Che ne Dor - ol £ugunerrs oi Benn Branch 4-Day Const Ot THE DESIGN OF CONCRETE | BRIDGES | PROCEEDINGS VOL |I (VENUE: FACULTY OF ENGINEERING UNIVERSITY OF BENIN ‘ BENIN CITYTHE DESIGN, OF CONCRETE BRIDGES Topic: HYDROLOGICAL STUDIES __ BRIDGES & CULVERTS Engr D O Okuoimose PRINCIPAL PARTNER DAVE DESIGN GROUP AFOUR DAY COURSE ORGANISED BY THE NIGERIAN SOCIETY OF ENGINEERS BENIN BRANCH AT THE UNIVERSITY OF BENIN JUNE 13-16,2000CULVERT AND BRIDGE HYDROLOGY Hydrological Studies for Highway Structures play an essential contributory role in the design process for Culverts and Bridges which provide the only passages of water across the road embankment. The knowledge of the quantity of the flood water derived from the catchment area and rainfall characteristics will assist the designer in matters of crosion and constructional procedures. CULVERT HYDROLOGY Hydrological measurements are required for obtaining correct structural sizing for a particular location. Example: Let us look at the case of the Kontagora Box Culvert. Remember that the FMW Design Manual as well as the California Division of Highways sets out a criteria for balanced “design. The Culvert shall be designed to discharge:- (a) a 25-year flood without static head at entrance, and (b) a 100-year flood‘utilizing the available head at entrance. The Kontagora Box Culvert has been sized using a 25-year flood without static head at entrance. A culvert without static head behaves as a rectangular notch and the flow through a: rectangular notch is derived from hydraulics as: Q = 17 alSb Where a height of box b= width of box Using this formula, the box culvert was sized as: 2[4m width by 3m height]CULVERT AND BRIDGE HYDROLOGY D. 0. ORVOIMOSE, JUNE 2000 “4m 4m The above preliminary, sizes should be checked for inlet and outlet controls for a 100-year flood utilizing the available head at entrance. 1, 100-Year Ftood: A 100 yr flood for Kontagora a 1200 x 100 - 140-yr flood for Kano 860 From the expression: Ka A+B logio® Kiso = .2.95 + 1.91 logio 140 7.049. Time of Concentration, t, in hours t= (L)°77/(3000 x S25) For L 5000 metres s 0.02 (S'= 2% = 0.02) c = 1.66 hrs 3. Intensity of Rainfall 1 = 25.4x7.049/(1.66 + 0.50) 1992 = 81 mm per hour 4, Therefore Quantity of Flow oO] ce 0.30 x 12.28 x (1000)?CULVERT AND BRIDGE HYDROLOGY D, 0. ORVOIMOSE, JUNE 2000 1000 x 60 x 60 = 83 mS per second Allowable Headwater at entrance, AHW The Allowable Head of Water at entrance to the culvert is a site measurement and this is the maximum value of allowable Head of Water which can be accommodated without resulting in any flood disaster arising from overflow of road embankments and river banks. Inlet and Outlet Discharge Control The aim of the control is ‘to limit the Head at entrance within the allowable Head of flood water for either case of inlet or outlet discharge capacity control. The diagrams below show the possible cases for correct allowable head measurements. Case 1 — Rolling Terrain Road Level banks <—— AHW ‘ Case 2 ~ Hilly Terrain banks banks pavement |CULVERT AND BRIDGE HYDROLOGY D. 0. ORVOIMOSE, JUNE 2000 Case 3 —- Unknown Terrain Road Level b AHW = 1.25d ES Inlet Control x Let us check the chosen box culvert for inlet control. Take the allowable headwater (AHW) to be 3.75 metrés. This should be a site measurement, but the value used here is for an Unknown Terrain which is 1.25 x D = 1.25x 3m = 3.75 m With the calculated quantity of flow for a 100-year flood = 83™3/sec Take Bernoulli between A and B, HW = D+ke v2 + v2 2g 2B a D+ (1+ ke) V2_ 2g = D+ (1+ ke) Qe “Oe AP (Since Q = AV) . HW = 3+ (1.4/19.92) x (83/24)? = 3.85m (greater than 3.75) (Note that ke = 0.4 for square ended box culverts). The box culvert size 2/(3x4) is not suitable(CULVERT AND BRIDGE IYDROLOGY D. 0, ORUVOLMOSE, JUNE 2000 Since HW (3.85) is greater than AHW (3.75) Reduce the depth and try either Section 2/ 5x5], area = 25m? or ees area = 26.25m I prefer Section 3/2. % x 3 5 to Section 2/2.5 x 5 because of the smaller breadth. Bernoulli at A and B HW = 2.5414 x. (83)? (26.25) ~ 3.21 (less than 3.75) OK Outlet Velocity for Inlet Control The knowledge of the outlet velocity is important in order to check against the allowable outlet velocity to contain erosional problems. ‘” Quantity of flow, “Q = AV Velocity = bxd The depth at outlet may be calculated by a/ a ‘rial and error’ method using Manning's Equation Q = Amses% a directly to obtain the same quantity of flow, or by b/ the application of the King’s Formulation of Manning’s Equation derived Horace Williams KING, late Professor of Hydraulic Engineering University of Michigan. King’s Formulation is Q = kbass% a Let us apply the King’s Formulation, to one cell Kl = -QneisCULVERT AND BRIDGE HYDROLOGY D, 0. ORVOROSE, JUNE 2000 ‘pes $1/2 83/3 x 0,013 _ (10.5/3)9/ x (0.01)°° (forb = (10.5/3)m and slope = 1%) n = 0.013 K! = 0.1284 To use King’s Tables, multiply K1 by 1.486, which is a built-in factor in the Tables, in order to correct for the Imperial Units in the King’s Formulation Tables. Hence Kt = 0.1284 x 1.486 = 0.1908 D = .0.36 a e Depth = .0.36x3.5 = 1.26 metres Velocity of flow at outlet = _Q_ A = "83/3 =" 6.27 m/s 1.26 x 3.50 The outlet channel should be lined with concrete or stone- pitched for velocities greater than 2 metres per second. Outlet Control The culvert is now checked for outlet control. The resulting balancing equation is HW = H + ho-SLCULVERT AND BRIDGE HYDROLOGT : D. 0, ORUOIMOSHS, JUNE 2000 where ho = Tail water S. = Slope of box culvert L = Length of box culvert H = Total lost of head Velocity head + entrance loss + frictional loss = ¥2+ ke V2+ 19.62 n7h v2 2g 2g) RI Og Take Tail Water ho = de+D 2 Where de critical depth ‘ ey” 8 Dischargeq = _83_~ 7.9m°/sec. 3x 3.50 de = 1.85m ho = 1854250 = 2.175 : 2 Hydraulic Radius R = A ‘= 2.175 x3.50 = 0.72 se 7.85, For n 0.013 L 35m S = 1% Io= 14¥2.» 