RADIOGRAPHIC INTERPRETATION WELD INFORMATION nyTable of Contents PCN Radiographic Interpretation Welds (Level 2) SYLLABUS Radiographic Interpretation - Overview Principles of film radiography Radiographic quality . Capabilities and limitations of radiography Duties of a radiographic interpreter X and Gamma Radiation Properties of x-rays and gamma rays Electromagnetic spectrum : Inverse square law .. Scatter : Measuring radiation... Gamma ray generation . Xray generation ... Comparison of x and gamma rays for industrial radiography Half value thickness . a Radiographic Film The make up of radiographic film . Film types — Film speed... Intensifying Sereens General ..... Lead sereens . Fluorescent screens .. Fluorometallic screens Comparison of intensifying screens Image Formation Film Processing Developer Stopbath Finer Final wash Wetting agent ‘Drying the fim ; Radiographic Quality . Density oo... Radiographic contrast Definition .... Inherent (film) unsharpness . Geometric unsharpness (penumbra) Minimum f.£4. charts from BS 2910 . Determination of focal spot size Fog .. Astifacts Sensitivity BaF 521 5Radiographic ""echniques SWSI: source outside, film inside SWSI: (panoramic) source inside, film outside .. DWSI DWDI ... : Sandwich technique . Parallax technique ... : Determination of Exposure Considerations for exposures .........00000008+ - ROL Exposure charts R93 Guideline exposures R94 Charactcris ..-R1O R82 R83 R84 R84- we wwe owe POR {fee conidate holds PCN evel Utrasonie Welds ‘es il be exonpt from the 20 paper RETATION WELDS (LEVEL 2) SS eee Radiographic Interpreter (Welds) Candidates will be required to attempt three theory pape's covering: + General radiographic theory (paper 1A - 40 auti-choice questions - 1 hou ducation). + Sector specific radiographic theory {paper 2A - 20 multi-choice questions - 30 ‘minute duration) # Scctor specific product technology theory (paper 2B - 10 multi-choice questions a relating 1 welding - 15 minute duration), + Scetor specific practical (part 2E - 6 cadiggraphts pec metal grovp - 15 minstes per graph, 14 hours for six graphs). A candidate attempr' gall four groups would have six hows of practical interpretation |. Each part has 10 be passed st 70% and the overall composite grade has 10 be 80% or Paper 14 is worth 25% of the overall marks, papers 2A and 2B together are worth 25% and practical part 2E is worth 50% of the overall marks. a — Metal Groups Group A: Fertitic steeis inchiding ciatl stects; manual metal-arc, MIG, TIG. and mechanised fusion welding, oxy-acetylene welding, 6} Group B: Austenitic sweets and high nickel alloys (excluding Monel): ma arc. MIG, THG and mechanised fusion welding, Titanium alo and TIG welding. Group C:—Alunviniwny and its alloys: MIG and TIG welding, Magnesiwn and its alloys: TIG welding, cal Group D: — Copper and its alloys and Monel: manwal metal-are, MIG and TG welding. Written Examination Part $A - General Theory a. tnteoduerion Brief history of the development of industrial radiography. Philosophy of Non-Destructive Testing. Radiographic capabilities in relation to other NDT | methods. b. Principles of Radiation Electromagnetic spectrum, significance of wavelength, sources of x-rays and. sgammna cays, their claracteristies and Key properties, Interaction between radiation and matter, absorption and scatter. Types and sources of radiatios sa} electromagnetic spectrum. ¢. Nature and Prepetties of lonising Radiation i. Alltypes briefly, x and gamma in depth, fi, Particles. wave properties, clectromagnetic waves, electrical theory of ‘matter, fundamentals of radiation physics, ou ui eos -Penal iii, Interaction between penetrating radiation and matter, absorption, scatter, pair production, photoelectric effect, other secondary emission, ionising effects iv. Glossary of terms and units of measurement, a 4. Sourres of Radiation for Radiography q Characteristics and sel-ction of x and gamma, basic types of x-ray generator, tube selection and uses: isotope types. spectra, activity including self absorption, half lives - e. Principles of Radiographic Image Formation > "— Reetilinear propagation of rays, factors affecting penumbra, inverse square S law. Types and chaice of film used in industrial radiography. Types and uses of screens. Geometry of shadow projection. Use of formulae. £. Radiographic Seasitomet:y i. Characteristic curves, gradient density curves, gamma for typical fims, eifect of development conditions on characteristic curve. Types and xl choice of film used in industrial cadiography. ii, Effect of intensifying screens (metallic, fluorometallic, sal) on exposure conditions and image quality 1g Films and Processing i. Photographie emulsion chemistry, development, fixation, washing and drying of film. Temperature control “| ii, Automatic and manual processing and handling faults including adventitious images 