Page 40 Applied Diagnostics bearing is properly loaded, the shaft will be running in the bottom half of the bearings (most horizontal machines) and the orbits will be slightly elliptical. Anytime a steam turbine is being diagnosed, anytime the measured vibration has changed, remember that there may have been a change in alignment. The shaft centerline plot of bearing #3, in Figure 24, shows the rotor position of a misaligned steam turbine. The eccentricity ratio was close to zero when the steam turbine was loaded. If properly aligned, the rotor should have been in the lower right quadrant with an eccentricity ratio of 0.5 to 0.8. POINT: BRNG 3 VERT DISP @50° LEFT REF: -9.91 VOLTS POINT: BRNG 3 HORIZ DISP @30° RIGHT REF: -10.27 VOLTS MACHINE: LP TURBINE FROM: 03 JUN 93 07:25:34 TO 03 JUN 93 23:16:34 SHUTDOWN (not orbit on poler plot) 4 mitote Figure 24. Shaft Centerline Plot Taken Over 16 Hours In figure 25 the misaligned steam turbine resulted in a heavy radial load at or near bearing #2 as seen in the highly elliptical orbit plot. REV 129278Steam Turbines Page 39 C. Misalignment Angular Misalignment Driver Shaft Driven Shaft Parallel Misalignment Figure 23. Misalignment A change in the rotor system's alignment in relation to bearings or seals may generate external forces being applied to the rotor. Changes in alignment change the system dynamic stiffness, and, therefore, change how the already existing forces affect the systems response. It is not uncommon for a machine, which was just aligned to experience a fluid-induced instability. This can occur because the alignment caused the shaft to be moved to the lower eccentric position in the bearing. In this way, a marginally stable system can become unstable. Severe misalignments will cause bearings and seals to be worn out, and can transfer enough force to the rotor to cause it to bend and crack, When a steam turbine is considered to be in proper alignment, there are no excessive preloads from bearings or seals. The rotor bearing eccentricity ratio is per design, the thrust neve 378Page 38 Applied Diagnostics — Unbalance possesessesseuseeeeesesenar Synchronous _ Force Response ~ ee Figure 22. Basic Equation From Fundamental Synchronous Rotor Response assembly of the turbine affects how the turbine rotor responds. The rotor is confined within a machine, so its motion (vibration) is limited by the machine case/seals/bearings which generate external forces on the rotor. Too often we think of any change of the turbine's synchronous (1X) amplitude and phase as relating only to the rotor, specifically a change in mass unbalance of the rotor. What we really need to remember when we see a change in the 1X amplitude and phase is that the turbine’s unbalance state or dynamic stiffness may have changed. REV 9278Steam Turbines Page 37 C. The rotor may not have been well-balanced at the factory for whatever reason, and the operating criteria require a better balance. D. The instrumentation used at the factory was different than the plant's instrumentation. (Is your instrumentation correct, was theirs? Are you using the same type of transducers? Are you looking at the same place on the shaft? Is your data compensated for slow roll runout, was theirs?) E, You are balancing an assembly. All of the effects of the other rotors, the bearings and the bearing support assemblies will be affecting the rotor in question. F. The rotor in the factory was supported with a bearing on each end (the factory bearings may not have been the bearings you are currently using, which may imply a higher eccentricity ratio). Since the bearing stiffness, and the system dynamic stiffness may be different than the factory installation, the rotor response can be different. External forces act on the rotor system, so that the response of the rotor to its unbalance (internal) forces may increase or decrease as a result, For example, if'a rub occurs, causing the synchronous dynamic stiffness to increase, the vibration amplitude, due to the unbalance, may decrease. The key is that the REVC ra9278Page 36 Applied Diagnostics A few things are universally true in relation to a turbines vibration response. All turbines will vibrate, and that is normal. A change in the measured vibration means that either the balance has changed or an external force acting on the rotor has changed. A change in the forces that constrain the rotor will change the turbine's vibration response. When a turbine rotor is manufactured, it will never end up perfectly balanced, it usually will have to be balanced at the factory to ran properly in the turbine. After the turbine is assembled, balancing may again be required. In both routines, the balancing will be done to the rotor. Weight will be added to, or removed from, the rotor. The rotor may need re-balancing for several reasons: A. The rotor may have been damaged, and some blades may have been replaced. B. The rotor may have developed a slight bow, due to improper handling or storage. It is not really proper to balance out a bow because, if the bow goes away (as most do), then the rotor will be out of balance again, (often the slight bow may not be detected or may be thought to be a slight runout of the eccentricity collar). There may be a conscious decision made to try to balance the bow out as a "temporary fix." This temporary fix method is not