1962 (0.013)2 x35 .V2_ 2g (0.72)138, 2e = 158 V2 28 For Q = 83/3 = 27.6m%/s VxA Vi i==,,, 276: = 4,26 m/s 3.50 x 1.85 Hence H = 1.53V2 28 * 1.53 x (4.26)CULVERT AND BRIDGE HYDROLOGY D. 0, ORVOIMOSE, JUNE 2000 2g - 1.415 metres Therefore i ws H+ho-Sl = 1.415 + 2.175-0.01 x 35 ' (or L = 35 metres) a 3.24m (less than the allowable maximum value of 3.75m, but more than the Inlet Control HW of 3.21m). Since the outlet control produces the greater Headwater depth of 3.24m, the velocity at outlet should also be checked. AtOutlet,ho = 2.175 b = 3.50 Area at Outlet = 3.175 x 3.50 = 7.6125m? Quantity of.flow forone cell = 83 = 27,66m3/sec Tv Velocity = Q° ety A = | 27.66 “7.6125 = ' 3.63m/s b The Inlet control produces the greater velocity of 6.27m/sec Design Output A 3-cell box culvert of 2.50m deep by 3.50 wide should be adopted. BRIDGE HYDROLOGY . 1.0 PreambleCULVERT AND BRIDGE HYDROLOGY D. 0. ORVOILOSB, JUNE 2000 The hydrological studies of bridges is based on the recommendations of the Federal Ministry of Works Highway Design Manual (Part 1) DESIGN OF 1973. The two usual known methods for run-off estimates are: a. Talbot formula b. The Rational Method (also known as the Lloyds-Davies Formula) ‘The Talbot formula is empirical and is only applied for preliminary run-off estimates when the correlation with the actual run-off estimate is known. In the Rational Method, the run-off is related to the rainfall intensity by the formula. = oA where Q = quantity'of run-off in m/sec _ = Intensity or rate of rainfall expressed in mm per hour A = square kilometres “The above formula is true for catchment areas of 12 ~ square kilometres maximum. A correction factor is then applied for areas above 12 square kilometres. The factor is derived from the work done by Balasha-Jalon Consultants (1977) on the Benin City Master Plan for Drainage Scheme and can be applied for catchment areas in the sub Sahara region of Africa. Factor (= 1/(1- 12/A) whereA = catchment area in square kilometres 2.0 Coefficient of Run-off © : This coefficient is a variable of the rational method least susceptible to precise determination. ‘The range of coefis for different characters of Oa areas are shown in the Appendix. . 1CULVERT AND BRIDGE HYDROLOGY D. 0. ORVOIMOSE, JUNE 2000 A minimum run-off coefficient is taken as 0.50 to cater for future development of the area as well as saturation of the soil. 2.1 Rainfall Intensity The values of the rainfall intensity are computed from the following formula: : = Kn/(t+a)? where I = rainfall intensity in mm/hour t > duration of rainfall or time of concentration in hours. aand bare station constants Kn = A+Blogion where A and B are station constants and n = storm frequency. ' The values for the constants, a, b, A, B have been determined by the Meteorological Department for Lagos, Kano, and Ikeja, The values are shown below: iB STATION . CONSTANTS | el ne b A B | tages ee 0.333 0.861. 2.18 1.44 Kano 0.500 1.032 295 1.91 i Tkeja*-*.% 0.600 0.952 3.28 2.34 The same constants are assumed for areas of the same rainfall regime. In general, Kano is subject to the thunderstorm regime with their characteristic short sharp rainfall rarely lasting more than 3 or 4 hours. Lagos (Apapa) on the other hand is subject to the influence of “monsoonal rains with generally lower intensities and duration up to 8 to 10 hours. At Ikeja for the greater part of the year the thunderstorm influence dominates but in the wettest months the monsoonalCULVERT AND BRIDGE HYDROLOGY D. 0, OXVOIKOSE, JUNE 2000 influence predominates with intensities closer to those for Lagos (Apapa). In areas of similar regimes the rainfall intensities would be Proportional to the total rainfall. 2.2 Storm Frequency A storm frequency of 25 yea’ s is used for design and 100 years for checlcing for the loss of a major structure. ‘These values are subiect to the largest flood on record. 2.3 Time of Concentration This is given as t (ye77_ /30008°5 where t ” time of concentration in hours = Length of ca! ‘ment area in metres = S = Slopeofcat: ent area A minimuin time of concen ‘tion of 20 minutes is recommended 3.0 Stage Discharge Curve ‘The Stage Discharge Curve Calculation is based on Manning’s Equation : = 1/nR23 $12A = Manning roughness coefficient Hydraulic mean Radius A/P area of waterway in m slope of catchment area Discharge in m® /sec. wetted perimeter where moinns vOU> A The values of Q is plotted against depth of water.