1, Fundamental aspects of Radiographic Quality i. Sensitivity ii, Density and density measurement so iii. Contease. spocd and definition. iv. Factors affecting i. i % Cause, effect snd control of seatered radiation, Part 2A - Sector Specific Theory Exposure factors oo} Radiation quality: effect of changing KV; significance and effect of type of {gamma or x-ray source. Effect of time, milliamperage and ffd on exposure Use ot exposure charts. Identification, marking out and setting up. Radiographic calculations b. Techniques | Factors influencing radiographic techniques including masking, blocking media, screens, filters and film type. The use of 1QI. Determination of focal ‘spot size, Multi-tilm and panoramic techniques. Assessment of depth of known defects. Causes of diffcaction effects and their minimisation. An awareness ofthe principles of real time systems. «| © © Radiographic Quality Assessment i. Judging quality of processed eadiographs for subsequent interpretation Caleulation of [QF sensitivity, use of densitometers. determination of ~ film density ji, Radiographic app ince of discontinwities including adver titious: images their eauses and effects * iii Viewing conditions. illuminator requirements, optimum viewing conditions, masking, reduction of external lighting, viewing angle. iv. Judging quality of processed radiographs, taking int account codes, , Standards, specifications, procedures and techniques, Calculation of {QI sensitivity el ¥. Methods of reporting. er oes 1-2 14Iv J UV w Bugne 3 |] Pyens 8 IOGRAPHIC INTERPRETATION WELDS (LEVEL 2) 4, Standards, Codes and Specifications BS 2600, BS 2910, BS 3683 and BS 3971, Part 2B - Sector Specific Product Technolagy Theory tol a Basie Welding Processes i. Terminology for welds. Basic prit ii, Schematic lay-out and gen MMA, 1G. MIGIMAG. Ss bmergell are. leerrasiag. Basic types of welds Fillet welds. Bute welds in plate, pipe, nozsle and nodes b. Fabrication defects i. Types of defect associated with particular parent metal/welding process Ccowubinations including: Lack of fusion (all types) Porosity: worm holes, gas por Cracks: centre line HAZ. Visual defects inchoding weld mismatch ete Lack of peneration, St an les of fusion welding processes. il method of producing welds: explanation of how the abare defects are formed, . Inservive defects i Fatigue cracks, ji, Stress corrosion cracks. iii, Grinding cracks. Stress relieving. ‘What stress relieving is and why itis carried out, eae Definition of normalising and the differences to annealing. fer ian 1-3 {25 -Fe OHEdl Nig Exsboont ‘iemniomeat bette 0 TE Conair 60 (CoB) bas 0 vers ign peneroring power-very short watelength-ad cin Be head om materials wp © mi hi. ral 19 (ae192)iscommonty nso Stee weldment np 0.30 mm hick Therefore P12? prinduces longer wavslegh Parhaion conpared to C060, = ee e UNIT R1® RADIOGRAPHIC INTERPRETATION - OVERVIEW. —————— Principles of fitm radiography Film radiography is carried out using xray machines or artificial gamma sources (radio-isotopes). X-rays or gamma rays pass through the object to be radiographed and record an image ‘on a radiographic film placed on the opposite side, The quality and amount of radiation reaching the film will be largely determined by the objects thickness and density, e.g. a crack in a weld will increase the amount of radiation falling on the film ‘xf in that area due to a reduction in thickness. “JUS UMEAWAELEnanh of the radiation which governs its peneséatin this’, the: kilovoltage KV) setting: When using: Trayetand isotope Ope with ainmo rays Whe jensity.of the radiation is governed vy the iillzamperage (mA) % seh "ig XPPAYS. nd by she activity of the isotope type With gamma rays. Aativity is measured in curies or gigabecqerels ‘When the film is processed @ negative is produced. The thin areas of an object will be darker than the thicker areas, therefore most weld defects will show up dark in relation (@ the surrounding areas, exceptions are excess weld metal, spater, copper inclusions and tungsten inclusions. $0) ener x] A major limitation of radiography is that it will only detect defects whik Radiographic quatity An overall assessment of radiographic quality is made by the use of image quality indicators (GQ's), te commonly used type consists of seven thin wires decreasing in thickness. Atleast one 1Ql is pre-placed transversely across the weld being examined After exposure, some of the wires will be visible on the resultant radiograph - the more wies visible the beter the sensitivity. “The lensity ofan image on a radTograpt toensureit «ifs degree of hilackness, is also measured ‘a specifiod range for optimum quality Capabilities and limitations of radiography ‘A imajor advantage of radiographic testing is that a permanent record is produced, i.e. the radiograph. have signiticant depth in relation to the axis of the x-ray beam. As