Literature Review

Introduction
When a new disease emerges, there is a checklist of information that must be
discovered. Where the disease started, what the disease agent is, what the vector
of the disease is, what the reservoir host of the disease is, etc. The piece of
information expounded on in this review is the information about the vector of the
disease. Once the vector has been discovered, the disease can then be slowed and
controlled. This can be done through control of either the larvae, adults, or of the
human-vector interactions that lead to transmission of the disease. The vector of
the new emerging disease, Clingers disease, has been found to be Ochlerotatus
punctodes.
Classification
According to Furnell [4], O. punctodes is falls under the Aedes genus. Ochlerotatus
is a sub-genus under Aedes. Within the Ochlerotatus sub-genus, O. punctodes falls
into the punctor subgroup. This subgroup is made up of five difference species,
including O. punctodes. This mosquito is commonly known as the Cruise Vampire
Mosquito, due to its affinity for biting people that have recently been on a cruise
ship.
Morphology
As O. punctodes is a part of the punctor sub-group within Ochleroatatus, it shares
characteristics of this sub-group. Differences between these species are based on
the male genitalia, as described by Knight [5]. These are a few of the characters
specifically: the basal lobe of the gonocoxite is expanded, setose and tubercular in
appearance, with stout elongate seta or spine at the tergal margin; the apical lobe
has short, clinging setae, with many of the ventral setae flattened or striated in
appearance; the claspette appendage is curved and blade-like from the lateral view
while being the broadest at the curved section. Darsie also mentions that the main
way to distinguish O. puntodes from O. punctor and O. hexodonius (referred to as
tundra mosquitoes), is through examination of the saddle spines.
Knight [5] goes on to describe that the torus of O. punctodes is usually pale
laterally. The scutum is brown and scaled, often with yellowish-brown scales
laterally. More rarely the mosquito will have a narrow pair of median darker
longitudinal bands. The scales over the wing base, on the prescutellar area, and on
the scutellum are yellow or whitish. The wings are dorsally all dark, with frequently
a very few pale scales basally on the costa. The mid femur will have few or no
scattered pale scales anteriorly. O. punctodes is very similar in appearance to O.
punctor. A distinguishing factor among the larvae of these two mosquito is the
morphology of the gills. The gills of O. punctor are longer, attenuate, and more
pointed than those of O. punctodes. Please note that the gills of these mosquitos
are more reduced than those of freshwater mosquitos.
Habitat and Distribution

According to Frohne [3], O. punctodes is the principle Alaskan salt marsh mosquito.
It prefers and predominates in more saline waters. It also prefers cooler climates. In
Figure 1, a map of different biotic zones within British Columbia is shown from
Belton [8]. O. punctodes was found primarily in Zone F, which is titled Coast Forest,
Puget-Sound Lowlands and Islands. Most of Zone F lies directly adjacent to the part
of Alaska where Ketchikan is located, meaning that both areas are suitable for
habitation by O. punctodes. Carpenter [1] illustrates in Figure 2 that O. punctodes is
found along the coastal regions of Alaska, extending up into the large river valleys.
It geographic distribution overlaps that of O. punctor, a very closely related and
more common species of the Ochlerotatus genus. Utrio explains that O. punctodes
is beginning to have a larger distribution, it can be found in areas of Finland and
Sweden. Larvae were specifically found in the upper cool inlet marshes of Alaska.
The salinity of the habitat is also very important to use when distinguishing from O.
puntor, as O. punctor prefers more brackish water than O. punctodes.

Figure 1

Figure 2
Reproduction
Furnell [4] describes this species as univoltine, which means that it only has one
laying of eggs each year. O. punctodes is what is considered to be a meltwater
mosquito. The eggs will over winter and then hatch in the spring time as melted
pools of water form. The eggs are forced into diapause during this period of cold
weather and then the combination of rising temperatures along with the
environment of anaerobic pools of water are what stimulate the hatching of the
eggs. After the eggs hatch, the mosquito will go through four larval instars. The
larvae feed on algae and other microbial organisms. The larvae will then pupate and
finally turn into adults. The males will emerge first and swarm in wait of the
females. All females of this species are anautogenous, meaning that they must take
a blood meal before being able to lay eggs. Males and females will mate and then
the females will lay eggs in places that will later become flooded.
Feeding Behavior
O. punctodes is polyphagous, meaning that it will feed on multiple species of hosts.
This includes humans and the reservoir of Clingers disease, the common grackle. O.
punctodes is an aggressive feeder and according to Becker [7], the females will
readily attack their hosts at any time of the day in forested areas. This species will
also take blood meals from multiple hosts in order to receive a full blood meal, it is
this tendency which makes this species in particular a more competent vector of
disease. This mosquito, even in areas where it is not commonly infected with
Clingers Disease-causing bacteria, is considered a great pest. Its persistent biting
and day-time feeding habits make it a nuisance for humans and livestock living near
forested areas [8].

Conclusion
The wide variety of mosquitoes found in the state of Alaska made it difficult to
pinpoint the vector of Clingers Disease. What made it even more difficult is that the
vector is of the genus Ochlerotatus. Within this genus, there are several species
that can only be distinguished by their geographic ranges, and at times these
ranges even overlap. Further study will have to be done to differentiate O.
punctodes from O. punctor. For the time, larval population control efforts will be
focused in areas where water salinity is high, since O. punctodess affinity for salty
water is one of the main factors that distinguish it from O. punctor.

Works Cited
1. Carpenter, Stanley J., and La Casse Walter J. Mosquitoes of North America (north of
Mexico). Berkeley: U of California, 1955. Print.
2. Darsie, Richard. "NOTES ON AMERICAN MOSQUITO PUPAE II. THE AEDES
(OCHLEROTATUS) PUNCTOR SUBGROUP, WITH KEY TO KNOWN NEARCTIC AEDES
PUPAE." Annals Entomological Society of America 50 (1957): 611-20. Web. 5 Apr. 2015.
3. Frohne, William. "MOSQUITO BREEDING IN ALASKAN SALT MARSHES, WITH ESPECIAL
REFERENCE TO AEDES PUNCTODES." Mosquito News 13 (1953): 96-103. Web. 5 Apr.

4.

5.

6.

7.
8.

2015.
Furnell, Allen. Taxonomic Revision of the Ades (Ochlerotatus) Punctor
Subgroup Based on Specimens Collected in British Columbia. Thesis.
University of Alberta, 1978. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Print.
Knight, Kenneth L. "THE AEDES (OCHLEROTATUS) PUNCTOR SUBGROUP IN
NORTH AMERICA." Annals Entomological Society of America (1951): 87-99.
Web. 5 Apr. 2015.
Utrio, Pirkka. "Geographic Distribution of Mosquitoes (Diptera, Culicidae) in
Eastern Fennoscandia." Notulae Entomologica (1979): 105-73. Web. 5 Apr.
2015.
Becker, Petric, and Zgomba. Mosquitoes and Their Control. Spring Science
& Business Media (2010): 250.
Belton, Peter and E.M. 1981. A Revised List of the Mosquitoes of British
Columbia. Pestology Centre, Department of Biological Sciences, Simon
Fraser University. Burnaby, B.C. 55-64.