(CULVERT AND BRIDGE HYDROLOGY ‘D. 0, ORUOIMOSE, JUNE 2000 The maximum flood level is obtained from the plot at the derived run.off obtained from the Rational Method. 4.0 Application A specimen calculation is shown below for the Bridge at km 44 + 700 along Ilorin-Igbetti Road in Kwara State. HYDROLOGICAL ANALYSIS FOR BRIDGE AT KM 44 + 700 The quantity of flow of water is obtained using the Rational Method with a correction factér for the excess catchment area. The maximum flood level is obtained by plotting a stage discharge cure. Design Data Design to FMW&H Highway Design Manual Part 1 Design. (1973) From the 1 ; 50,000 topographic map, Length of catchment = 2300m(x0.41) = 943, Slope of catchment 50/1700 = 0.029 Annual Rainfall at Igbetti = 1260 mm Annual Rainfall at Ikeja: = = 1308 mm‘CULVERT AND BRIDGE HYDROLOGY D, 0. ORVOIMOSE, JUNE 2000 Runoff coeff (Rolling) = 0,15 Woodland & Forests (Adopt 0.50 minimum) Design Frequency = 100 years Time of Concentration t (L)°-77/300 1/2 t 0.382 hrs Intensity of Rainfall I Kn/(tta)> (Refer to Design Manual) Kn A+B logion = 3.28 + 2.34 log (1260 x 1000)/1308, using Ikeja Sation Constants. = 7.922... I = Kn x 25.4/(tta)® (7.922 x25.4)/(0.382 + 0.60)°.952 = 205 mm/hr. Quantity of Rainfall u 4 (943)°-77/ (3000 x (0.029)1/2 Catchment Area = 100 km? Correction Factor = 1/e(-12/100) = 0.41 Regd Area = 0.41 x 100 = 41 Km? Q = C. 1. A. (Rational Method) = 0.50 x 205/ 1000 x (41 x 10002)/(60 x 60) = 1167 m?/sec Stage Discharge Curve Calculation From Manning’s Equation, = (1/n) R/3Sv2 A 2S = 0.029 n = 0.05 ie Qos 3.40 R2/3A Refer to Appendix B. This is a longitudinal profile of the Bridge Location.CULVERT AND BRIDGE HYDROLOGY D. 0. ORVOIMOSE, JUNE 2000 “AL = 20x0.87/2° = 8.7m? Ri 87/25 = 0.348 Qi = 3.40x(0.348)7/3x8.7 = 14.60m9/set At Level 2 fos 38m? me 38/35 a 1.348 Qo = 3.40 x (1.348)2/3 x 44 = 136m3/sec. At Level 3 ae 120m? es = 120/89 = 1.348 Oa es 3.40 x (1.348)2/3 x 120 « 498m3/sec. At Level 4 fete pe 193m? + 193/107 = 1.84 Qs = 3.40 x (1.84)2/3x 193 = 987m2/sec. (This is greater than the 100-yr design flood of 854m2/sec.). At Level 5 As = 322m? Rs 322/165 = 1.95 Qs = 3.40 x (1.95)2/9 x 322 = 1712m3/sec Summary Height (m) Quantity (m°/sec! Level 1 (0.87m) 15 Level 2 (1.95m) 136 Level 3 (3.58m) 498 Level 4 (4.39m) ‘ 987 Level 5 (5.73m) 1712 The above values should now be used to plot a graph of depth of water against Quantity of flow as shown in Appendix C. The depth equivalent to the max:'num flood of 1167m3 gives the maximum flood level. This val. is 4.71m.(CULVERT AND BRIDGE HYDROLOGY D. 0. OXVOIMOSE, JUNE 2000 A minimum free-board of 1.5 metres over this level is provided to cater for the flood debris and passage of small boats. The bridge abutments are to be placed outside the 25-yr flood level, but the bearings should be at least 1.5m above the maximum 100-yr flood level. The stage discharge curve therefore assists in a) deciding on the final level of the bridge superstructure b) obtaining an appropriate bridge length. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Balasha-Jalon Consultants for the correction factor for excess area of catchment. Further Reading 1. Brater and King (1976) Handbook of Hydraulics (Sixth Edition) McGraw-Hill-Book Company. 2. Proceedings (Sept 1992) Highways Staff Improvement Course for Officers on GL 08 - 10 Federal Ministry of Works & Housing. 3. _ Highway Manual Part I = Design (1973) Federal Ministry of Works & Housing. 4, Handbook of Steel Drainage and Highway Construction Products (2"4 Edition) - American Iron and steel Institute (1971). Appendices 1. AppendixA - King’s Formulation Tables 2. AppendixB - .Bridge Longitudinal Profile 3... AppendixC - — Stage Discharge Curve. 4: “AppendixD - Annual Rainfall of Nigeria(CULVERT AND BRIDGE HYDROLOGY D. 0. OKUOIMOSE, JUNE 2000 APPENDIX A KING’S FORMULATION TABLES‘CULVERT AND BRIDGE HYDROLOGY . 0, OKUOIMOSE, JUNE 2000 APPENDIX B _LONGITUDINAL PROFILE ot 2Depth in me...8 CULVERT AND BRIDGE HYDROLOGY , 0, OKVOIMOSE, JUNE 2000 APPENDIX C STAGE DISCHARGE CURVECULVERT AND BRIDGE HYDROLOGY D. 0. ORUOIMOSE, JUNE 2000 APPENDIX D © MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL OF NIGERIA STATIONS ANNUAL RAINFALL(mm) Abeokuta 1200 Bauchi 1087 Benin City 1994 Birnin Kebbi 805, | Degema 2438 | Enugu 1611 IKEJA, 1308 Ilorin. 1260 Jos 1557 Kaduna 861 KANO 719 Katsina 1803 LAGOS /APAPA 1166 Lokoja 632 Maiduguri 1376 Minna 1354 | Ogoga. 1859 Owerri, 2421 Oyo 1163 Port Harcourt 2482 Potiskum 782 Sokoto 719 Yola 991 Zaria 1128THE DESIGN OF CONCRETE BRIDGES Topic: BRIDGE ABUTMENTS By Engr D O Okuoimose PRINCIPAL PARTNER DAVE DESIGN GROUP ea A FOUR DAY COURSE ORGANISED B BY Y THE NIGERIAN SOCIETY OF ENGINEERS BENIN BRANCH AT THE UNIVERSITY OF BENIN JUNF 18-16,2000THE DESIGN OF CONCRETE BRIDGES TOPIC: | ABUTMENT DESIGN Presenter: — Engr. D. O. OKUOIMOSE: * CEng FICE FIHT(London), Eur-Ing (Paris), MIABSE (Zurich), PRINCIPAL PARTNER. DAVE DESIGN GROUP. 