Towards

Culturally
Responsive
Schooling:
WHAT CLASSROOM TEACHERS
CAN DO TO HELP CLOSE THE GAP
IN EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT
FOR BRITISH COLUMBIAS
ABORIGINAL STUDENTS.

By Alana
Giesbrecht
ETEC 521
August 2013

Table of Contents
Introduction
The current status of
Aboriginal
education in BC
The colonial legacy and other
contributing factors
Western v Aboriginal values
Initiatives for change
Culturally responsive
schooling
Strategies for teachers
References

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Slides 9-12

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13-18
19-24
25-30
31-38
39-41
2

Public schools in British Columbia have been

successful in recent years, by some
standards. Changes have been implemented
to increase the quality of education for
students, including:
more flexible curriculum
anti-bullying strategies
and additional funding to improve literacy
levels. (Province of British Columbia, 2013a)

So
3

Why are more

changes
necessary?

A segment of British Columbias students is

not being adequately served by the current
educational system. According to the report
Education Achievements of Aboriginal
Students in BC (Heslop, 2009), Aboriginal
students have lower educational
achievements than their non-Aboriginal
counterparts
in many areas.
Aboriginal
students
comprise
10% of BCs
student
population

???

Aboriginal
Students
NonAboriginal
Students

This disparity includes the following:

Only 64% of Aboriginal
students in Grade 11
continued directly to Grade
12, as compared to 83% of
non-Aboriginal students

Only 47% of
Aboriginal
students
complete their
high school
graduation
within six
years of
entering Grade
8, as compared
to 79% of nonAboriginal
(Heslop,
2009)
students
6

eople
Many Aboriginal p
h
complete their hig
later in
n
o
ti
a
u
d
ra
g
l
o
o
h
sc
ll a
life, but there is sti
BCs
gap: Only 69% of
ged
Aboriginal adults a
ted
25-64 have comple
mpared
o
c
s
a
l,
o
o
h
c
s
h
ig
h
riginal
o
b
-A
n
o
n
f
o
%
8
8
to
age
adults in the same
bracket

Only 8% of
Aboriginal high
school graduates
were enrolled in an
d
completed
prerequisite course
s
to make them
eligible for universit
y
entrance, as
compared to 31% o
f
non-Aboriginal
Academic GPA Distributions of Aboriginalst
vs.
udNon-Aboriginal
ents
High School Graduates

(Heslop, 2009,

These discrepancies contribute to the low socio-economic status of many Aboriginal

people, and indicate systemic problems in BCs public education system.

Educational Attainment of British Columbians, Age 25-64, Aboriginal vs.

Non-Aboriginal People

(Heslop, 2009, p4)

8

The statistics only tell part of

the story, however. Questions
remain, the most important
being Why?

The answer is complex and is

related to the colonial legacy.
9

Canadas Aboriginal peoples are still dealing

with the effects of colonialism; it is not a
historical issue but a current problem. The
denial of Aboriginal distinctiveness , the
removal of children from families, the severed
links between culture and spirituality, the
erosion of languages, the undermining of
traditional leadership, the denial of political
rights and the right to self-determination are
all factors that contribute to low educational
achievement (Kovacs, 2009, p7). Canadas
Aboriginal peoples share this common history,
and it makes their contemporary experience
different than that of non-Aboriginal peoples. 10

Unfortunately, BCs public

school curriculum and
teaching pedagogy have not
fully responded to this reality
and are often still
Eurocentric. Particularly in
urban schools, Aboriginal
students face a lack of
support for their holistic
well-being (Dupuis, 2012,
p194), which is contrary to
traditional Aboriginal
philosophies.
This is another contributing
factor to low educational
achievement for Aboriginal
students.
11

Further complicating matters, the technology that is

at the forefront of BCs provincial educational goals
(Province of British Columbia, 2013b) is often
harmful to Aboriginal students cultural selves and
ways of knowing. Educational technology initiatives
have been implemented without consultation with
Aboriginal peoples, sometimes resulting in the
further immersion of Aboriginal students in Western
doctrine. Although the
provincial government believes that it
is critical that Aboriginal communities
continue to explore ways of adopting
and using learning technologies to avoid
falling deeper into the digital divide
(Greenall & Loizides, 2001), each
Aboriginal community has different
needs.
12

There are significant

differences between the values
of Aboriginal cultures and the
values of Western culture; the
dominant presence of Western
values in education has
contributed to many of the
problems already discussed.
Although it is dangerous to
generalize the values of any
culture, or to assume that a
pan-Aboriginal culture exists,
there are some common
factors that can
be mentioned.