desirable from an engineering standpoint, however, operational requirements often dictate a temporary solution. REV nomeSteam Turbines Page 35 B. Unbalance Response Imagine a turbine rotor spinning all by itself in space. If the rotor were perfectly balanced, it would not vibrate unless some external force acted upon it. This means that a change in the balance condition will always cause a corresponding change in the rotor vibration response unless the mass change occurred at a node point. If the rotor is not overly constrained, the change in vibration response will be detectable. Figure 21. Broken Blade Shroud REVC, 29278Page 34 Applied Diagnostics the bow may cause the rotor to bow even more. When either of these situations occuts, there is little choice but to shut down and put the unit on turning gear until the bow hopefully rolls out. Eccentricity or shaft bow generates a 1X amplitude and phase change which is sometimes confused with unbalance. If a rotor is "balanced" to compensate for bow, as soon as the rotor straightens out due to rotation, the unit will be out of balance. In this case, the introduced balance weights can be removed and the rotor balance will probably be right. This seems terribly obvious, however, many units have been balanced because of bows and had to be re-balanced because the bow went away. A rotor needs balancing only if something happens which changes its mass or its support system, so that the rotor response changes. Usually, these things don't happen without some other indication of the event occurring. If such events have not occurred, then the rotor is bowed or possibly cracked. If a unit is started and shows high 1X amplitude and there is no record of the time the unit was put on turning gear, and for how long, it is difficult to know if the rotor bowed because it was stopped, or if it has mass unbalance. However, a bow should roll out. If a bow is suspected, put the unit on turning gear for awhile and see what happens. If the eccentricity decreases, there is a bow that is being rolled out. Don't forget, however, if a rotor is cracked, it is most certainly bowed, so be careful. REVC 129278Steam Turbines Page 33 because they will be stopped for an extended period of time and be subjected to impulses, due to bumps along the road. The only practical way to keep a rotor from bowing is to keep it turning, or tum it over 180 degrees on a regular basis, so it spends the same amount of time on each side. The hotter the rotor is, the more often it should be turned. Eccentricity Collar Figure 20. Bowed Rotor When a rotor is bowed, the eccentricity value will be something other than zero. This assumes that the eccentricity collar runs concentric with the shaft. Since this is frequently not the case, it is wise to check this before getting worried about a bowed rotor. If, in fact, the rotor is bowed, this will cause an increase in the 1X amplitude and change in phase angle. On a bowed rotor, there is a mass unbalance (the center of mass is not coincident with the geometric center). The bow may not roll out when the unit is started up. The unbalance force caused by REVC Le9278Page 32 Applied Diagnostics Malfunction Behavior of Steam Turbines In this section, we are going to cover the most common malfunctions seen ina "typical" steam turbine. We will examine these malfunctions in terms of how they affect the turbine vibration response. We want to look at these malfunctions in terms of what causes the vibration. The vibration information can be like a window into the machine. A. Eccentricity (Rotor Bow) B. Unbalance C. Misalignment D. Rubs E, Fluid-induced Instabilities F. Shaft Cracks A. Eccentricity When eccentricity occurs, the rotor is bowed. Therefore, when the rotating shaft is observed by a fixed vertical probe, the rotor appears to move up and down. The amount of up and down motion is the eccentricity value. Turbine rotors bow (bend) when stopped because gravity pulls them downward or sometimes they bow upward, due to thermal stratification within the turbine, A hot rotor at rest will bow more than a cold rotor. A stopped rotor can bow and set in the bowed condition. Rotors being shipped should have a support under the center span REVC 29278Steam Turbines Page 31 Most steam turbines will have a turning gear assembly whose purpose is to keep the rotor turning when the turbine is shut down so the rotor does not develop a bow. When a steam turbine is shut down, the rotor will be hot; a hot rotor can develop a bow much more quickly than a cold rotor because of differential cooling which takes place between the top and bottom of the rotor. Therefore, it is very important that the rotor is put on turning gear as soon as it coasts to a stop. When the rotor has cooled (typically below 148.9°C (300°F)), the rotor can be stopped for an extended period of time without damage. Prior to starting a steam turbine anytime the rotor has been stopped for more than a few minutes, it is important to roll a rotor with the turning gear for as long as it takes to remove any bow that may have occurred while the rotor was stopped. A turning gear usually engages the turbine rotor through a bull gear that is mounted to the shaft or is sandwiched between coupling halves. The turning gear assembly is little more than a motor driving a series of gears that can engage to the bull