1.0 INTRODUCTION: Abutments, as the name iiplics, lic at the two extremities of the bridge. They serve a dual purpose of acting as retaining walls as well as the ability to withstand the vertical and horizontal forees imposed by the vehicular traffic on the bridge. Recesses are provided in the Abutment backwall to accommodate the Approach. slab (sometimes called the ran-on slab), The function of the Approach slab is to bridge the gap between the approach road and the Abutment Structure. 2.0 TYPES OF ABUTMENT The type of Abutment depends on a number of factors, such as the height of the retaining soil, the strength of the underlying material and the required slope of the embankment across the return walls. The different types are discussed below: ()» The Cantilever Abutment. There are three forms of this namely. a. The Wingwall Abutment - This consists of a front cantilever wall with splayed wingwalls. The splayed wingwalls may be supported on extended footings from the ‘main front wall or may be cantilevered as 2 projection from the font stem of the Abutment. In this case no footings are required. b, The Returnwall Abutment - This is sometimes called the U-Abutment. Here the wings’become returnwall3 parallel to the longitudinal profile, It consists of a side wall and a cantilevered ear wall, ©. The Ear Abuiment ~ This is another form of a Returnwall which consists purely of the Ear cantilevered wall Gi) The Bank Seat Abutment ‘These are pseudo Abutments which do not consist of a retaining wall. There are two types: : . ~.._The Skeleton (Spillihrough) type. This is applied where the rock bearing ‘material is within about four metres from the existing ground level, In this ease the footing rests onsrock while skeletal columns transfer the load from the bridge seat to the underlying footing.” The Abutment is then regarded as'a buried Abutmnent, and the forces on both sides are taken as active, Since the columns will not be visible, pipe culvert precast scopes rings are usuelly employed as permanent for'b. Piled type - The bank seat may be supported on piles in poor ground. Gi) The Counterfort Abutment +), This form of Abutment which is now obsolute consists of counterfort walls placed to support the front walls at right angles, The difficulties arising from compaction of the material between the counterfort walls contribute to its dislike by contractors and designers, It is now replaced by the Returnwall Abutments with the side walls acting as end counterforts. ‘ 3.0 BRIDGE FOUNDATIONS = - Foundation for bridges may be clarified under two major headings: () Spread Foundations ‘This category covers the strip foundation, pad and the Combined Footing. The strip footing is mostly used for Abutments, while column piers are normally placed on either the pad footing or the Combined Footing, Leaf Piers rest on strip footing, (i) Piled Foundations Piles Foundations are usually provided where ground of poor bearing capacity extends down to a considerable distance and a harder stratum is reached at depths of 5 metres or more. ‘Two common types: ~ Driven cast-in-situ Cased piles (for pile dia 300 - 600 mm) ~ Bored Cast in situ ples (for pile dia 600mm and above) Here piles are formed by boring into the ground and in poor soil a steel tube is used to ct as a liner. Bentonite mud is normally used in bore hole piling to prevent the ground collapsing. 4.0 SUB-SOIL INVESTIGATION The Foundation Design requires the knowledge of the characteristics of the underlying sub- soil. This is obtained by the use of Penetration Tests, ‘The two most commonly used penetration tests are the Standard penetration fest and the Dutch Core penetration test. : (@) The Standard Penetration Test (SPT). The SPT is a dynamic test carried out in a borehole and consists in determining the SPT value, N, ic the number of blows of a standard weight that are required to drive a 35mm interior diameter sampling tube through a depth of 300mm into the soil, having already driven through a depth of 150mm. The SPT uses the Shell-and-Auger boring This term covers the use of percussion chisels, clay cutters, augers and shell balers.. These tool attachments are all operated from ground level using four- legged Derrick fitted with a Winch, f (b) The Dutch Cone Penetration Test, In this test, a 60 degree cone with a cross-sectional area of 1000mm2 is forced into the ground at a reasonably constant rate of strain, and provision is made to measure independently the point resistance due to side friction,The test was first devised to assess the bearing capacity of piles, but is now used to predict the settlement of structures in sand, 4 az Tests a, _Insitu tests are performed curing the borchole operation They are i ‘The Vane Shear Test ii ‘The Standard Penetration Test b. Disturbed and Undisturbed Samples are taken from the borehole at specific locations for tests in the Laboratory. Such Tests are: «the triaxial Compression Test - the Unconfined Compression Test =the Direct Shear Test = the Consolidation Tests Bore hate log After an investigation has been completed and the results of any laboratory tests are available, the ground conditions discovered in each bore hole are summarised in the form of @ bore hole log, ‘The