EXPLORING THE MERITS OF MAINSTREAM EDUCATION VERSUS

SPECIALIZED SCHOOLS FOR DEAF/HARD OF HEARING STUDENTS

NATHAN CHIU

UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

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Spencer and Marschark (2010) wrote that there are two general philosophies of
educational placement [that] are held across, and often within, countries (p. 153). The
first philosophy is placing Deaf and Hard of Hearing (D/HH) students in mainstream
schools and classrooms where the majority of students are hearing and non-disabled
(Spencer & Marschark, 2010, p. 153). The second major philosophy places D/HH
students into specialized schools where the focus is placed on serving children with
deafness (Spencer & Marschark, 2010, p. 153). There seems to be a shift towards D/HH
students being placed in general education classrooms as the majority of D/HH students
are in inclusive settings (Rabinsky, 2013, 51). However, I want to learn more about both
models of D/HH education to see what is working for D/HH students and where the
pitfalls are that our education system needs to correct.
Through examining both models of D/HH education, I want to explore the
advantages of inclusive education. This appears to be a popular model of choice for
many ministries of education. In addition to seeing what is working for D/HH students in
inclusive models of education, I also want to see what drawbacks and challenges the
mainstreamed approach has on D/HH students. D/HH students have different
requirements necessary for their learning and it is necessary to see if the mainstreaming
of D/HH students meets those needs. I also seek to examine the advantages of special
schools for D/HH students to see what these school environments are able to positively
provide their students. The challenges that these special programs encounter need to be
looked at and critiqued as well, in order to ensure D/HH students are receiving a quality
education. Furthermore, I am hoping to explore some of the common problems that need
to be addressed in both models of education in order for D/HH education to be

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performing where it needs to be. This will lead to my observations of what factors might
encourage D/HH students and/or their parents in choosing a certain model to participate
in. Finally, I will show how exploring the advantages and disadvantages of
D/HH students being in mainstream educational programs versus
special educational programs will help develop and shape my practice as a future
teacher of the Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing.
As our society begins to place more and more emphasis on inclusiveness and
accessibility, it only seems natural that this movement be reflected in our education
systems. After all, education is the basis under which change can truly take place.
Therefore it seems natural that D/HH students be placed in general education settings,
alongside their hearing peers. As a result of this, there seem to be many positive benefits
to having D/HH students learning in mainstream settings alongside their hearing
classmates. One of those advantages is that mainstreaming D/HH students with hearing
students provides them with greater opportunities to feel a sense of community and the
feeling of being a peer of hearing youth (Rabinsky, 2013, p 54). It is in these settings
where they can develop social skills and friendships with their hearing peers (Rabinsky,
2013, p 57), that appear to be crucial for D/HH students to excel in mainstream settings. I
believe this to be extremely important for any student to be able to develop social skills,
as these are life-long skills that play an important part in interaction and building
relationships.
In addition to the social skills and friendships gained, the inclusive model of
D/HH students with hearing students provides access to peer models for both academics
and social behavior (Rabinsky, 2013, p 54). This is really interesting in the fact that

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many of the things that students learn do not necessarily come from the teacher standing
in front of the classroom, but rather from the social experiences that occur everyday in
the classroom, on the playground, in the lunchroom, or wherever social interactions take
place. D/HH students in mainstream schools are exposed to age appropriate social
development cues and learn from their hearing peers through everyday interaction. This is
vitally important because it offers the best opportunities for deaf and hard of hearing
children to acquire age-level academic and social skills (Spencer & Marschark, 2010, p.
153). Another benefit to the inclusive model is that general education students begin to
develop an awareness and tolerance towards D/HH students (Rabinsky, 2013, p. 54). It is
important that general education students too, interact with students with different
exceptionalities in order for learning and understanding of each other, thus breaking
down negative stereotypes that exist for many individuals with exceptionalities.
As much as I truly believe in the importance of socio-emotional development
being a key necessity in a successful education, there still needs to be attention paid
towards the academic picture of education. There does appear to be advantages to the
mainstream approach in education. Antia, Jones, Reed, and Kreimeyer (2009) found that
DHH students in general education classrooms have higher achievement on average
than DHH students in self-contained classrooms (p. 297). Observations from teachers of
D/HH students in mainstream classrooms suggest that the higher achievement can be
partially attributed to the general education environments higher level of expectation
(Rabinsky, 2013, p. 54). Furthermore, as suggested earlier regarding peer models,
teachers in the inclusive education model suggest that it is beneficial for D/HH students
to see what other students are producing and what is expected of each student in the