a rough guide, the” | -migimuin thrOugh thickness depth of # defect capable of being detected is about 2%'d€? SHPCHEISRRER. (tne sane ois as tne keay benneree sadlogrphy isually detect plate Taminations. tack of inter-cun Cusitn or cracks perpendicular to the aay Bean X-radiography ¥s gamma radiography X:cadiography requires bulky and expensive machinery in comparison with gamma radiography, but x-radiography gencrally produces better quality radiographs and is safer. X-ray machines can be switched on and off, unlike gamma Sources. a wo eau 78 RI-L 1a7 .annie RICE Peo Neil RPRETATION - OVERVIEW. Duties af a radiographic interpreter Ii is the duty of a radiographic imerpreter to ensure that all radiograph imterprexation %>| and any associated actions are carried out in accordance with the relevant specification(s} for the work being carried out. A radiographic interpreter must have access to the relevant specifications) and must now where to find and interpret relevant information Specific duties when interpreting radiographs af welds are typically as follows: "1 1. Mask off any unwanted light on the viewer. 2. View radiographs under subdued background light. 3. Ensure, far as is reasonably practicable, cach radiograph is correctly identified tw the weld it represents Ensure that the weld locations are identified, e.g. has the correct number tape been used, 5. Assess the quality of the radiograph: a. Measure radiographic density. b, Calculate IQK sensitivity ~ also ensure the IQM's are of the correct type and | conect!y positioned. Assess radiographic contrast; e.g-has gamma pen used when only xcradiogtaphy is pe-mitted?, A. Assess definition/graininess; e.g, have salt intensifying screens been used ‘when only lead intensifying screens are permintes® as a fast film been used instead of a slow film? soe. Do artifacts interfere with interpretation? 6 Check the radiograph to determine if any obstruction between the source of radiation and the film interferes with interpretation, e.g, lead numbers, 7. \Wemify the sype of wold i€ possible - normally already known, 8, Check the parent material on the radiograph for are strikes, hard stamping, «| gouges, minimum seam offset etc., when applicable, 9. Check the weld on the radiograph for defects, stating type ancl cegion. 10. State action to be taken, e-g. accept the radiograph and weld, reshoot, repair, remove the entice Weld, visual check, grind and investigate, MPI check, nl ultrasonic check, ‘inn R12 wae Pree OC OK LEH hh eH HOR ananwmw ww mHRadiation can be ether electromagnetic energy, eg. heat UNIT nee x AND Nun "RADIATION ible light, infra-red, iraviolet, s-rays, gamma rays; of corpuscular energy (sub-atomic particle energy), eg. electrons, alpha, beta, neutrons. Tonising radiation causes the charging of particles, i.e. the famation of ions, in a 8 rs medium such as air or radiographic film. Tonising radiation may be electromagnetic ‘or corpuscular energy. Two types of radiation are mainly sed jn industrial radiography - x-rays and gamma rays. ‘These rays, like all types of electromagnetic radiation, are emitted in minute energy packets known as photons or quanta; x-rays and gamnma rays only differ in their source of production ————— Properties of x-rays and gamma rays Both x-rays and gamma rays have the following properties: 38] 1, They have no effect on the hurman senses. 2. They have adverse effects on the body tissue and blood, 3, They penetrate matter. 4. They move in straight lines. «o] 5, They are part of the electromagnetic spectrum and therefore travel at the speed of light (3 x 10° ms. 6. They obey the inverse square law. They ionise gases. a} 8 They may de scatered 9, They effect photographic emulsion. 10. They nvake certain materials fluoresce. 11. They may be retracted, diffracted and polarized, 2 «| Electromagnetic spectrum Photon eneray, eV wot i iT 10108 tio 107 ti i WAM 107 108 108 10? 107 to" Infrared df Wavelength, microns oor RUN R2-1 124. 5Peo Weill | i stmmme ETPSNAL 4 3Q Inverse square law The inverse square law states twice the distance from the source, the same radiation covers four times the area but the intensity of radiation iy four times less. At four times the distance from the source the same radiation covers sixtcen times the area but the intensity of the radiation is sixteen times less, ete." ‘Therefore, with regard to exposure, the greater the f.LdJ5..d, the greater the exposure should be to attain a given density. The inverse squ 1. De 2 ov intensity re law can be shown mathematically in relation to intensity: D = distance “The following formula, based on the inverse square law, can be used to determine new exposures when the ff/sf.8, change ELD £2 p2? E = expose D= distance Scatter ‘When radiographic exposures are being made, some of the radiation scatters in all directions by the atoms which form the