THE LANGUAGES

OF POLITICAL ISLAM
IN INDIA
c. 1200-1800

MUZAFFAR ALAM

permanent black

Contents
Preface
1

Introduction

ix
1

2 Sharia, Akhlaq and Governance

Shari'a in Early Adab Writings
Fakhr-i Mudabbir's Adab al-Harb
Barani's Fatawa-i Jahandari: The Construction of a Past
Barani on Dindari and Jahandari
The Zakhirat al-Muluk of Mir Sayyid 'Ali Hamadani
(d. 1384)
Sharia in Nasirean Akhlaq
Political Norms in Akhlaq Literature
Ethical Norms in Mughal Politics
Religion and Mughal Political Culture

26
27
29
31
35

3 The Sufi Intervention

Another Vision of Power: The Sufis of North India
The Doctrine of Wahdat al-Wujud
Integration and Identity: A Sufi Trajectory

81
82
91
98

Language and Power

115

Persian in Medieval India

Persian under the Mughals
The Language of Empire
Persian and Political Culture

115
122
128
133

Opposition and Reaffirmation

141

The Problems of Persian and Akhlaq Texts

The Limits of Sufi Assimilation

141
151

43
46
54
61
69

viii

Contents
Towards a Reaffirmation

168

Concluding Remarks

190

Bibliography

196

Index

225