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general education classroom (Rabinsky, 2013, p. 54). To see D/HH students highly
achieve in mainstream classrooms, such as what Antia et al., found requires that the
general education teachers who have D/HH students in their classrooms be cognizant of
the learning needs and communication needs that D/HH students possess.
D/HH students are now better equipped with assistive technologies that are
continually evolving in order to help students communicate in the classroom. From sign
interpreters, to real-time text, to hearing aids and FM systems, all of these assistive
resources should help in eliminating any disadvantage D/HH students may face due to
their hearing loss. However, research done by Marschark, Sapere, et al. (2004, 2005,
2009. as cited in Spencer & Marschark, 2010), shows that there is still an imbalance in
the access to education between hearing and D/HH students, as hearing students have
outscored deaf students on post instruction tests, regardless of the assistive resources used
(p. 168). Marschark, Sapere, et al. (2008. as cited in Spencer & Marschark, 2010) do
suggest, however, that if the teacher is experienced in working with deaf students,
mainstreaming can still have a positive effect on student learning, positive enough where
deaf students learn just as much as hearing students (p. 168).
For as much as the opportunities of building peer relationships pose as an
advantage for mainstreaming D/HH students, unfortunately, it can also be a major
concern for inclusive education. There is no doubt that peer relationships are centrally
important in social-emotional development, but hard-of-hearing adolescents have
reported challenges in forming and maintaining meaningful friendships with their hearing
peers (Jamieson, Zaidman-Zait, & Poon, 2011, p. 120). Many of the highlights in current
research express the benefits of inclusive education, with much on the premise of the

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social-emotional development from peer interaction and relationship building. But if

these traits are so highly promoted in encouraging inclusive education, what does the
experience of inclusive education provide when meaningful friendships and peer
relationships are absent from the equation? This model results in inclusive education
only in name.
Spencer and Marschark (2010) have also found reports of negative self-esteem,
lack of friendships, and loneliness among students with hearing loss who are being
educated in mainstream or general education settings (p. 158). This has to be an
alarming concern for both educators and parents of D/HH youth. It is important for
children to build relationships with others at this age group. This is an important time for
social development, maturation, and support network building. The lack of friendship and
relationships with other peers at this age group can lead to the aforementioned negative
self-esteem and lack of confidence in D/HH youth.
A possible reason, in part, for why D/HH students have difficult experiences
building and maintaining relationships in mainstream settings is the immature social and
delayed language skills (Rabinsky, 2013, p. 57), that some students enter the school
system with. These traits can lead to students becoming outcasts, potentially isolated in
their inclusive school settings. The isolation that some D/HH students face in
mainstream settings is not necessarily because of an immature social skill or delayed
language skill set though. Jamieson et al. (2011) have reported that many students who
have been physically integrated, have not felt like a fully participating member of the
classroom, largely in part to the students lack of complete accessibility to the acoustic
environment (p. 120). In this case, it isnt anything to do with the students skills or

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maturity, but rather the physical settings that we put them in. The ideas of Deaf space are
beginning to slowly make their way into school settings, however, until the day where all
classrooms are designed for D/HH students, there are going to be challenges that both the
student and teacher will have to work towards overcoming.
Another major challenge of mainstream settings is that many general education
teachers are not trained or educated on the different needs of students who are D/HH.
This is a major concern because of the different learning requirements that D/HH students
need in the classroom. As was mentioned earlier, the potential benefits of having a
teacher who recognizes and addresses the needs of D/HH students can make a drastic
difference in the learning outcomes of D/HH students compared to hearing students.
General education teachers with no signing experience or knowledge have also stated that
there is a much greater difficulty when communicating with students (Russell & McLeod,
2010, p. 9). This challenge of communicating with his or her own students cannot be an
issue in the classroom as teaching is dependant on quality communication when
conveying information from teacher to student. Sometimes, mainstream classrooms are
just not plausible for D/HH students with language deficits and needs that are caused by
their hearing loss, as they cannot be addressed in the general education classroom
(Rabinsky, 2013, p. 57).
Deafness/hearing loss has been referred to as an invisible disability. This can
contribute to many teachers and other students not even knowing that some students in
the classroom are deaf or hard of hearing. This can be especially troubling for those
students who are hard of hearing, as these students use spoken language and are often
assumed to understand and be able to process more information than is actually the case