object. This scatter results in an overall fogging of the film and reduces the contrast and sharpness of the radiographic image. The thicker the object being radiographed, the greater the amount af scatter. Furthermore, the ground. wall, or another object close t@ tha object being radiographed which is struck by the radiation, will partially reflect the rays in the Form of beck scatter: this is also liable to fog the film, catter radiation is less penetrating youn primary radiation from which it is derived, i.e. they have a longer wavelength, Because scatter rays are less penetrating, they ean be intercepted by a shect of lead; this is one reason for using lead screens on cither ‘side of the film in a film cassette during exposure, although heavier filters may also be rnceded ifthe scatter is heavy.Peo Nell ie BRR Is ‘AND GAMMA RADIATION Ythe mame of protons in ‘he uctens of a atom ‘hinge the element type ‘onl be changes Measuring radiation Wavelength ‘The wavelengi of xrays and gamma rays is measured in nanometres (nm), Inm = 10° m, of angstroms (A), 1A=10"° m, The wavelength of electromagnetic radiation governs its penetrating power: the shorter he wavelength the greater the penetrating power. Short wavelength radiation has an adverse affect on final radiographic quality; it also more dangerous to living matte. Radiation exposure The unit of radiation exposure which is related to the ionisation of air is the coulomb/kilogeam. The old unit, the roentgen, however is still widely usod, 1 roentgen 2.58 x 10" coutomb/kilogram (Cig) Absorbed dose The unit used for mea wring how much radiation has been absorbed is the gray 1 gray (Gy) = 1 jouleskilogram U/kg). therefore the gray relates to energy acting on matter. ‘The old unit for absorbed dose the rad is sill encounter 100 rads = 1 gray. Biological effect ‘The tit used for measuring the biological effect of radiation is the sievert. 1 sievert (Sv) = | joule/kilogram (J/kg), therefore the sievert also relates to energy acting on mater. The old unit for the biological cftect of radiation the rem is still encounteres 100 rems = 1 sievert, Gamma ray generation Gamma rays used in industrial radio, soto raphy are emitted frony artificial radioactive also known as radionuclides. A radioactive isotope is an unstable state of a chemicat element which has @ different number of neutrons to the normal same element. tate of the AS with all isotopes, the different number of neutrons will result in a change in mass, therefore the mass mumber or A munber will be different (0 the mass number of the ‘other isotopes possible for the specific element, The atomic fiumber or Z number however will be the same for all the isotopes of the specific element, because this ;number refers to the number of protons in the nucleus which have not changed. If a material is radioactive it spontaneously emits corpuscular and electromagnetic energy the gamma radiation is a by-product produced from the disintegration of the radioactive isotope. The activity or strength of a radionetive isotope is expressed in curies (Ci) or becquerels (Bq). The higher the activity value, the greater the intensity of gamma rays produced. 1 beequere! disimtegr om per second: 3.7 x 10” becquerels = 1 curie; therefore: 3.7 x 10" disintegrations per second = I curie, euet aan R2-3 43t -Peo Hel NOTES UNIT:R2.¢ X AND GAMMA RADL For industvial radiography, it is usually more practical to talk in terms of igabecquerels (GBq): Giga = 10" 1 wigabeca l= 10" becquercls 37 gigibecquerels = I curie. The activity of a radioactive isotope does not relate to the penetrating power of the summa rays produced: penetrating power depends on the wavelength of the ganna rays produced and this depends on the specific radioactive clement involved. For ‘example, cobalt 60 (Co60) has a very high penetrating power and may be used on steel components up to 200mm thick, because the gamma radiation emitted has a very short wavelength ‘There are three main radioactive isotopes used for industrial radiography: iridium 192 (Gr192), cobalt 60 (Co60) and Ytterbium 169 (169) Radioactive isotopes are used taking into consideration their half-lives the ha feof a radioactive isotope is the time it takes for the activity to drop to one-half of its initial strength, R2-4synises onydosSoypos 1509 a4 2438 11 Yoryer pousrst tunwndo 4x “(2yaM J 10 .24/29/e) a4jou J 70 snoy 40d ayn Jad suaSjus0s uy uoIsstMg :10}9nf ac ansodxy R2-5 6 wm oT -¢z wut zy oda 0gt 80'0 szoo'o skep e2t ogy warn, & _ wun ct = wut zt ord 002 60£°0 - £50°0 S210 sep 1€ 691 winiqan A cs T es ww Sp - 0z usu 96 - 9 oos 19% 620 sro skep pe 261 wnipray 5 ul GL - cy uur gt - gz ose 99°0 ec0 savak gg LET winisaeD < S wut ce - Sp uuu QO1 - ¢z 008 ze1- 80 20 sieak 1% PET winisae) = uw 9ST - gz tuwi goz - as 0002 - oor eT 201 ze sivak 92's * 9 meqop wee WU - Jaajs UL ww + [pays AXquaeainba | pay