log, should enable a rapid appraisal of the soil profile to be made. ‘A sample bore hole log is shown below ‘Madeup ground 1.0 clay: c= 45N/m2, y= 18 KN/m3 5.0 HEH sand-clay: y~ 19 KN/m3, ¢ = 40 KNim2 10.9 phi= 35 sand-gravel: y= 20KN/m3, phi= 36° 15.0 Rock§.0 BEARING CAPACITY OF FOUNDATIONS (i) Spread Foundations The ability of soil to support a load from a structural foundation without failing in shear is known as its bearing capacity, but the stability of foundation depends on the bearing capacity of the soil beneath the foundation and the settlement. The shearing resistance of the soil provides the bearing capacity while the consolidation propecties determine the settlement. The bearing capacity is obtained using Terzaghi’s equations. The footings for Abutments and Piers are rectangular and Terzaghi’s equation for a rectangular footing will be applicable. Hence the ultimate bearing capacity = Ne (1#03BM) + yx(Nq-1) + 0S0yBN, (1-02B/L) “where ¢ =" cohesion width, Length ensity Jepth ‘Neo, Nq and Ny are beering capacity coefficients. (a) Abutment Location ‘A borehole log is provided for a proposed Abutment of width Sm. At depth 2m, the cohesion = 65 KN/m2 and angle of internal friction = 20 degrees. Obtain the net ultimate bearing capacity of the foundation Terzaghi's strip footing formula is applied. Phi=20 q(net) = cNe+ yz (Nq-l)+0.5y BN Ne=17.7 = 6517.7 + 18x2 (7.4-1)+0,5x18x5x5 Ng=74 (606 KN/m2 Ny=50 ————afsafe}=-1606/2.5 + 182 = 678KNim2b) Pier Location This location requires # rectangular footing. (net) = cNo(1+0.3 BIL) + yz (Nq-l)+ 0.5 y BN, (1-0.2 B/L) The net bearing capacity is multiplied by a correction factor,ew, where the ‘water table is located within the vicinity of the foundation level few = 0.8 + (0.5 x Dw)(DPB)] (i) Piled Foundations Cohesive Soils ‘The load carrying capacity ofa pile depends on two factors - the end bearing pressure ~ the skin adhesion or friction a. End Bearing - For deep foundations Ne = 9, Ifthe base area = A; the end bearing capacity = 9cA b. Skin Friction ‘This is the load transmitted to the soil surrounding the shaft of the pile. If surface cohesion = k.cu for a surface area As, then skin friction = k cuAs ‘The adhesion factor ‘k’ depends on the undrained shear strength but usually taken as 0.45 for bored piles and 0.8 for driven piles, In General for Cohesive soils, q = 9cA+kcAs, Cohesionless Soils Design parameters for piles in granular soils are usually obtained from the results of insitu penetration tests because of the difficulty involved in obtaining undisturbed samples. In 1953 Peck-et-al proposed the relationship between the Uncorrected N-value from SPT and the Angle of friction of the soils. Berezantzev showed the relationship of Nq with O The ultimate bearing capacity for piles considering end bearing only is volume of displaced soils x density of soil x Nq ie pi/4x @yHxNq where d = diameter of piles H = depth of penetration of piles y= Density of Soils Nq_ = bearing capacity factor A factor of safety of 2.5 is applied to this to obtain the safe bearing capacity. Refer to Appendix for curvesDEPTH(m) Meyerhof Correlations Here the ultimate load is given by Qf =" “Abaf + Asts where gf = 40ND/B KN/m2 less than or equal to 400N KNim? and fs = IN KNém2 The safe ultimate load, QF (safe) — QP2 for aFootor of Safoty — 2 The Dutch Cone (a) De Beer’s Method The results of the dutch cone penetration produce the graph below: 2 416 “8 10 # 12. MNae ae 3 2 ; a2 : i | 2 12 i ¥-= 0.3 x 600/36 = Sm (must be less than 20B) The ultimate load on the pile QE = Abgf + Asti qf should not exceed 10 MN/m? and fs = qo/200The allowable load is subject toF of S = 2.5 (b) Meyerhof Method The following values have been proposed by Meyerhof (1965) for driven piles: Fb =CD/10B KN/m2 Where C is the cone resistance at the tip (iii) B= dia of piles D = depth of penetration End bearing =F x Ab 'r/200 KN/m2_ for dense sand =Cr/400_kN/m2 for loose sand = Cr/150 KNim2 for silt Use @ factor of safety of 3. Skin friction Piles on Rock ‘These piles depend on their structural strength, and are designed as columns. The ultimate load that can be supported by the pile is N= 04 feuAc + 0.67 fy As The piles must be embedded at least one metre into the rock, 6.0 (iv) Driven Piles ‘The minimum ares of steel for driven piles As depends on the L/D ratio ForL/D less than 30, use 1.25% of area of pile. L/D between 30 and 40,use 1.50% L/D greater than 40, use 2% ‘The allowable load is subject to a F of S of 2.5. Pile Driving Formula Al pile driving formulae are based on the assumption that the bearing capacity of ¢ pile under static conditions bears a simple relationship to its resistance to driving for the last metre or so. In 1925 Hiley developed the rational formula for pile driving, but a popular formula for pile ériving, but a popular formula for checking the final set in pile driving is the Engineering News formula, Here where R= (1000/6)xE(S#2.54) : R allowable pile load in kilonewtons E the energy per blow in KNm (or KJ)S = _ the average penetration in millimetres per blow for the final 150mm of driving (note that the minimum permissible value of S = 1.25mm) For Delmag Diesel Hammers, the energy per blow for each model is shown below: D-12 30.51 ‘D2 53.83 Determine the required set for a pile driving operation utilising a Model D-22 Delmag Diesel Hammer for an allowable pile load of 600KN. Using the Engineering News formulae, we have, S$ +254 1000/6 x ER =" 166.6 x 53.82/600 = 14.94 ; S =. 