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(Spencer & Marschark, 2010, p. 157). This can be an unfortunate situation for both the
teacher and the hard of hearing student in the classroom. The classroom teacher doesnt
realize the needs this student requires, and the student will not be receiving the
information and content in the classroom. Furthermore, if the hard of hearing student
lacks self-esteem, he/she may never ask for repetition, clarification, or adaptations in the
classroom to accommodate his/her learning needs. This will undoubtedly have an effect
on his/her learning, but furthermore, it can also affect his/her social relationships with
his/her peers. Having a hearing loss can cause students to miss certain bits of information
in social settings too, and other hearing students may wonder why this student seems to
always be out of the loop. Overall, what can be considered a positive to D/HH
education in mainstream environments, such as increased peer mentors, can unfortunately
also be a downfall of inclusive education when such peer relationships fail to form at
all.
In examining the other side of things, special schools for D/HH students have
many advantages too. Working with a philosophy based on recognizing the special
communication needs of deaf and many hard of hearing students as well as the fact that
such a large proportion of the population has related delays in academic areas (Spencer
& Marschark, 2010, p. 153), places D/HH students educational needs at the center of
curriculum development. This provides a deaf-centric approach to education that provides
a suitable learning environment for students who are D/HH.
Having the proper curriculum and goals in place for D/HH learners is only one
part to the equation. Another major component to providing successful educational
programs for the D/HH is having teachers that are properly trained to work with D/HH

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students. As Spencer and Marschark (2010) point out, the overall importance of
teachers understanding what deaf students know and how they think and learn should not
be underestimated (p. 157). The teachers ability and skill to teach effectively can make
all the difference to the overall quality of a D/HH students education. What was
discussed as some of the downfalls of mainstream schooling, having teachers that are
unaware of the different learning styles of D/HH students can greatly impact the quality
of education provided. Therefore, the requirement needs to be ensuring that teachers of
the D/HH possess knowledge about the special learning needs and styles of students
with hearing loss as well as [proper] communication methods (Spencer & Marschark,
2010, p. 158).
One of the major benefits of specialized schools for the D/HH is that there
appears to be an improved access to language for students. D/HH students no longer
have to sit in class hoping that a video being shown in class will be closed captioned, or
that instructions will be written down instead of being only delivered orally. In these
schools, all participants should understand the communicative needs of one another and
therefore communication should no longer be a barrier to D/HH students in their school
environments. In specialized schools, teachers of the D/HH are more adept at managing
the visual attention needs of students who are dependant primarily upon vision for
classroom communication (Spencer & Marschark, 2010, p. 164). The increased access
to language and information for students in Deaf school programs is such a critical factor
for students, that mainstream programs would be hard pressed to offer an environment
that engaging and rich.

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Another advantage that specialized schools for students who are Deaf provide,
which also affects the majority of D/HH students in a positive fashion, is its important
access to conversational interactions [especially in sign language] for those whose
parents are not fluent signers and therefore cannot engage them fully and fluently
(Spencer & Marschark, 2010, p. 165). Because approximately 95 per cent of D/HH
children are born to hearing parents (Mitchell & Karchmer, 2004. As quoted in Jamieson,
Zaidman-Zait, & Poon, 2011, p. 111), many children will not have access to stimulating
their language development through American Sign Language (ASL) or other types of
sign language. Furthermore, many parents will not have any knowledge on the specific
needs of D/HH childrens requirements for communicating or listening. Therefore, the
environment that specialized schools provide in creating environments for D/HH students
to be immersed in ASL, or environments catered towards those who are Hard of Hearing
is truly beneficial to the students.
Much of the research that I have come across promoting mainstream or inclusive
education settings talks about the opportunity for further social development and gaining
peer relationships. The interesting thing is that these very benefits of mainstream
education can apply to specialized school settings as well. Wolters, Knoors, Cillessen,
and Verhoeven (2012) wrote, deaf children in special segregated settings have generally
been found to be more accepted and popular than mainstreamed deaf peers (p. 466). For
students to be in classrooms full of other deaf students and deaf teachers as deaf role
models provides a socioemotional and sociocultural identity benefit. Having teachers
who understand and support D/HH students working with them everyday, to not only
advocate for them, but also to also teach self-advocacy skills to the students is