sarSudUa aduvs uinwipdg | uraSues aqqissog | eu-x-xoaddy | ea-etuep eno) ae sounos —_ SADUNOS AVU-VINWYO JO SOLLSINALOVAVHO 133 | | | = = ‘S a, he Ruane &FeO Rieil FANN EEO Freomde ie somesines frre to a2 the tot cathode, X-ray generation X-rays used in industrial radiography are produced from electrical machines uswally 19) referred to as x-ray sets; the x-rays themselves being produced from within an x-ray be or insert An x-ray tube consists of an evacuated glass bulb, enclosing an anode (the positive electrode), and a cathode (the negative electrode). The cathode contains a fifament within a curved reflector or focusing cup. 25] When the filament is heated to a white hot state by a current flow of a few amperes, electrons are emitted and are attracted towards the anode in a concentrated beamn formed by the focusing cup, The beam strikes a target set into the anode which results in the release of energy; this energy consists of approximately 97 to 999 heat and 1 10 34% x-rays for conventional x-ray tubes up to 300 kV. ny tube insert ©} Because of the high amount of heat energy prod:iced, the anode is made from copper to conduct the heat away. Lait, copper has a low melting point, so to prevent the copper melting a slip of metal with a high melting point is recessed into the anode at the point which is struck by the electron beam. This slip of metal also serves anosher purpose, because, the higher the atomic number Of the clement struck by electrons, he greater will be the intensity and energy of the fcrays produced. This slip of metal, oF target, is uswally made of tungsten because of fits high melting point of 370°C, and its high atomic number of 74. The area on the target which is struck by the clectrons is called the focal spot; this ‘area should be large cnough to avoid local overheating, although from the radiographic image quality point of view, the focal spot should be as small as possible °| to provide good definition (sharpness) on the radiograph. Additional cooling is required t0 cool the anode; gas, oil oF water normally being The cooling system and the insert are contained together in an earthed, lead lined: | container, the complete unit commonly being referred to as the x-ray: tubehead. ‘The 22] tubehead is controlled from the control panel faerie 24 R2-6 employed for this purpose. 7 awmweraran eran a wr at a am AEEE EUE EEE BUC EEEEGEKEEKEKEELGLUEUE! CEE EU PBK bo Wye wiiniow rain The x-ray equipment control panel ‘The three controls that govern a radiographic exposure using x-rays are the timer, the vo] mA contro} and the KV control . 7 Te power source Timer Toseay tbe (2am minim cel eth) so Timer ‘The timer is usually calibrated in minutes. The exposure time for an exposure is preset; when the equipment is activated, the timer counts down from the preset value. ‘The exposure time will partially govern how much radiation is going to reach the film. Milliamps (mA) The mA controls the infensity or quantity Of x-rays.] When the mA is increased, the ‘current flow through the filament is increased, which causes the filament to get hotter resulting in an increase in the intensity of electrons released. ‘The greater the intensity of electrons striking the target, the greater the intensity of the x-rays produced, ‘The mA control on conventional x-ray equipment may only allow for a maximum of 6 to 12'mA to be used, the value being measured across the tube, i.e. between the cathode 7| and the anode, ‘The value required for a specific exposure is usually preset on the panel, this value ig usually at, or close to, the maximum mA possible with the equipment for the purpose of minimizing exposure ‘ime. Kilovoltage (kV) to} [The KV governs the wavlengih ot quality of x-rays] produced which practically ‘governs penetrating power. When the KV is increased, the speed of the electron flow from the cathode to the anode is increased. ‘Therefore, when the electrons strike the target, the kinetic energy is increased, which results in a reduction of wavelength. ‘The kV meters on the control panels for conventional x-ray equipment are peak KV values measured across the tube, ie. between the cathode and the anode. The maximum kV which can be used is primarily gov:med by the tubehead: typical maximum values are 200 KV, 250 KV and 300 kV. The value required for a specific exposure is usually preset on the panel ‘An increase i KV. i. a shortening of wavelength, has an adverse affect on the contrast and definition of a radiographic image. Certain standard specifications, e.g. BS 2910 : ‘eet teas R2-7 135Peel! 1986 : The radiographic examination of fusion welded circumferential butt joints in steel, state maximum kV values for this reason. MAXIMUM X-RAY TUBE VOLTAGE BS2910 5 Fine-geain fa T Hedwmspeed fm TWIT aa 309 : z , 2 200o|-— | * wool { ° “3s 30 1S Prnetrated thickness, am NOTE, Te crestor vag ar nt