
withsubsequentperformance(Beattie,Lief,Adamoulas,&Oliver,2011).Vancouver,
ThompsonandWilliams(2001),foundperformanceaccomplishmentshadastrong
positiverelationshipwithsubsequentefficacyhoweverselfefficacyhadanegative
relationshipwithsubsequentperformance.Theirrationalbehindthisisthatincreased
selfefficacybeliefsmakeanindividualoverconfidentandwillnegativelyaffect
performance.Thesefewstudiesthatproposetocontestthereciprocalrelationshipall
producedinsignificantresultssoitisfairtosaythattheresearchisoverwhelmingonthe
sideofBandura.

Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

20

Conclusion.
Overallselfefficacyisfoundtobethemostcriticalvariablemediatingbehavioral
changeandthiscanbeseenincountlessdomains(Lewthwaite,1990).Mostresearch
doneinsportiswithnonathleticpopulation,incontrivednonrealworldsettings(Feltz,
1992).Wearegoingtoaddtotheathleticpopulationstudiestofurthersupportordeny
therelationshipsapplicabilitytodiversepopulations,resultingtomoregeneralizability
overall.Bandura(1977),suggestslightlyexceedingselfefficacybeliefsarebest.
ForourstudywealsotookintoaccountCoffee,Rees&Hanslams2009study,suggesting
thattocomposeasituationoptimalforselfefficacytheindividualneedstoknowthat
outcomesarecontrollableandunstable,thustheyhavetheopportunitytobesuccessful.
Whenfailureis100%enviable,peoplewillgiveupandnoteventry.Personalself
efficacyandperformancewillbeimpactednegativelyifallbarrierstopersonalself
enhancementareexplicitlyprecluded.Wewillmakesuretoexplaintheperformance
goalsoindividualscanaccuratelyunderstandthetaskdemands(Helper&Chase,2007).
Iftheydonotknowwhatthegoalistheycannotaccuratelyjudgetheircapabilitiesto
performthetask(Bandura,1997).
Methodology
Introduction
Selfefficacymaybeoneofthemostimportantaspectsofanindividualsdayto
daylife,affectingnearlyallchoicesandactions.Selfefficacyissosimple,yetso
powerfulthatitsimplicationshavebeenthecornerstoneofmanydifferentprofessional
researchstudies.Thesestudieshaveproducedhundredsofscientificjournalsoverthe

Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

21

years.Selfefficacyissaidtobepeoplesbeliefsintheircapabilitiestoproducedesired
effectsbytheirownactions(Bandura,1997)andisoneofthemostimportant
determinatesofbehaviorchoicesandperseverance.Bystudyingselfefficacyresearchers
notonlydeterminehowselfefficacycanimpactdecisionmakingbutalsohowself
efficacyimpactspersistenceinthefaceoffailure.Thepurposeofthisstudyisto
determinewhichlearningstrategyhasthebiggestimpactonselfefficacyandsport
performance.
ResearchQuestions
Thesequestionswillguidethestudy:
1. Ismasteryorvicariouslearningmoreinfluentialwhendeterminingself
efficacyforfuturetasks?
2. Doesanincreaseinselfefficacyviaalearningstrategyresultinanincreasein
likelihoodoftaskcompletion?
3. Whatwillhappentoselfefficacyiftheyhavefailedinprevioustrials?
Population,Sample,andSetting
Thetargetpopulationforthisstudywillbepreadolescentmalehockeyplayers
fromvariousThunderBayhockeyteamsthatpartakeinhockeygroupsattheCanada
GamesComplex.Thesehockeyplayerswillberequiredtoassesstheirownselfefficacy
inbothsportperformanceandeverydayactivities,beforeandafteralearningstrategyhas
beenimplemented.Thestudywilltakeplaceoveronesemesterwithpotentialtoinclude
100preadolescentmalehockeyplayers.Thefinalsamplewillconsistofstudentswho
meetthespecifiedcriteria.Thefinalsamplewillonlyincludeindividualsthathaveno
previousinjuriesandparticipateinorganizedphysicalactivityatleast2to3daysper

Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

22

week.Thismaycontributetotheirselfefficacybeinglessofafactorbyeitherofthe
learningsessionsduetoadaptationsfrompreviousexperience.Participationinthestudy
willbevoluntary,anonymousandconfidential,asdemographicdatacollectedwill
includeage,experience,andperceivedselfefficacy.
RecruitmentMethods
WewillrecruitparticipantsthroughtheCanadaGamesComplex(CGC)by
approachingthesixhockeyteamsthattakepartinweeklydrylandsessions.Once
permissionhasbeenreceivedfromtheteamswewillapproachboththeparentsand
playerspriortorecruitingtheparticipants.Eachoftheabovecoaches,playersandparents
willbeprovidedacoverletterandfacetofaceinterviewtoaskanyquestionstheymay
have.
ProtectionofHumanRights
ThestudywillbepresentedtotheappointedEthicsReviewBoard(ERB)at
LakeheadUniversityforapproval.AfterapprovalfromtheLakeheadUniversityERB,a
letterofintentionwillbesenttoboththeCanadaGamesComplexandthecoachesofthe
hockeyteamsrequestingpermissiontoconductthisstudy.Uponreceivingconsentfrom
bothparties,aletterwillbesenttotheparents,againseekingconsenttoconductthe
study.Thisletterwillexplainthepurpose,selectioncriteria,timeframeofstudy,
population,andinstrumentsandbriefsummaryofprocedures.Itwillbeemphasizedthat
participationinthestudywillbevoluntary,participantswillremainanonymousandthe
resultswillbekeptconfidential.AftercompletingtheexercisesattheComplex,theteams
andparentswhohaveagreedtoparticipateinthestudywillbegivenacoverletter,

Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

23

informedconsentformandParQform.Thecoverletterwillbereadtoeachparticipant
withtimeleftafterforquestionstoensurethateachparticipantunderstandsallaspectsof
thestudy.Eachparticipantwillbeinformedtoreturntheblankpermissionformifthey
donotwishtoparticipateinthestudy.Potentialriskstoparticipantsincludedecreased
selfesteem,depression,scrapes,cuts,bruises,twistedanklesandevenbrokenbonesin
extremecases.Thesearepossibleinjuriesinthecasethattheagilitytestisunsuccessfully
completed.Ontheotherhandpotentialbenefitstotheparticipantsincludeanincreased
selfesteemandanincreasedpersonalawarenessonhowtoimprovetheirown
performanceforadvancementandtraining.
Procedures
AfterapprovalfromtheLakeheadUniversityethicscommunity,thetwosemester
studywillbeimplementedmidJanuaryorthestartofFebruaryatthelatest.All
participantswillbegivenspecificfollowupinstructions.Thetwoquestionnairestobe
usedwillbeprintedondifferentcolorsinordertodistinguishbetweenpretestand
posttest.Participantswillfirstbeaskedtocompletethepretestquestionnaire,whichwill
consistoffifteenquestionsmeasuringperceivedselfefficacybothingeneralandinsport,
previousexperienceinrelatedtasks,theirphysicalactivitylevels,andtheirmedical
history.Thesepretestquestionnaireswillthenbegivenbacktotheresearchersandstored
inasecurelocationsoonlytheresearcherscanseetheresults.TheParticipantswillbe
randomlyassignedtooneofthetwodifferentgroups,eitherthevicariousormastery
learninggroup.Withinthesegroupsparticipantswillbetaughthowtosuccessfully
completeaboxjumpataheightpredeterminedbytheiraverageverticaljumpheight.

Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

24

Twoincheswillbethenaddedtothattodeterminetheheightofthebox.Themastery
learnerswillhavethreetrialstoexperimentwiththeboxjumptaskbeforebeingaskedto
actuallycompletethetaskonetimeatthepredeterminedheight.Ontheotherhandthe
vicariouslearninggroupwillbeshownavideodemonstrationandalivedemonstration,
buttheywillnotbeabletotrytheboxjumpbeforetheactualtest.Nexttheparticipants
willbeaskedtocompletetheposttestquestionnaire,whichwillmeasuretheparticipants
perceivedselfefficacyonceagain.Wewillbelookingtoseeiftherewasachangein
selfefficacyafteralearningstrategywasimplemented,whilealsolookingtoseeif
higherselfefficaciousparticipantsaremorelikelytocompleteaboxjump.Afterthe
questionnaireiscompletewewilltesteachparticipantindividuallytoseeiftheycan
successfullycompletetheboxjumptask.Againposttestdataandboxjumpresultswillbe
keptinasecurelocationwhereonlytheresearchershaveaccess.Theactualboxjump
performancewillmarktheendfortheparticipant.
Instrumentation
Threeinstrumentswillbeinvolvedinthisstudytoevaluatetheeffectsoftwo
differentlearningstrategiesonselfefficacylevels.Eachofthetwoquestionnaires,
pretestandposttest,willconsistof20questionsusinga4pointLikertscalewithscores
rangingfrom1=stronglydisagreeto4=stronglyagree,wherehigherscoreswouldbe
indicativeofahigherselfefficacy.Theboxjumpwillmeasuretheabilitytocompletethe
taskandwillbeapassorfailtest.Theresultsfromtheboxjumpwillbecomparedto
eachparticipantsperceivedselfefficacytodetermineifhigherlevelsofselfefficacy
actuallydoproducegreaterresultsontheboxjumptask.

Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

25

ResearchDesign
Thisstudywillimplementaquasiexperimental,repeatedmeasuresdesign.With
thistypeofdesign,relationshipsbetweenselecteddependentandindependentvariables
canbeexamined(Burns&Grove,2005).Datawillbecollected2times,beforelearning
withpretestandafterlearningwithposttest.Thelearningwillactastheinterventionand
betheindependentvariable,whereselfefficacyoftheparticipantswillbethedependent
variable.
MethodsofDataAnalysis
Datacollectedfromthepreandposttestquestionnaireswillbescannedand
enteredintothecomputerprogramStatisticalPackagefortheSocialSciences,SPSS,
program.Wewilluseattestanalysistocomparetheresultsfromthepretestandposttest
scorestoexploreiftherehasbeenasignificantchangeinselfefficacyofstudentsin
performingtheboxjumpafteralearningstrategyhasbeenimplemented.
Summary
Thepurposeofthisstudyistodeterminewhichlearningstrategyhasthebiggest
impactonselfefficacyandsportperformance.Resultswillhelpguidecoachestothe
mosteffectivewaytoteachnewskillsandimprovesportperformanceinyouth.Results
willalsoassistyouthatanindividuallevel,astheywilllearnthemosteffectivewayto
improvetheirperformanceforfutureadvancementandtraining.

Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

26

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32

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Appendix
Informed Consent
Self-Efficacy, Sport Performance and Learning Strategies
Consent Form
You are being asked to take part in a research study that is
investigating how different learning strategies impacts self-efficacy on
performance in sport, specifically the box jump. We are asking you to
take part because you are currently on of the teams that attend one of
the complex hockey group sessions. Please read this form carefully and
ask any questions you may have before agreeing to participate in the
study.
The purpose of this study is to investigate how different types of
learning (mastery/vicarious and visual) effect self-efficacy in youth
aged 11-13 when performing the box jump. If you agree to be in this
study, we will first ask you to complete a questionnaire. The
questionnaire will measure your perceived self efficacy by asking
questions about your participation in both sport related and everyday
activities, your physical fitness levels, and experience in tasks similar
to the box jump. The questionnaire will take about 5-10 minutes to
complete. Next you will watch a 3-minute instructional video on how to
do the task both effectively and efficiently, plus shown a demonstration
by an instructor. You will then take the questionnaire again and actually
perform the task.
There is the risk that you could find some of the questions to be
sensitive, but you have the right to refuse to give an answer on any of

Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

34

the questions. Also there are risks when performing the box jump,
there is a possibility of falling or failing to complete the task. Injuries
such as scrapes, bruises, cuts, strains, sprains and even fractures are
all possible injuries. In order to reduce these ricks we will have padded
corners on the box jump and also padding all around the task on the
floor.
There are few benefits in completing this study. You will learn how to
successfully complete the box jump task. Other than that there are no
other benefits to taking part in this study as we the researchers hope
to learn more about how perceived self efficacy impacts sport
performance.
The records of this study will be kept private. In any report we
make public we will exclude any information that makes identification
possible. Research records will be kept within Lakehead University and
not discussed with anyone outside the study; only the researchers will
have access to the records. Records and will be kept for five years and
will remain confidential for the entirety. Taking part in this study is
completely voluntary. You may skip any questions you don not want to
answer or even opt out of taking part in the box jump task. You have
the right to refuse any part of the study you find uncomfortable. You
also have the right to drop out of the study at any time.
Questions: The researchers conducting this study are Tyler
Romas, Stephanie Vojvodic, and Kevin VanHaaren under the
supervision of Doctor Erin Pearson at Lakehead University. Please ask
any questions you have now, if you have future questions dont
hesitate to contact Tyler at taromas@lakeheadu.ca, Kevin at
kjvanha@lakeheadu.ca, or Stephanie at svojvodi@lakeheadu.ca.
Supervisory Doctor Erin Pearson can be reached at
espearso@lakeheadu.ca.
Statement of consent:
I have read the above information, and have received sufficient
answers to any questions I previously had. I consent to take part in the
study.
Print Name_________________________________________________
Signature___________________________________________________
Parent/Guardian Signature____________________________________________
Date_______________________________________________________
Pre/Post-Test Self-Efficacy Questionnaire
Circle the answer that shows how much you agree or disagree
with each statement.
On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.

Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

1
4
Disagree
Agree

35

2
Strongly Disagree
Agree

At times I think I am no good at all.

1
2
4
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Agree
Agree
I feel that I have a number of good qualities.
1
2
4
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Agree
Agree

3
Strongly

3
Strongly

3
Strongly

I am able to do things as well as most other people. I feel I do

not have much to be proud of.
1
2
3
4
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Strongly
Agree
Agree
I certainly feel useless at time.
1
2
4
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Agree
Agree

3
Strongly

I feel that I am a person of worth, at least on equal plane with

others.
1
2
3
4
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Strongly
Agree
Agree
I wish I could have more respect for myself.
1
2
4
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Agree
Agree
All in all, I am inclined to feel like I am a failure.
1
2
4

3
Strongly

Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

Disagree
Agree

Strongly Disagree
Agree

I take a positive attitude toward myself.

1
2
4
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Agree
Agree

36
Strongly

3
Strongly

I can manage to carry out my exercise intentions even when I

have worries and problems.
1
2
3
4
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Strongly
Agree
Agree

I can manage to carry out my exercise intentions even if I feel

depressed.
1
2
3
4
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Strongly
Agree
Agree
I can manage to carry out my exercise intentions even when I
feel tense.
1
2
3
4
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Strongly
Agree
Agree
I can manage to carry out my exercise intentions even when I
am tired.
1
2
3
4
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Strongly
Agree
Agree
I can manage to carry out my exercise intentions even when I
am busy
1
2
3
4
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Strongly
Agree
Agree

Self-Efficacy in Preadolescent Youth Hockey Players

37

I participate in physical activity more than 4 days per week and

for longer than 30 minutes
1
2
3
4
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Strongly
Agree
Agree
I have completed a box jump exercise on more than 10
occasions
1
2
4
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Strongly
Agree
Agree

I participate or have participated in strength training programs

1
2
3
4
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Strongly
Agree
Agree
I feel confident I can complete the box jump task
1
2
4
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Strongly
Agree
Agree
The Box jump task is intimidating and I dont think I can
complete the task
1
2
4
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Strongly
Agree
Agree

The box jump isnt even a challenge, I can do it without even

trying
1
2
3
4
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Strongly
Agree
Agree