Stop sign in Osoyoos , BC.

Photograph by Alana Giesbrecht.

13

The values of Western culture spring from a

former emphasis on Christianity and a current
emphasis on scientific fact, as well as an
overarching subscription to capitalism. In terms of
education, this has translated to classrooms
where:
students work independently
knowledge must be factual
literature and texts are Eurocentric
technology is unquestioningly embraced
progress is prioritized over tradition
learning is competitive
learning often takes place in artificial settings
learning is separated from the
environment/community.
14

Conversely, Aboriginal cultures

education values:
collaborative learning
a merging of spiritual knowledge
with other knowledge forms
oral texts and history
tradition
experiential, place-based learning
holistic learning supported by community
members and elders
(Fryberg, Troop-Gordon, et al, 2013; Battiste & Henderson,
2009)

15

These two divergent frames of reference have created

friction for Aboriginal students in Western classrooms. There
is a cultural mismatch between teachers, a continuingly
culturally homogenous group, and their students, who are
increasingly culturally diverse. Fryberg, Troop-Gordon, et al
(2013) hypothesize that a lack of educational attainment in
Aboriginal students springs from a mismatch in the cultures
of teachers and their students Aboriginal students
cultures emphasize
interconnectedness and interdependence,
whereas mainstream education tends to
value independence and assertiveness
(1). This divide leads to Aboriginal students
feeling alienated from the educational
setting.
16

Going a step beyond the idea of cultural

friction, Battiste and Henderson (2009)
explain why some Aboriginal students
seem disengaged from education. They
assert the idea that through its
applications and teachings, [Eurocentric
knowledge] has long ignored, neglected,
or rejected Indigenous knowledge as
primitive, barbaric, and inferior, centering
and privileging European methodologies
and perspectives (6). This dismissive
and critical atmosphere does not nourish
the learning of Aboriginal students.
17

Part of the harm that has been caused has been

through applications of technology, although
technology does have the potential to further enable
Aboriginal cultures renaissance. How do
communities strike a balance between sharing cultural
property and protecting it? How is the authenticity of
information determined and authority for use
granted? (Nickerson & Kaufman, 2012, p11). And,
how do students in the online world become
appropriately exposed to cultures outside of the
mainstream Western influence? Cultural
misappropriation and misleading Aboriginal
representation online have led to misinformation for
students and pose a threat to Aboriginal cultures.
18

The combination of all these

factors has led to a situation
that the provincial
government, Aboriginal
leaders, BC Teachers
Federation, and local school
boards are attempting to
correct.
19

The government of BC acknowledges

that British Columbia schools have
not been successful in ensuring that
Aboriginal students receive a quality
education, one that allows these
students to succeed in the larger
provincial economy while maintaining
ties to their culture (Province of
British Columbia, 2013c). One effort to
address this has been the creation of
Aboriginal Education Enhancement
Agreements (EAs).
20

An EA is an agreement between a school district,

all local Aboriginal communities, and the Ministry
of Education to improve the education of
Aboriginal students in a culturally responsive
manner. The EA establishes a collaborative
partnership between Aboriginal communities and
school districts that involves shared decisionmaking and specific goal setting to meet the
educational needs of Aboriginal students
(Province of British Columbia, 2013c).

21

Fifty of BCs sixty school districts have signed EAs,

declaring that academic performance along with
Aboriginal programs and the preservation of
Aboriginal culture and languages are paramount.
Sample goals from an EA include:
increase the number of Aboriginal
students meeting expectations in
reading
increase the number of Aboriginal
students completing high school
increase Aboriginal students cultural pride
increase Aboriginal students sense of belonging at
school.
(Province of British Columbia, 2007).
These goals are followed by specific strategies for the
school district to enact in cooperation with local 22
Aboriginal communities.