extended beyond 400 KV © Comparison of x and gamma rays for industrial radiography ‘ Safety ‘ Using x-ray machines is normally safer than using gamma sources because x-ray machines may be switched off like a light bulb, whereas there is a constant emission of radiation with @ gamma source. Gamma sources must always be returned to their shielding containers when not in use. Quality of radiographic images ‘Assuming vatiables such as test material thickness, film type sfc. remains constant, -rays produced by conventional x-ray equipment, say up t0 300 KV, produce beter uality radiographic images than Ir192 or Co60 isotopes, because these x-rays have longer wavelengths than the gamma sources. Heerbium 169 (¥b169) may prodvce radiographs comparable to those produced. by ling x-rays oka ri R28 136Ruane & ? TP ONel y a . : au Handling , Gamma souces are easier to handle in comparison with bulky and fragile x-ray equipment. The size also allows for gamma sources to be used in difficult and > inaccessible areas for x-ray machines, e.g. on pipe racks. a Cost ' Gamma sources and containers are much cheaper than x-ray equipment. ) Versatility The intensity and wavelengths of x-rays can be adjusted fkom the x-ray control panel. ) 2! ‘The intensity and wavelengths of gamma radiat’on cannot be adjusted, although the intensity (activity) reduces with tine - see halflves. ) Certain gamma sources have a very high penetrating power which enables them to be ‘sed on very thick material, e.g. 150 mm steel. ‘Most conventional x-ray machines will ’ not penetrate more than $0 sm of ste! although there are huge xray machines e.g. the sol linear accelerator and the bettron which can produce radiation of 2 wavelength which ) can penetrate as much a, and usually more than, gamma radiation. ’ ) ) « ‘ ) ’ ’ ' fc i i ’ ’ ) ) , , ) ‘ : : ) ) cacti R29 137 -138Hol value layer (H¥L) is alterotive terminology used The teh volue thicknesses (71) ofa material wit reduce the radiation intensity by one tenth, Ee HALE VALUE THICKNESS ‘The half value thickness (HVT) of a material may be used as a guide for determi the thickness of a material to be used for shielding from cadiation, eg. for the construction of a radiation work bay in a factory. ‘The HVT of a specific material is the thickness which cuts down the radiation intensity bby one half. If the initial intensity of radiation increases, e.g. by increasing the mA when using x-ray equipment, the HVT will remain the same, However, if the wavelength (penetrating power) of the radiation is changed, e.g. by changing KV or isotope type, the HVT of a specific material will ater. The following table shows examples of the HVT for lead, concrete and steel Beery ed Steel ‘Concrete (eum)_|_HYT (mm) _|_HVT (mm) 150 kV 03 | 4 22 200 kV. 045 6 26 250 KV 19 2 28 300KV 15 15 30 Tel92 35 3 3 C060 u 20 3 ‘The HVT of a material can also be used to explain subject conteast in relation to wavelength (kV): Figure I shows that side A of the specimen has four times the intensity of radiation ‘emerging from it in comparison with side B. Figure 2 shows that side A of the specimen has two times the intensity of radiation emerging from it in comparison with side B. Figure 1- 200 RY - stot Figure2-250 kV sect, Web wed bt te bud hd Sale i & ‘Therefore, the resultant radiograph from the specimen in figure J will display higher radiographic contrast (because of an increase in subject contrast) compared to the radiograph produced in figure 2 The lower the KV (longer the wavelength), the higher the subject contrast and therefore the higher the radiographic contrast Note: The radiographic density produced in figure 1 will be lower than figure 2 i€ the exposures are identical, so itis assumed that the exposure time for figure 1 is higher to compensate in order to give the same density on either side A or side B. ORuwne & TPO R2A-1 net sous 134 :ene HOee jira The ase ie normally ced Dive aed wll therefore poses some densi, Le. the bse of fn not troll mansperen The make-up of a radiographic film Radiographic film is usually made up of seven layers: a central base layer and three ‘coatings on either side consisting of a subbing layer, emulsion and supercoat. oe Base ‘The physical characteristics of emuls‘on do not allow it to be -ased by itself without suppor, therefore it is applied to a substrate known as the base, [ansparent, cheniically iert_and_must_not bo susceptibls 10 expansion and Glass. is an ideal subsirare to meet these requirements, but for applications where the objets t@ be radiographed are curved, ¢.g.on pipes, it is necessary for a flexible base fo be used. Palyester and eetiulose triacetate, although not quite as stable as glass, are widely employed for such applications, Subbing layer (substratum) The subbing layers adhere the emulsion to the base: the material employed for this is gelatine plus a base