12mm per blow Hence the refusal value of 12mm per blow subject to a minimum of 1.25mm per blow for the final 150mm-of driving is adopted within the minimum length of pile shown on the drawings. It is very essential to test a few selected piles to confirm agreement with design parameters. 7.0 FORCES ON ABUTMENT Horizontal Forces @ Earth Pressure GG) Live load surcharge crested by either HA or HB loading Gii) Braking forces (iv) Temperature forces acting through bearings Vertical forces @ Abutment own weight Gi) Superstructure dead load Gi) Superimposed dead lood _..This includes parapets, walkways and Asphaltic concrete (iv) HA and BB live loads () Pedestrian load on walkways. 8.0 | ABUTMENT ARRANGEMENTS ‘A typical arrangement is shown below:@_ Heel emphasis strip footing or pile cap abutment stem backwall or ballast wall - side wall cantilevered return wall or EAR fun on slab or Approach slab = Superstructure Plinth and bearing support = Curtain wall Peranawpe ther Arrangements - (1) Ear Abutment with Toe Emphasis5826/(3.5°12) +2971 * 1.75/((12/12*3.5")) 139 + 12 260 KNim2 PL P2- = — 18KN/m2 ‘Compare these values with the safe bearing pressure of the underlying soil. 9.2 Abutment on Piles Consider the same abutment under LC 4 Take pile capacity for dia 450 = 900KN In this case, choose the number of piles and make a trial arrangement, Locate the centre of gravity of piles and find the moment of Inertia of the piles The Load on an extreme pile = Vin + Myf whereV = _—_—_vertieal load y= distance from centre of piles to extreme pile M ‘moment about centre of piles n= roffiles x moment of iner dia 450 PILES 750 fo g 3500 I zigma ? == 10*(1.0" =10 N ‘S8Bq/10+2974 * 1.0/10 gk tatty 874, Ne 2BSSKN 2d,Check these valves against the bearing capacity of tho piles 1 Distance between centre line of piles = 2.5 * dia of piles for driven piles, and 2 Distance hetween centre-line of piles = 2. * dia of piles for bored piles subject to a clear distance of 750mm. * CHECK FOR RAKING HIV = 225 +2218 /58$4 = 0.416 gn tana = 2443/5816 = = 0.419 a = DDdegrecee 23D dugeees According to Berezantsev, ra ~ no piling Tor ‘alpha less than $ degrees - raking is provided for alpha between 5 and 15 degrees, and deadman piles should be provided for angles greater than fifteen degrees, For alpha of 22.7 degrees, deadman pipes are réquired and back row piles will be uilsed for this purpose 10.0 STRUCTURAL DESIGN 10.1. Abutment stem with Ear This is treated as a cantilever wall subjected by Earth Pressure, self weight forces and forces fiom the Superstructure, Moments are taken about the centre of the stem base. Design is based on the ultimate limit state. j ‘The Design will normally reduce a beam design with increased moment. ‘The EAR wall is subjected to vertical and horizontal forces. ‘These arc statically determinate, ‘The footing will be designed subjected to bearing pressure forces or pile loads10.2 Abutment with side wall with EAR, Here the Abutment wall is supported on three sides and design is based on tables from the German book “Analysis & Design of thin-walled bridge abutments” by __ Prof Dring Josef Eibt Prof Dr-Ing Gyorgy Ivanyi Dipl-ing Herbert Schambeck. 11.0 PILE DESIGN Under service, conditions, the pile ig subjected to axial, shear and flexural stresses arising out of the components of the forces at the base of the pile cap. ‘The ultimate moment generated by the ultimate horizontal shear may be worked out following “Broms Method? or Hetenyi principles, The pile can then be designed for Vertical Load and Moment. ‘The upper part of the pile is also checked for shear to obtain the required shear links. SUMMARY 1. Decide on pile length to accommodate the ultimate vertical load. Determine Moment on Obiain final reinforcements from the standard graphs of Axial load and Moments. 12.0 FURTHER READINGS 1. Pennelis, (1978) Concrete Bridge Designers Manual A view point Publication. 2. Smith, GN & Pole, El (1986) Elements of Foundation Design Granada 3. Craig, R. F, (1987) Soil Mechanics Van Nostrand Reinhold (UK) 4, Lambe, TW & Whitman, RV: (1979) Soil Mechanics: Wiley Bastern Limited 5 Mallick, S. K. & Gupta, AP. (1989) Reinforced Concrete (Fifth Edition) Oxford & IBH Publishing Co PVT Ltd 6, EibVIvanyi/Schambeck (1988) Analysis & Design of thin-walled bridge abutments (Third Edition)Wemer-Verlag Sawko, F (1968) A simplified approach to the analys ‘The Structural Engineer Vol. 46, No. 3, March 1968 of piling systems Ola, 8. A. (1989) Geotechnical Engineering Problems, Solutions & Case Studies African Universities Press Peck, RB et al (1974) Foundation Engineering Wiley Eastern LimitedTHE DESIGN OF CONCRETE BRIDGES Topic: PRESTRESSED CONCRETE | BRIDGE DESIGN: By Engr D 0 Okuoimose PRINCIPAL PARTNER DAVE DESIGN GROUP