Another positive change at the provincial government level

is a new examination of the values in mainstream
education. BCs Education Plan states a commitment to
basic skills such as literacy and numeracy, as well as an
intention to change curriculum to reflect twenty-first
century values and necessary competencies such as selfreliance, critical thinking, inquiry, creativity, problem
solving, innovation, teamwork and collaboration, crosscultural understanding, and technological literacy
(Province of British Columbia 2013a, p4). Some of these
competencies, such as teamwork, collaboration, and crosscultural understanding, could make BCs classrooms more
responsive to Aboriginal students.
23

However, these are all

large scale, governmentlevel strategies that will
take time to implement.
What can classroom teachers do to improve
the learning of their Aboriginal students, right
now?
24

Teachers CAN and SHOULD practice culturally

responsive schooling; they already have the
individual autonomy to begin immediate
implementation in their own practice.

What is culturally
responsive schooling? Its
education that uses the
cultural knowledge, prior
experiences, frames of
reference, and
performance styles of
ethnically diverse
students to make learning
more relevant and
effective for them (Gay,
2002).
25

Culturally responsive schooling assumes that

a firm grounding in the heritage language and
culture indigenous to a particular tribe is a
fundamental prerequisite for the development
of culturally healthy students and communities
associated with that place, and thus is an
essential ingredient for identifying the
appropriate qualities and practices associated
with culturally responsive educators,
curriculum, and schools (Alaska Native
Knowledge Network, 1998).
26

The aim of having culturally healthy students

should be important to educators, because
students high cultural identification correlates
with higher grades and stronger teacherstudent relationships (Fryberg, Troop-Gordon,
et al, 2013). Furthermore, students strong
relationships with their teachers correlate to
lower dropout rates (Popp, Grant, & Stronge,
2011). So, fostering the cultural health of
students is part of the solution to BCs poor
history with Aboriginal education.
27

Culturally responsive schooling is not a new idea; it

grew out of educational anthropology research in
the 1980s that noticed student motivation, power
relations, resistance, language/culture and
cognition, motivation, and learning styles differed
between students in majority versus minority
cultures (Castagno & Brayboy, 2008, p945).
However, despite the presence of the literature,
classrooms have not adjusted sufficiently to the
knowledge.

28

Castagno and Brayboy suggest that culturally

responsive schooling has not yet reformed
educational pedagogy because the research
findings are too easily reduced to
essentializations, meaningless generalizations,
or trivial anecdotes that lack the power to
create lasting change (2008, p941). This means
that classrooms that have been predominantly
based in Western culture need to make
transformative changes token or temporary
efforts will have no effect. However, when
teachers fully implement culturally responsive
schooling, students academic outcomes are
better and there are fewer behavioral incidents
(Bazron, Osher, & Fleischmann, 2005; Mancini,
2007).
29

Teachers need to reflect

carefully on their own
values, both personal and
pedagogical, to be aware
of their own culturally
driven practices. Only after
that awareness has been reached
will they be able to create lessons
and classrooms that are culturally
responsive.

30

Teachers will have to

individually determine the
exact practices that will render
their lessons culturally
responsive, according to the
discipline they teach and the
cultural diversity of their
classroom. However, general
suggestions can be given:

31

How can I be culturally

responsive?
Learn about students cultures to better
understand their frame of reference.
Maybe theyre refusing eye contact out of
respect, not defiance Maybe certain
topics are too sensitive for classroom
discussion.

32

How can I be culturally

responsive?
Incorporate Aboriginal authorship into lessons,
welcome Aboriginal expert speakers, and invite
students to bring in texts that represent their own
culture(s) (Willinsky, 2006). Remember that the
texts normally used, the Western canon of
novels, stories, poems, and plays, are just a habit
rather than a curricular demand: culturally
responsive texts could be substituted (Johnston,
2006).

33

How can I be culturally

responsive?
Have high academic
expectations for
Aboriginal students, and
provide the academic
support and scaffolding
to help them succeed.
Avoid course selections
that remove university
eligibility (Bazron, Osher,
& Fleischmann, 2005).
34

How can I be culturally

responsive?
Use instructional methods that correspond with students cultural
norms.
For instance, if the students cultural norm has people achieving tasks
in
collaboration with
one another rather
than in competition
with each other, use
group work in class
and assign collaborative
projects. Try to make
learning experiential, or
consider the use of story
as an instructional tool, if
that matches the students cultural norm (Archibald, 2008).
35

How can I be culturally responsive?

Be prepared for students to take varying

amounts of time to process their thoughts
before they respond verbally this is a
cultural practice that varies widely between
Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal cultures.
(Bazron, Osher, & Fleischmann, 2005).

