Biology Unit 2

Reproductive Questions and Key Concepts

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Asexual reproduction
Reproduction that does not involve the union of gametes and in which a
single parent produces offspring that are genetically identical to the
parent
Types of Asexual Reproduction:
1. binary fission
A form of asexual reproduction in single-celled organisms by which one
cell divides into two cells of the same size
(organisms like bacteria)
2. budding
Asexual reproduction in which a part of the parent organism pinches off
and forms a new organism
(
3. fragmentation
Separating something into fine particles. A new organism grows from
the fragment of the parent
(Seastars)
4. Vegetative Propagation
Plants grow from the vegetative parts of the plant- roots, stems and
leaves
Features of asexual reproduction
- Rapid production of large numbers of offspring
- Genetically identical offspring
- Creates rapid population growth
- No mate required
What animals reproduce asexually?

What are the advantages of asexual reproduction?

If the individual has genetic makeup suited to particular conditions,
large numbers of this successful type can be built up very quickly
How does asexual reproduction affect the gene pool of a species?

Offspring only inherit the genes from the parent organism, creating an
identical copy. Over time this creates limited genetic variation in the
species.
What are the disadvantages of asexual reproduction?
1. Lack of variety reduces ability to adapt to environmental changes
2.
3.
4.

Asexual Reproduction in plants

Reproductive methods in plants:
1. vegetative propagation
A form of asexual reproduction in which plants
produce genetically identical offshoots (clones) of
themselves, which then develop into independent
plants.
2. cuttings
Pieces of stem or root cut from a plant to produce new
plants
3. grafting
a form of artificial asexual reproduction in which the
branch of one plant is inserted into the stem of
another plant
What plants reproduce asexually?
Bulbs (e.g. daffodils), runners (e.g. strawberry), tubers (e.g. potatoes)

Sexual reproduction
Process by which cells from two different parents unite to produce the
first cell of a new organism

Features of sexual reproduction

- usually 2 parents
-slower than asexual (finding mate and producing gametes)
- genetically different offspring
- diploid body cells produce haploid gametes
- fusion of haploid gametes always involved
Advantages of sexual reproduction?
- increase in genetic variety so increases ability to adapt to
environmental change
- allows development of a resistant stage in life cycle, enabling
withstanding of adverse weather conditions
- formation of spores, seeds and larvae enables the dispersal of offspring to lower intra-specific competition and enables genetic variety to
develop as required
- higher survival rate
2

What is diploid?
The full chromosome number of body cells
What is haploid?
Half the chromosome number found in gametes
What is fertilisation?
The fusion of male and female gametes with the formation of a fertilised
egg or zygote
What is a zygote?
A fertilised egg - it divides many times by mitosis to grow into a new
individual
How are body cells with the full chromosome number produced?
Mitosis
What is the difference with mammalian female eggs?
Contain very little stored food, materials for development are obtained
from the maternal blood supply through the placenta
Disadvantages of sexual reproduction?
- Only one egg so decreased success rate
- slower and lower number of young
- requires more energy
- Require a mate
- Higher risk to parents
- High reproductive effort

Internal Vs. External Fertilisation

How do many aquatic organisms fertilise their gametes?
Externally - discharge them directly into sea/freshwater - can disperse
quickly so many may not encounter sperm
Broadcast Spawning
Pelagic eggs- float in the water
Demersal Spawning
What is the disadvantage of external fertilisation?
Considerable wastage so large numbers of gametes must be produced.
There is a high rate of mortality.

What type of fertilisation is most common for terrestrial animals?

Internal fertilisation which requires the use of some kind of intromittent
organ to introduce spern into the female's body
What are the advantages of internal fertilisation?
- less chance of gamete wastage
- allows male gamete to become independent of the need for water for
movement
- fertilised egg can be enclosed with protective covering before leaving
female body (e.g. laying eggs)
- some embryos develop within the female parent and derive
nourishment from her
What is internal fertilisation?
Where all sperm are deposited in the female's reproductive tract

What animals have pronounced parental care?

Birds and mammals:
- shelter
- feeding
- protection
- training
R- Selection
- R selection is a category of organism that breeds frequently, with
high levels of offsprint.
- There is little or no parental care of the offspring
K-Selection
- Organisms that breed less frequently and have fewer offspring
- There is a higher level of parental care
Oviparity

Viviparity
Internal egg
Viviparity increases the chance of survival by protecting the young
within a females body rather than leaving them exposed to predators
Three types of viviparity have been identified, depending on the source
of nutrients for the embryo.
Nourished by the yolk (egg yolk viviparity)
Nourished by the placenta (placental viviparity)
Nourished by other sources
4

 All mammals (except monotremes) produce tiny eggs with very

little yolk.
Mammalian embryos are enclosed in fluid filled sacs and develop
within the mothers uterus.
Nutrients are delivered from the maternal bloodstream via the
placenta to the embryo.
The placenta is where the bloodstream of the mother and the embryo
come into close contact allowing for nutrient and waste exchange

Mating Systems
Monogamy
Polygamy
Promiscious

Lifecycles
Insects lifecycle? E.g. for a locust
Zygote into nymph/larva
- juvenile forms
- shed skin for exoskeleton (several times)
- undergo incomplete metamorphosis when hatching and moulting to
full size
What insects undergo complete metamorphosis?
- more advanced insects (e.g. housefly or butterfly)
- additional stage of pupa or chrysalis
- larva hatches from egg and is specialised for feeding and growing
- larva undergoes period of change in pupa and emerges as adult
- adult is specialised for dispersal and reproduction

Adaptations and Niche

What plant forms are confined to an aquatic environment for at least
part, if not all of their lives?
Simple plant forms such as algae (e.g. seaweed)
What plant forms are confined to damp areas and why?
Mosses and ferns because the male gametes require a surface film of
water in which to swim to the egg
How are flowering plants suited to life on land?
5

- efficient water-carrying xylem vessels which also support

-method of reproduction
- pollen grains have hard coat to withstand desiccation
- pollen grains contain male gamete which can be transferred to the
female part of the plant
- pollen grains can be transferred by insects or wind
How are plants such as grasses suited to life on land?
- small, green, inconspicuous flowers
- pollen is carried by wind
- in plants with brightly coloured flowers and scent for attraction the
pollen is carried by insects
- male gamete travels through the tissue of the female part to the egg
by means of a pollen tube so sexual reproduction no longer depends on
gametes having to travel through a film of water to reach the egg cell
- fertilised egg then develops into a seed containing a food store
Why are flowering plants the most successful and found in every
habitat?
- attract animals
- enclosure of eggs in ovary
- interval between flower production and the setting of the seed is a
matter of weeks
- seed with food store enables the embryo to develop until leaves are
produced above ground and can carry out photosynthesis. It also
protects the embryo from desiccation and other hazards
- leaves are deciduous and succulent and decay rapidly on falling to the
ground. This enables humus to produce and the rapid recycling of ions
for reuse by plants