A FOUR DAY COURSE ORGANISED BY THE NIGERIAN SOCIETY OF ENGINEERS BENIN BRANCH A THE UNIVERSITY OF BENIN JUNE 13-16,2000THE DESIGN OF CONCRETE BRIDGES COMPOSITE BRIDGE DECK BEHAVIOUR Top Presenter: Engr. D. O. OKUOIMOSE CEng FICE FIHT (London), Eur-ing (Paris), MIABSE (Zurich) “PRINCIPAL PARTNER DAVE DESIGN GROUP Preamble Composite Bridge Decks are common in Nigeria, At one time in the sixties, Universal beam steel bridges were popular and described as composite bridge decks. ‘The truth is that the word ‘composite’ simply means a combination of two materials of different characteristies. ‘Composite Bridge Deck comprises: 1 Precast Beam ane Insitu siab composite 2, Steel Beam and Slab Composite This paper will in the first instance discuss the Precast Beam Composite. The use of precast beam has become popular with bridge engineers and contractors alike in Nigeria since the availability of cranes for erection, and the increased cost of imported steel beams Aii example of a Precast Beam Composite is the Chokocho Bridge over Otamiri River in Rivers State. 2.0 HIGHWAY LOADING This bridge is designed to BS 5400 Part 2: 1978 ‘This British Standard has been tevised by the Department of Transport Memo 37/88 ‘The major aspect of the revision is in the ITA live Load and the translation of the notional lane 2.1: BS5400 1978 a. HAmeans Highway Type A ‘The HAUDL is a formula loading which is given by w 151(W/L) "“”* KN/m of notional lane whereL = span in metres ‘The maximum value is 30KN/m of notional lane for up to 30 metres. ‘The notional lanc has a minimum value of 2.3m and a maximum value of 3.8m “The Trav consists of a UDL Loading and 2 knife-edge Load of 120KN per notional lane ‘Also the ITA may be replaced by a concentrated wheel Load of 100 KN acting on an area of 300mm by 300mm b. HB means Highway Type B Loading, This is a unit Loading which consists of 4 axles of 4 wheels each. Each axle is lOKN‘THE BRIDGE DECK BEIAVIOUR. Enge D © OKUOIMOSE: JUNE 2000 Desigis are based on 25 to 45 units of HB loading in Nigeria. 45 units are stipulated for Expressways and Trunk’A roads, while 25 units for other minor roads, ‘The HB design vehicle is purely a Design Vehicle and does not exist in rea lite Application Full HA loading occupies two lanes in a 3-notional lane carriageway while the third lane is occupied by one-third HA. When HD is applic, the HB vehicle straddles two lanes, anda full HA loading is applied to the third lane. 2.2. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT MEMO BD 37/88 ‘The HA Loading is still a formula loading but the expression is now represented by w = 336(1/L)°7 KNim of notional lane up to a maximum span of 50m; and wos 36(1/L)°' —_KN/m for spans between 50m and 1600m. The notional lane is now taken as 3.65m for lanes more than two and the HA formula is keyed {o this value, For a differing notional lane, the HA loading should be modified accordingly. ‘The minimum value of notional name is 2.50m. The HB loading is still unchanged APPLICATION For a three notional lane, full HA occupies two lanes while the third lane takes 0.6 HA for a loaded length of 20 metres. For greater loaded lengths refer to Table 14 of the Memo. HB vehicle straddles two lanes for a carriageway of 8 metres while the third lane takes full HA. 3.0 LOAD DISTRIBUTION «Four possible ways of Load distribution + Simple beam static load distribution * Guyon load distribution + Grillage Analysis « Finite Element Method Fhe Guyonload_distribution has been adopted, Under this, we haye a the Morris & Little Method. b the Guyon-Massonnet-Bares Method‘THE BRIDGE DECK BEHAVIOUR Enge DO OKUOIMOSE: JUNE 2000 ‘The Morris & Little Method uses tabular procedures in which for any load position, forces are distributed (o the standard positions to obtain the distributed coefficient of each beam. The Arithmetic involved is tedious. It was acceptable for BS 153:1972 when the bridge was required to be checked for HB Loading. But the advent of BS5400:1978, when various load positions are required, it becomes necessary to plot an influence line for the required beam, position. This is the method adopted in this paper ‘The Guyon tables are enclosed for reference, 4.0 COMPOSITE SLAB ‘The slab consists of 80 mm of permanent formwork which forms a composite slab with the 120mm of insitu slab, ‘The method of calculating the amount of links to cater for the horizontal shear is shown. ‘The Local forces in the slab is calculated using the Pucher Charts. Bittner’s Tables can also be used. The use of Westerpaard Method is no longer recommended. 