gear on the rotor when the rotor has come to a stop. It is always important that the rotor is stopped before the turning gear is engaged, otherwise damage to the turning gear assembly, bull gear or turbine shaft is likely to occur. REV 29278Page 30 Applied Diagnostics Trouble with couplings occurs when coupling bolts are damaged and have to be replaced. Sometimes coupling bolts have to be drilled out and the coupling bolt hole has to be honed. In this case, a larger diameter coupling bolt is usually installed. This may change the balance condition of the rotor system, requiring a rebalance. Couplings are rarely a source of trouble in themselves; if, however, the generator is synchronized significantly out of phase, the coupling and coupling bolts can be damaged due to torsional effects. Other damage to the turbine is likely in this circumstance; however, the couplings are sometimes designed to be the weak link to prevent irreparable damage from happening to the turbine. Removable couplings (shrunk on, keyed, etc.) can be a source of rotor cracks. If the coupling moves on the shaft, the rotor balance state can change. F. Turning Gear. Figure 18. Turning Gear Assembly _-Figure 19. Internals of Turning Gear Assembly REV 20278Steam Turbines Page 29 by the rotor. Another type of seal that is becoming popular is the retractable seal. This type of seal is away from the shaft at low steam flows, as in startup situations, then is moved toward the shaft as the steam flow gets up to some percent of rated flow. The advantages to this type of seal is that they should not rub during startup and, therefore, will seal better when the unit is online. These, like any other seal, can rub if not correctly installed, or if they lock up. E. Couplings Generally, couplings found on steam generation turbines will be rigid; most will be an integral part of the shaft. Commonly, the coupling between the LP rotor and the generator will have the turning gear sandwiched between the coupling halves. Figure 17. Coupling REVC wa9278Page 28 Applied Diagnosties REVe LP Cylinder Steam Steam and Air to Vv Ee ‘W Gland ae Steam Grane ae | Ui Figure 16. LP Gland Seals 1. Types of Turbine Seals Common seals are of the fixed, spring-loaded or retractable type. Fixed seals are usually slid into a groove and locked in place. The clearance between the seals and the shaft is fixed, so if the shaft comes in contact with the seal, the seal will probably be damaged. Hard contact with one of these seals is likely to be seen in the vibration data as a rub. Spring-loaded seals can move away from the rotor because they only have a spring and steam pressure pushing them toward the rotor. When the rotor moves to the position where the seal is, the seal moves away. These seals have a limited range of motion which can be overcome by the rotor's motion. Spring- loaded seals can also lock up in position. If these seals do lock up, there is usually not enough clearance remaining between the seals and the rotor to accommodate the normal range of rotor movement. Locked seals are a common cause of rubs and at times may cause damage to the rotor. Hard rubs of seals usually don’t last long because the seals are easily worn away smsPage 27 Steam Turbines Figure 14. Labyrinth Seal Blower Gland Condenser Drain Figure 15. HP Final Gland Seals REVC 29278Page 26 Applied Diagnostics D. Seals With blading and staged pressures as well as end sealing, the need for shaft sealing becomes important, Between stages at the shaft and around the actual blade sections, labyrinth seals are used. While carbon seals may be used at the turbine ends for small turbines, larger turbines will use labyrinth seals. They will be staged in secretions, relieving to an existing lower pressure. The high pressure end may relieve to the extraction point pressure in the first section of labyrinths, then to a lower stage (possibly a second bleeder or extraction point), then to the sealing steam pressure, then to the condenser, as an example, The steam inlet valve sealing glands may leak off to one of these intermediate pressures in one or more stages. Sealing steam is never applied to a turbine unless the rotor is rotating or on barring gear. Labyrinth packing can be of a straight type or staggered height which is more effective but often difficult when allowing for thermal expansion. Labyrinth seals where the tine or thin strip (J strip) rotates with the shaft are effective, tend to be self-cleaning and are less restraining with less shaft heat during a shaft rub. However, they are a pain to maintain and require more care against crimping or crushing. They must be machined on the rotor while in a lathe REV 1as27Steam Turbines Page 25 and mechanical performance. First, there are the hydraulic dilation oil pumps for the dilation and the advance or draw of coupling hubs. Next, there are the plug ring gages for checking the shaft and bore tapers. Finally, there are the stop rings when practical, to set and limit the draw of a coupling The proper draw for one of our 3” bore hydraulic hubs with a 1/2 degree per side taper is 344 mils (0.334"). Most large steam turbines will be equipped with babbitt-lined, pressure- lubricated journal bearings. There are many different bore configurations, all designed to prevent fluid-induced instabilities, elliptical and tilting-pad bearings being