36

How can I be culturally

responsive?
Be careful that disciplinary
methods do not cause
humiliation to the student,
or damage the students
self-esteem. Remember
that many behaviors are
explicable from the
students cultural point of
view, and that when
discipline is necessary,
Aboriginal restorative
methods are effective.
37

How can I be culturally

responsive?
Finally, have conversations with
students about different knowledge
systems so that Western knowledge is
not presented ahead of other
knowledge systems.

38

References
Alaska Native Knowledge Network. (1998). Alaska standards for culturally-responsive schools (adopted by the
Assembly of Alaska Native Educators). Retrieved from http://www.ankn.uaf.edu/publications/culturalstandards.pdf
Archibald, J. (2008). Indigenous storywork: Educating the heart, mind, body, and spirit. Vancouver BC: UBC Press.
Battiste, M., & Henderson, J. S. Y. (2009). Naturalizing Indigenous knowledge in Eurocentric education. Canadian Journal
of Native Education, 32(1), 5-18.
Bazron, B., Osher, D., & Fleischmann, F. (2005). Creating culturally responsive schools. The Whole Child 63 (1), p83-84.
Castagno, A. E., & Brayboy, B. M. J. (2008). Culturally responsive schooling for Indigenous youth: A review of the
literature. Review of Educational Research 7 (8), 941-993. DOI: 10.3102/0034654308323036.
Dupuis, J. K. (2012). Supporting urban Aboriginal social justice in education: A case study of the educational leaders
roles,
responsibilities, and relationships as care providers. Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.
Fryberg, S. A., Troop-Gordon, W., DArrisso, A., Flores, H., Poniszovskiy, V., Ranney, Burack, J. A. (2013). Cultural
mismatch and the education of Aboriginal youths: The interplay of cultural identities and teacher ratings.
Developmental Psychology, 49, (1), 72-79. DOI 10.1037/a0029056
Gay, G. (2002). Culturally responsive teaching. New York: Teachers College Press.
Greenall, D. & Loizides, S. (2001). Aboriginal Digital Opportunities: Addressing Aboriginal Learning Needs
Through the Use of Learning Technologies. Retrieved from http://fnbc.info/userfiles/file/_pdf/ Tools%20&%20Resources
%20fntc/Aboriginal%20digital%20opportunities%20report.pdf

39

References, cont.
Heslop, J. (March 2009). Education Achievements of Aboriginal Students in BC. Retrieved from
http://www.aved.gov.bc.ca/student_transitions/documents/STP_aboriginal_report.pdf
Johnston, I. (2006). Engaged Differences: School Reading Practices, Postcolonial Literatures, and Their Discontents. In
Yatta Kanu (Ed.), Curriculum as Cultural Practice (116 - 130). Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press.
Kovacs, P. (2009). Synthesis Report of the Aboriginal Knowledge Learning Centres Literature Reviews: Responsive
Educational Systems. Saskatoon, SK: Canadian Council on Learning, Aboriginal Knowledge Centre.
Mancini, R. (2007). Telling their stories. Education Forum, 33(2), 15-17.
Nickerson, M. & Kaufman, J. (2012). Aboriginal Culture in the Digital Age. Retrieved from
http://www.kta.on.ca/pdf/AboriginalCultureinaDigitalAge.pdf
Popp, P. A., Grant, L. W., & Stronge, J. H. (2011). Effective teachers for at-risk or highly mobile students:
What are the dispositions or behaviors of award-winning teachers? Journal of Education for Students Placed At Risk, 16
(4), 275-291.
Province of British Columbia (2007). Aboriginal Enhancement Agreement 2007-2012: SD#34 (Abbotsford). Retrieved
from http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/abed/agreements/sd34.pdf
Province of British Columbia (2013a). BCs Education Plan. Retrieved from
http://www.bcedplan.ca/assets/pdf/bc_edu_plan.pdf
Province of British Columbia (2013b). Ministry of Education Transformation Plan. Retrieved from
http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/pubs/tt-plan/2013-2014_bced_tt_plan.pdf

40

References, cont.
Province of British Columbia (2013c). Aboriginal Education Enhancement Agreements. Retrieved from
http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/abed/agreements/
Willinksy, J. (2006). High School Postcolonial: As the Students Ran Ahead with the Theory . In Yatta Kanu (Ed.),
Curriculum as Cultural Practice (95-115). Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press.

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