5.0 FURTHER READING 1 KUMAR, A (1988) Composite Concrete Bridge Superstructures BCA 2. KUMAK, A (1988) Detailed Design of Composite Bridge Supersractres BCA 3. OVERSEAS ROAD NOTE 9 (1992) ‘A Design Manual for Small Bridges, TRRL 4, CLARK, L.A (1983) Conorete Bridge Design to BS5400 CONSTRUCTION PRESS: J DERRICK BECKETT (1973) Design of conerete Bridges SURREY UNIVERSITY PRESS 6, ROWE, RE (1962) Conetete Bridge Design CR BROOKS LTD o) BARES,R & — MASSONNET, C (1968) "Analysis of beam grids & orthrotopic plates CROSSBY LOCKWOOD LTD 8, PETROS P. XANTIIAKOS (1994) Theory & Design of Bridges JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC‘THE BRIDGE DECK BEL Engr DO OKUOIMOSE: JUNE 2000 APPENDIX CHOKOCHO BRIDGE OVER OTAMIRI RIVER IN RIVERS STATE BRIDGE DECK STATICAL CALCULATIONS 1 STRUCTURE ‘The total length ofthe bridge is 60 metres and is made up of four spans of 15 metres cach, : ‘The superstructure consists of eleven beams of 700 mm deep by 350 mm wide spaced 1020 mm apart and topped by a precast slab of 80 mm deep as permanent formwork with an insitu slab of 120 mm thick, The carriageway is 8 metres flanked by 1.5 metres walkway with precast parapet walls on both sides 2. STANDARDS: - BS 5400 Part 2: 1978 - BS $400 pan. 4 : 1990 - Load Distribution Coefficients by Bares & Massonnet (1965) = Pucher Charts by Adolf Pucher (1977) © Precast beam to grade 30 concrete ~ _Insitu slab to grade 30 concrete - Precast slab to grade 30 concrete = Steel to grade 410 (high yield to type 2 bond characteristics) . ‘Weight of concrete = 24 KN/m* 4. STRUCTURAL ARRANGEMENTS: i) Longitudinal Beam41) Amternal tseam RIDGE DECK BEHAVIOUR wn Moment of Inertia Esternal Beam Moment of Inertia iv) ‘Transverse Section 0 = 0.03347 mt perth tele! a} Enge DO OKUOIMOSE: JUNE 2000 ~ 1 0.0284 m* ———_ 11000 7 20 ] 700 400 1020 1020 (11 beams)‘THE BRIDGE DECK BEHAVIOUR. PARAMETERS - Effective span = = Width - Flexural Parameter = - Torsional Parameter = - Distribution factors: HA Lane | Lane 2 Lane 3 HB Walkway Parapet, Asphalt 6, BEAM DESIGN ‘The penultimate beam is mostly stressed Engr DO OKUOIMOSE: JUNE 2000 14.40 metres = 11 metres 1.0 0.410 0.18 > 0.035 = 0.15 - 0.31 = 0.34 = 0.215 1020 200 2. 600 700 1 100 350 To stages are considered: a) Construction Stage Loading 1) 0.70 x 0.350 x 24 = Nominal KNim Design KN/m 5.88 176‘THE BRIDGE DECK BEHAyIUUK 2). 1020x 02x24 = 4.896 6.46 3) Constr. load = 19x10000 = 153 2,526.14 Moment - 16.74 x (14.4)/8 434 KNm As 7 2386 mm’ ‘As (without construction load) = 2028mm* b) Working stage ‘Nominal KN/m, - Parapet = 2.154 3.64 = Walkway = 3.434 415 - Surfacing, - 0.75516.65 1.10/8.89 Moment a 8.89 x (14.40)7 8 - 230 KNm Moment (Nominal) = 12KNm Moment HB <= 3252 x0.15 x13 be 698 KNm HA = Nil Walkway Liveload = = 5.2x(14.4)78 x O31x1.5= 69/767 Total = SDL = — 230KNm HA& HB os 767 KNm 297 KNm As = 3678 mm* (ford = 800) Total Steel 3678 + 2028 = 5706 mm* Howie Use8 32 (6432 mm?)(THE BRIDGE DECK BEHAVIOUR Enge D 0 OKUOIMOSE: JUNE 2000 7. SHEAR Dead Load Shear - 107 KN VI = (107 x 1000350 600) 0.509 Nimm? Live Load (1HB),Shear A From wo fiomaxies = (117 + 12.6)(14.4 x 117) 220 KN Fromtworearaxies = 3560.15 = S4KN Total = = 274 Design = 274 x1,3 x 1.1 - 392 KN SDL Shear = 8.89 x 14.95/2 = OTKN Walkway Live Load Shear é = 18KN Total Shear from working stage=382 + 67 + 18 = 477KN Va 1.703 N/mm? v VitVe2 9 = 221 Némm* Yo. 0,702 N/mm? Provide Shear Reinforcement Awisy = 1.48 T1250, Asvisv 1,507 (2 legs) 716250, Asv/sv. = 1.608 Use 112/300 (4 legs) 8. DEFLECTIONS Proeast beam supporting Insitu slab d= KM/EL = 24mm SDL, cs = Bmm Total = mxB 0 37mm Provide a parabolic hog of 40 mm ax FOr HB da Walkway liveload, dy = 2mm Total = 19mm (less than Span/500=28mm) 17mm‘THE BRIDGE DECK BEHAVIOUR 200 Engr D © OKUOIMOSE: SUNE 2000 n E SHEAR Bi IN PRECAST. 1020 ‘ = A = 0.204m* ates 1 = og3e7mt pol v= zon 334 350 Vertical Shear = 520KN 4 = _ ($20.x 1000 x 0.204 x 0.246)/(0.03347 x 0.290 x 1000000) 2.689 Nim? Longitudinal shear force / unit length Vr = 2.689290 = 780Nimm (less than max of 783 from code) ‘Area of vertical steel = (780 - 0.450 x 290/(0.7x410) = 2263 mm*im TryT16/150= — 1340x2 = 2680: mm*im. Minimum As = (0.15 x 290 x 1000Y1000 = 435 mmm Use T 12/150 links DECK SLAB DESIGN ood aso‘THE BRIDGE DECK BEHAVIOUR Engr DO Of Local Wheel Effect Moments Moment x direction 22.65 KNm Moment y direction = 10.24 KNm 0 Mx (hogging) = 27KNm Dead Load Moments M sagging = 027KNm M — Hogging = 036KNm Global Eflect Moments Sagging = 44KNm Summary Dead Load 027 20:36 Local Moments B -27 Global Moments La 2 or 28 Reinforcements Sagging = M 67KNm 200 80 KUOIMOSE: JUNE 2000 Distribution ul 11 KNmTHE BRIDGE DECK BEMAVIOUR Engr D 0. OKUOIMOSE: JUNK 2000 Morizontal Shear q = SAY/b = = (1.65 N/mm? VL = 1530. N/mm? VL = 2411 Nimm> 1530 Area oflinks = 3870 mm"/m Provide T 12/150 = 754 x & = 4524 mm? > 3870 (6 legs) 190 190 190 100 100 T1250 80 80 80 930TK URIDGE DECK BEIIAVIOUR Enge D 0 ORUUMUDE. sv. LOAD DISTRIBUTION 3 2 1 HAB HA HA rao | HA ib a a c sms Cee Bee he be ee .-b -BMb 2 be Ce ee DISTRIBUTION DF for: (K/I1) FACTORS HA(1) 0.18 HAQ) 0.035 03 HAG) ° HB o.1s Walkway == 035028) | og : Parapet. = = (0.34 (0.30) Tree _— Asphalt = § 0215 Note: Values in brackets are the corrected checkers values"THE BRIDGE DECK BEHAVIOUR Engr DO OKUOIMOSE: JUNE 2000 BEAM DRAWINGS OUTLINE ota Sl 14950 ELEVATION 67 5 I 1, 34 1 PLAN we ; —<___________+. i.» , I" bed —= ——— BAR SHAPES $ 1~47323710) 2-47 32(12000) 2-732 +4-4T322 S$-8T12 4720 8732 ,Engr D 0 OKUOIMO: ‘MTU BRIDGE DECK BEHAVIOUR 0] 10 6 7 s Hl [8 2 in 34 12 350 COVER 10 mm 0 i 140 a so 610 OQ 497 12/300 (1770) G. 49'T 12/300 (2020) | 260 400 400 @ 99 T16/150 (1060)