solvent. Emulsion ‘The layers of primary importance are the po emulsion layers. These layers consist of millions of{silver halide ecystals (usually silver Bromice)] the sizes of the crystals are usually between 0.1 and 1.0 micromeires {nm} and are suspended in a gelatine binding medium, Film emulsion is produced by mixing solutions of silver nitrate and salts, such as potassium bromide, with a solution of yelutine. The rate and temperature of mixing governs the grain sine: rapid mixing at low temperature produces the finest grain structure, whereas slow mixing at high ferperatuce produces emulsions with larger gains, When large grain siructures are required, to produce a fast emalsicn, some silver iodide is usually included in the formula ‘The sizes of these crystals and the distribution, effect the final radiographic quality/appearance; the larger the crystal size the greater the sensitivity to radiation. ‘Various shapes of crystals exist, but these shapes have Virtually no effect on the final image. ‘The reason for two layers of emul radiographs can be produced quict ion is to ive a faster film speed, i.e. the +. and higher radiographic contrast. Supercoat (anti-abrasion layer) Radiographic emulsion is susceptible 10 mechanical and chemical damage, s0 to prevent, or at least reduce this, the emulsion is coated with a layer of hardened gelatine Although the supercoat offers some prote: the skin duri processing n against chemical attack, e.g, handling, it must allow for chemical resctions to rake plac: from the ks. sage Ro “ 4)PP Onell Pre torsinology sed for ruin se and speed ca be inistading, The teins wh sve small relative Sine grit ftm may be ‘onsira 9 be att slow tependng nar eng ri RADIOGRAPHIC FILM: Film types Radiographic film may be graded in terms of grain size or spots + Ultrafine grain - exceptional radiographic quality but very slow speed + Fine grain - show speed, + Medium grain - medium spe. Coarse grin - poot ridiographie quality but fast speed. Radiographic films are also divided into two types: direcr-ype or sal sereen ype Direct-type films ae intended for direct exposice to gamuna or x-rays oF for exposure using lead intensifying sercens, Some of these films may be suitable For use ‘with fluorometallic or salt (fluorescent intensifying sereens. Salt sereen type films ace designed to be used exclusively with salt (fluorescent) intensifying screens, They are able to produce radiographs with minimum exposure and are widely used int medical radiography, eee Film speed A film factor is a number which relates 10 the speed of a particular film and is obtained from a films citaraeteristic curve: sce Unit R10 The SCRATA seale is a scale often used for film factors; the smaller the film factor the faster the film, Film ma,wiacturers may have their own scale which may work in the sane or opposise way t0 the SCRATA scale. Example to the SCRATA seale: A film with a factor of 10 will be twice as fast compared to a film with a factor of 20, This means to say of the film with a factor of 20 took four minutes 10 expose, then the film with 8 factor of 10 will require two minutes to give the same density. Types of film with their corresponding SCRATA film factors Manufacturer Name Grain] _Filra Factor ‘Agfa Gevaert RCF Coarse Dupont NDT 91 Coarse Dupont NDT 75 Medium Fine 20 Kodak cx Mediums Fine 25 Kodak AX Medium Fine 30 Agfa Gevaert D7 Medium Fine 35 Dupont NOT 55 Slow Very fine 80 Asta Gevaert Da Slow Very fine 95 Kodak Mx Slow Very fine 120 ‘Agfa Gevaert D2 Very sow | Ultrafine 200 TE go R3-2? vow vw Nw ne Peel fe ter metic Serene exit for less common ‘ypleatons, INTENSIFYING SCREENS General A radiographic film is nonmally sandwiched berween two intensifying sercens When 19] - exposed to x-rays or gamant rays. Inttensifying screens have an extra photographic effect on she emulsion thereby reducing the exposure needed t0 attain the required density. ‘There are three main types of intensifying sereens: ad Lend sercens 2. Fluorescent (salt) screens. 3. Fluorometallic server Clo: id film is essential in order t0 obtain sharp images. Screens saust be Kept free from dust and seratches, if this is not done they may be seen 22] as light indications on the radiographic image - especialy if using fluorometallic or Flloreseent screens. contact betweer screen: —=— Lead screens Lead sercens consist of a thin lead foil of uniform thickness, usually stuck onto a thin base card in the ¢ se of reusable sercens, or stuck onto a thin sheet of paper when used With pre-packed film, Lead sercens intensity the image by emitting beta radiation (electrons) when struck by ‘rays oF gamma rays of sufficient energy. The intensification action is only achieved Scone radiation has linger wnvelengrt than he priory bean from which it (ederted andi therefore less poneronng. with x-rays above approximately 120 KV and gamma