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undoubtedly positive. The culture of developing positive self-esteem and socialemotional characteristics in school will contribute to the creation of the sense of a Deaf
community that students need as both a social network for friends and as a support group
in their identity creation.
As most D/HH students come from hearing families who quite possibly knew
nothing of Deaf culture before their child was born, the specialized schools for the Deaf
and Hard of Hearing begin to play a role as an introduction to what Deaf culture is for
many of these students. For some, it can be their first exposure to the idea Deaf culture,
and can possibly help to determine who they are as Deaf individuals. Because Deafness is
a low incidence exceptionality, many of these students may not have had any
opportunities to build relationships with other deaf people. So as a school, where students
spend many hours of their developmental years, creating a space where Deafness is
celebrated in community and culture is extremely important.
While exploring the negative outcomes of specialized schools for D/HH students,
there didnt appear to be very many concerns presented. However, because children with
hearing loss may have difficulties while growing up in developing effective social
strategiestheir communication functioning through the use of spoken language
[presents] difficulties in forming positive relationships with hearing peers (Most, Ingber,
& Heled-Ariam, 2012, p. 260). Being placed into separate schools from hearing students
takes away the opportunity for D/HH students to build social connections and develop
communication strategies with hearing students. These actions compound and contribute
to the lag in preparing deaf students in facing real-world situations (Russell &
McLeod, 2010, p. 20). In addition to the decreased opportunities to interact with non-deaf

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peers in the classroom, D/HH students in specialized schools also miss out on
opportunities to attend the local school nearest to their home and therefore have greater
difficulty building a social network of nearby friends. They also miss out on participating
in extra-curricular mainstream school activities such as sports teams or clubs where
increased social interaction and relationship building can take place. Overall, it appears
that the pros and cons have to be weighed out in determining if the benefits of these
specialized schools are worth the risk of possibly isolating D/HH students from their
hearing peers in mainstream classrooms and school programs.
It is quite clear that both the mainstreamed integrated philosophy and the
specialized programs for D/HH students offer up their fair share of positive learning
outcomes and opportunities. Neither program can claim to be the unanimous choice for
all D/HH students to enroll in. Each philosophy also has its drawbacks and therefore it
strongly depends on each student and their family to weigh out the advantages and
disadvantages of what each schooling method provides in determining which is the
right program for them.
Exploring the different learning environments available to D/HH students is an
interesting task. Looking at what may influence a student and his or her family to choose
a particular educational stream can provide positive insight into what certain students
look for in their education. Spencer and Marschark (2010) explained the difference
between students in local versus special schools as being the level of hearing loss (p.
155). This is an interesting examination because it certainly makes complete sense in
terms of who on the scale of deafness has more access to language and communication in
a mainstream setting. Reed, Antia, and Kreimeyer (2008) wrote that, students with mild

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and moderate hearing loss are more likely to be in general education classrooms where
they typically have greater exposure to the general education curriculum (p. 487).
However, just because those students who are in general education classrooms tend to
have lesser degrees of hearing loss and therefore are more likely to be considered hard of
hearing that deaf (Spencer & Marschark, 2010, p. 156), does not guarantee that
mainstreaming would be the best choice for them. Many Hard of Hearing students
become stuck between the two distinct cultures of Hearing versus Deaf, belonging to
neither of the two groups. Therefore, for some Hard of Hearing students, they may
choose to fully embrace the mainstream course and identify more as a hearing person,
whereas some may choose to embrace specialized schools with Hard of Hearing or
Signing only programs because they may feel more connected to Deaf culture. It appears
to be another complexity to the choice of whether one chooses to go into mainstream
education or Deaf schools.
Despite both mainstream and specialized schooling programs having their
advantages and disadvantages, there appears to be one area of concern that needs to be
addressed for both streams. The overwhelming trend of D/HH students falling behind
their hearing peers needs to be seriously examined as to why and how it can be
addressed. Throughout the research, the common theme of D/HH students lagging behind
their hearing peers arises. Antia et al. (2009) stated that it is important to address that
D/HH students are still below the hearing norms and the rate of progress, although
adequate, may not be sufficient to close this gap (p. 306). Traxler (2000. As cited in
Reed et al., 2008), mentions that the average academic achievement of DHH students is
considerably below that of their hearing peers (p. 486). And Spencer and Marschark