the most common. Elliptical bearings are usually designated as self- aligning, meaning that the outside of the bearing is spherical-convex and rests in a spherical-concave cradle. The net effect of the self-aligning feature is that the bearing can be moved so the centerline of the bearing is parallel with the centerline of the shaft. Usually this happens without any problem unless there is insufficient clearance between the bearing and the cradle. If the bearing is cocked in relation to the rotor center line then the bearing system would be stiffer than it should be. The oil flow pattern through the bearing would be disturbed, and rubbing could occur between the bearing and the shaft at opposite ends of the bearing 180 degrees apart. Also, the bearing metal temperature and oil drain temperature would be higher than normal. Typical bearing assemblies can be shimmed to change their position vertically for alignment purposes. Reve 29278Page 24 Applied Diagnostics ‘The manufacturer has several designs to improve turbine performance with a good stabilized design. The most common turbine bearings used are pressure dam, elliptical (lemon bore) and tilting pad. Four lobe, offset half and others are used but to a lesser degree. Tilting pad bearings are either four pad or five pad and may be load-on-pad or load-between pad designs. Bearing clearances will generally run in the 1-1/2 to 2 mils to the bearing bore inch on the diameter, e.g., an eight inch bearing will have 12 to 16 mil clearance on the diameter (0.012" to 0.016"). The preload of the bearing may be from zero to 0.3. Preload stiffens a rotor bearing in support. An increase in stiffness shifts criticals higher and increase in rotor mass lower criticals. Tilting pad bearings are generally arranged to be center pivot (offset factor = 0.5). This allows rotation in either direction. Where rotation direction is not important, the offset factor may be altered from 0.5 to 0.55 or 0.6 by shifting the pad support from the center positions respectively. ‘This will generally increase the load carrying capability assisting the oil into the wedge, stiffen the bearing but be counter-productive in allowing rotation in either direction or against a bearing being installed backwards. The pressure dam bearing, while only partially stabilizing against oil whirl, can also be installed backwards with exciting instabilities at very low speeds. A tilting pad bearing cannot cause oil whirl. Bearing babbitts are generally in three ranges - 10 mils, 30 mils, and 60 mils (30 mils is encountered more in my experience). Thermocouples should not imbed in contact to the babbitt (refer to API 670 - 1984 edition). Proper bearing tools such as go-no go plug gages or mandrel pad checkers will go a long way in proper maintenance. Note: Proper tools for fitting couplings such as hydraulic dilation coupling hubs have also proven to better maintenance REVe 29278Steam Turbines Page 23 C. Bearings Figure 12. Turbine Bearing 1 bit —¥ Lubrication Oil Inlet Slots ——H x Bearing Oil —» Drain Bearing i Jacking Oil Figure 13. Turbine Bearing Cross Section REVC 29278Page 22 Applied Diagnosties IMPULSE TURBINE - Figure 10 also shows the nozzle shape of the fixed blading and the bucket shape of the moving blades. REACTION TURBINE - Figure 10 - indicating pressure drop in fixed and moving blades (equal drop in 50% reaction design). Note that axial thrust is much higher in the Reaction turbine than in the Impulse design. BLADE SPEED RATIO - As the steam expands and blade length increases to provide greater annular flow area, the blade velocity increases, requiring a corresponding inerease in steam velocity to maintain optimum "blade speed ratio". Note that as the load is reduced, the pressure reduces in proportion and specific volume increases in proportion. Therefore blade speed ratio does not change at constant turbine operating speed. REVe ra9278Steam Turbines Page 21 each in opposite direction before exiting the casing. This also tends to balance thrust in the last regions which are harder to maintain low blade pressure differentials. Double flow (or triple flow) is very common on higher speed condensing turbines. While condensing turbines have a best steam rate, the operating costs of the condenser and the water and the maintenance (including condenser pumps, jets and jet condensers) must be included. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS, The CONDITION LINE on the H-S Chart indicates the real expansion including losses which increase Entropy as the pressure drops. The non-adiabatic expansion incurs lower heat drop per stage than the Isentropic drop, Stage heat drop is the sum of nozzle drop and moving blade drop. Cylinder heat drop is the sum of the stage drop. Due to the fact that the pressure lines slope from almost vertical to almost horizontal from left to right on the diagram, the stage enthalpy drops become > increasingly greater. Consequentially the turbine cylinder (multistage) efficiency is better than the single stage efficiency. CURTIS WHEEL - Used, where steam density is high and specific volume is low - hence the blading is short. The Curtis wheel greatly reduces the pressure and temperature which the remainder of the casing is subjected to, Fig. 10 shows the velocity compounding design and pressure variations in the Curtis turbine. Reve 19278