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(2010) suggest that even though D/HH students in general education classes are
outperforming D/HH students in specialized settings, the performance of these students in
general education classes continues to lag that of hearing student peers, generally falling
in the low-average range (p. 157). So the question and challenge to educators of D/HH
students has to be how do we get D/HH students onto the academic performance level as
their hearing peers?
I believe that one of the greatest factors into dealing with this challenge of
elevating D/HH student learning has to land on the shoulders of those who are
supposedly leading these young minds, the teachers. As was highlighted in the barriers of
many mainstream programs, the need for teachers to have the proper training on how to
work with D/HH students needs to be addressed. Eriks-Brophy et al. (2006) reflect this
sentiment acknowledging that, teachers awareness of hearing loss and its impact on
communication and learning remains an area of concern (p. 82). The importance of
qualified teachers working with D/HH students cannot be overstated, as experienced
teachers of the deaf can significantly enhance deaf students learning even when they
come into the classroom lagging behind hearing classmates (Spencer & Marschark,
2010, p. 157). It seems highly unfair to many of the past and current D/HH students who
have their educational experiences tainted by the lack of qualified teachers and
appropriate learning environments due to lack of availability, budgetary concerns,
unawareness, or any other avoidable reason.
Reflecting on the research presented with regards to the education of D/HH
students, there have been several points that have helped shape myself as a future teacher
of the D/HH. This whole semester has been a completely new experience for me as I

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stepped into learning about Deaf culture. I didnt know anything about Deafness or Deaf
culture, and certainly knew nothing of what educational options were available to D/HH
students. As I explored the two predominant philosophies on Deaf education, I was
surprised to learn about the numerous challenges D/HH students are faced with when
dealing with current education practices.
Something I took away from investigating the merits of the mainstream and
specialized school streams for D/HH students is learning about the resiliency of D/HH
students and how, despite the challenges they encounter, they find ways to adapt and
overcome. It is this resiliency that has allowed D/HH students to be able to excel in either
school settings. I find that a relief as a future teacher of the D/HH, that I can express that
there is a path to success in either stream the student chooses to go. Again, it is important
as a member of the Deaf education team to ensure that we have the qualified people put
in positions that can ensure both education programs can deliver performances at the
highest level. It is making sure that whether in the inclusive model or the specialized
model, the teachers are trained and knowledgeable in how to work with students who are
Deaf or who have hearing loss. The teachers are the predominant determiner in whether
individual programs are successful or detrimental to D/HH student learning.
The second point that has stuck with me from my research is the importance of
the Itinerant teacher in mainstream school settings. The roles and responsibilities that are
ascribed to the itinerant teachers cover a wide range of tasks that are very important to the
educational experience of the D/HH student. Firstly, working with the D/HH student to
ensure that their academic needs and skills are satisfactorily being met is essential. This
task is to be expected, that the Itinerant teacher would meet with the D/HH student and

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support them in their academic needs. They are expected to develop individualized
programs that promote language and academic skills (Eriks-Brophy et al., 2006, 64).
However, despite this being a fundamental role, it is still only a fraction of what Itinerant
teachers are performing in their roles when working with students. They are also
expected to develop programs that address the social needs of each individual student
with Deafness (Eriks-Brophy et al., 2006, 64). Most of the research revolving around
D/HH students in mainstream schooling touch, at least briefly, on the importance of the
social well being and opportunities for the D/HH student to be involved in their school
community socially through developing relationships and interacting with all students
and teachers (both hearing and D/HH).
I learned that Itinerant teachers have to also quickly become experts on the use of
the assistive technologies being used. Whether its checking in with students on how their
equipment, such as hearing aids, are performing, or making sure other assistive services
are in place such as real time text resources, or FM systems, the Itinerant is looked to as
the go to resource person for most of these issues. This is especially the case when
working with classroom teachers on the necessary use of FM systems, so that the D/HH
students who are using these systems will be able to benefit from them.
Itinerant teachers are also expected to sensitize classroom teachers and peers to
issues related to hearing loss (Eriks-Brophy et al., 2006, 64). I think this action possibly
plays the biggest role in the outcome of D/HH student success in general education
settings. This is because Itinerant teachers are fortunate enough to work with students on
their case load throughout that childs schooling years, and can therefore build a strong
relationship and understanding of that particular students needs and requirements for

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successful learning. Therefore, as each new school year begins, and D/HH students are
faced with the fears and anxiety of how their new teacher will fair in regards to adapting
for a D/HH learner, the itinerant teacher remains the constant comfort of stability. As a
result of the continuity of Itinerant and student, the Itinerant teacher knows the needs of
their student and can advocate for him/her to the new classroom teacher. This is
beneficial for both the D/HH student and the classroom teacher. For the classroom
teacher, it provides an understanding of the student and what his/her needs are, and
speeds up the learning curve on how to work with D/HH students. And for the D/HH
student, it thankfully proactively avoids poor instructive practices, which prevents any
delays in learning that can set student progression back. The role as advocate for the
D/HH student is possibly the most important task Itinerant teachers hold in my opinion.
Another role that Itinerant teachers have is to consult regularly with classroom
teachers and coordinate school based services and programs for their students (EriksBrophy et al., 2006, 64). This leads me to another takeaway for me as a future Itinerant
teacher for the D/HH, which is the importance of good communication between all the
professionals providing services to each designated D/HH student (Reed et al., 2008, p.
494). The complexities found in Deaf education, and general education for that matter,
require all members participating in the delivery and execution of education working
proficiently towards the ultimate goal of creating an ideal learning environment.
Therefore, with D/HH students, the student, the parents, the general education classroom
teacher, the Itinerant teacher, the interpreter, the administration, the resource teacher, the
speech therapist, and whoever else may be involved, need to be communicating clearly
on proposed goals, directions, and plans of action. This may be especially true for those

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in inclusive education models as general educators acknowledge the significance of

having the support of the itinerant deaf educator acting as facilitator (Rabinsky, 2013, p.
56). With everybody working together, there is a clear educational program and
everybody can contribute towards the prescribed goals collectively.
Unfortunately, in practice there often seems to be a disconnect between all the
working groups involved. Whether it is a breakdown in communication, lack of
willingness of participants, overloaded schedules, or shear oversight, true collaboration
seems to be a struggle to obtain. One example is the schools exclusion to
parental involvement as parents sentiment is that the school system,
generally, does not emphasize the needs of the families, and parents
of deaf and hard-of-hearing children (Jamieson et al., 2011, p. 124).
This is regrettable because of the necessity of every voice and opinion
required to shape a successful educational program. Furthermore,
when school administrators feel that schools are completely accessible
to the Deaf students enrolled in inclusive settings (Russell & McLeod,
2010, p. 13), and that students were well integrated within the
classroom..., [and] socially on par with their hearing peers (Russell &
McLeod, 2010, p. 13), it shows a an unawareness of student situations
from administrators as sentiments from teachers dispute the perfect
accessibility claims.
It is a shame that parents of D/HH students have felt left out of
the process of their childs education. This is a grave concern because
of the importance of parental support and involvement for student

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achievement (Reed et al., 2008, p. 493). A communication or dialogue

needs to occur between all the parties involved in the educational
setting, parents are no exception. Reed et al. suggest that one of the
facilitators for student success is parental communication with the
school (2008, p. 493), and that the inability or failure of parents to
communicate with school personnel (p. 493) can act as a detractor. I
think that getting parents properly involved in their students education
plays a vital role in providing deaf and hard-of-hearing students a much
greater chance at success. The ability to advocate for oneself, rather
than waiting for others to address needs (Reed et al., 2008, p. 492), is
important for each student. However, I believe all parents have to
realize that they too have to advocate for their childs education and
success. They have to know that they have a voice and they can
access their childs teachers to be involved in their childs education.
They should be made aware of what they can do to assist their child,
even if they are starting at a very minimal knowledge base. With the
importance of parental involvement so clear, it leaves me with the
notion that as an Itinerant teacher acting as a facilitator, I have to be
stressing the importance of parental involvement and empowerment
as there has been substantial evidence associating it with childrens
academic performance (Reynolds, 1992. As cited in Jamieson et al.,
2011, p. 112).

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Finally, looking at the social-emotional development of students

has always been a priority of mine when working with students. I have
always believed that it is one of the major things that students gain
when going through their school years. Therefore it is bittersweet to
learn that there is much concern over the social-emotional
development of D/HH students who are in mainstream schools. I feel
like students are losing out on some of the most valuable social
development lessons taught in schools, such as peer interaction and
relationship building. But Im also excited to be involved in trying to
grow that area of Deaf education in mainstream schools so that it no
longer is considered or at risk of being a detractor of inclusive
education.
Through investigating the advantages and disadvantages of both
the integrated model and specialized schools model of D/HH education,
I have been able to take away a lot of new knowledge on both
philosophies. However, this has also challenged me to continue to seek
to grow as a teacher of the D/HH, and ensure that I am working in a
manner that is applicable to D/HH needs and communication. I have
also come to understand the important role Itinerant teachers and
teachers of the D/HH play in facilitating the educational path for D/HH
students. It is in these roles that one can advocate hard for D/HH
students needs in and out of the classroom. It is in these roles that on
can teach D/HH students the importance of self-advocacy and support

THE MERITS OF MAINSTREAM AND SPECIALIZED SCHOOLS

21

them in their development of self-advocating. It is in these roles that

one can facilitate all the people involved in the individualized
education plan for each D/HH student. Mainstream integrative
schooling and specialized schools both have their advantages and
disadvantages, but where the real difference lies is in the capabilities
of each individual teacher and his/her ability to place each D/HH
student and his/her different needs at the center of the educational
practice. A student is a student, regardless of hearing ability. Each is
individually different and unique.

REFERENCES
Antia, S. D., Jones, P. B., Reed, S., & Kreimeyer, K. H. (2009). Academic Status and
Progress of Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Students in General Education Classrooms.
Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 14(3), 293-311.
Eriks-Brophy, A., Durieux-Smith, A., Olds, J., Fitzpatrick, E., Duquette, C., &
Whittingham, J. (2006). Facilitators and Barriers to the Inclusion of Orally
Educated Children and Youth with Hearing Loss in Schools: Promoting
Partnerships to Support Inclusion. The Volta Review, 106(1), 53-88.
Jamieson, J. R., Zaidman-Zait, A., & Poon, B. (2011). Family Support Needs as
Perceived by Parents of Preadolescents and Adolescents Who are Deaf or Hard of
Hearing. Deafness & Education International, 13(3), 110-130.

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Most, T., Ingber, S., & Heled-Ariam, E. (2012). Social Competence, Sense of Loneliness,
and Speech Intelligibility of Young Children With Hearing Loss in Individual
Inclusion and Group Inclusion. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 17(2),
259-272.
Rabinsky, R. (2013). Itinerant deaf educator and general educator perceptions of the
D/HH push-in model. American Annals of the Deaf, 158(1), 50-62.
Reed, S., Antia, S. D., & Kreimeyer, K. H. (2008). Academic Status of Deaf and Hard-ofHearing Students in Public Schools: Student, Home, and Service Facilitators and
Detractors. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 13(4), 485-502.
Russell, D. & McLeod, J. (2010, July). Educational interpreting: Multiple Perspectives
on Our Work From Deaf Students, Teachers, Administrators, and Parents. Paper
presented at the World Association of Sign Language Interpreters, South Africa.
Schick, B., Skalicky, A., Edwards, T., Kushalnagar, P., Topolski, T., & Patrick, D. (2013).
School Placement and Perceived Quality of Life in Youth Who Are Deaf or Hard of
Hearing. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 18(1), 47-61.
Spencer, P. E., & Marschark, M. (2010). Evidence-Based Practice in Educating Deaf and
Hard-of-Hearing Students. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Tomasuolo, E., Valeri, G., Di Renzo, A., Pasqualetti, P., & Volterra, V. (2013). Deaf
Children Attending Different School Environments: Sign Language Abilities and
Theory of Mind. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 18(1), 12-29.

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Wolters, N., Knoors, H., Cillessen, A. H. N., & Verhoeven, L. (2012). Impact of Peer and
Teacher Relations on Deaf Early Adolescents Well Being: Comparisons Before and
After a Major School Transition. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education,
17(4), 463-482.