rays above similar energy levels. Lead sereons will also improve the radiographic radiation. ige by partially filtering out scatter ‘Two lead screens are used to sandwich the film; the thickness of the front sereen must be matched to the wavelength of radiation being used, so that it will pass the primary so} radiation while stopping as much of the secondary radiation as possible. The rear sercen cuts down the effect of back seattored radia If it is technically feasible, it is better to use screens of the same Urickness, thus avoiding the problem of accidently loading a film cassefte with the rear screen at the front. Sereen thicknesses are usually between 0.02 mm and 0.15 mn, ro]_Lead screens are pliable and should be handled with care if buckling is to be avoided. If the lead sereens are to be u sd more than once, e.g. i" cassettes as opposed 10 roll film or pre-packed film, they become dusty and should be frequently dusted with a fine brush. If screens become too dirty or splashed with liquid, they may be cleaned with cotton weal damped with a weak detergent solution. When the screens become {00 scratched or dirty causing the radiographic quality to be impaired, they should be replaced by new screen: Fluorescent (salt) screens tol Fluorescent screens are made up from micro crystals of a suitable metallic salt, usually calcium tungstate, applied to a supporting thin base card, These sereens. when subjected to x-rays or gamma rays, emit light radiation to which the film is sensitive, This light radiation is in direct propoetion to the received radiation and resul s in a large increase of effective radition. 109} fice ieuH 143 R4-1Pyare & If TP O'Neil INTENSIFYING There are two types of Fluorescent sereen: 1, High definition (fine geain) screens. 2. High speed or rapid seraens ‘The intensification action of high speed sereens is at least twice shit of the high definition sercens. ‘A cadiograph obtained using fluorescent screens will have a grainy appearance due to the screens salt grains resutting, in tow definition compared to a radiograph (aken af sing lead sereens oF no screens at al Because of the resulting loss of im: avoid excessively long expassre tin re quallty, fluorescent screens are only used 10 eg. on very thick specimens reed »| Fluorometallic screens Fluorometalic sereens ire a combination of a salt sereen and a lead seroen; they are anade up of from a base card. a lead layer, a salt Sayer (calcium tungstate) and a thin protective layer ‘There is more than ane type of flugcometallic screen: | © Type 1 - for x-rays up 10 300 kV, # Type? for x-rays 300-1000 kV, tr 192 + Type 3 for Coon, Providing the correct type of fluorometalic sereen and fit are uses with the range of radiation being seed. substantia reductions in exposuse time or kV can be achicved. se] Because the lead layer will purtully filter ox statter radiation, the smage produced on the radiograph will be better than one obtained using fluorescent sereens, but the itmage will still tain a grainy appearance due tothe salt crystals. “These soreans are not commonly used due t high cost. ‘Their application is similar 10 those applications where farnescem sereeis way be use, i.e. on thick specimens. Comparison of intensifying screens vo) Screen type Order of Order of | Intensification How The intensification focer oles tothe reason be feyrasune ine, ea ‘nenicaron jor of it [ Lend 7 3 23 image quality] speed factor | intensification is ‘ce exposure from sa sic ‘wines ro two mies, characteristic x-rays co} Floorescent 4 1 8.15 Light eadiation Fluoromerallic 3 2 5-10 Light radiation None 2 4 N/A NA, serine agg R4-2Aerie rosation, in his ‘contest i tha hich wil affect the fm enusion, {le joona iron nage ‘When radiation passes through an abject it is differentially absorbed depending upon the thickness and any differing material densities. The radiation finally emerging at the film side of the object will largely determine the final characteristics of the radiograph. ‘The portions of radiographic film which roccive sufficient quantities of actinic radiation undergo minute changes. These changes are so sinall they are invisible to the naked eye and also invisible when using conventional microscopes; this hidden image is known as the lazent image. The latent image can be dofined as the hidlen image on a radiographic film after exposure to actinic radiation but before development, ‘Therefore, radiation alone does not convert a radiographic film into a visible readable image. The sequence of pracesses to atain a radiographic image are as follows: 1, The silver halide crystals which have absorbed a sufficient quantity of radiation are partially converted into metallic silver - this isthe latent image. 2. The affected crystals are then essentially gmpi fied by the developer: the developer completely converts the affected crystals into metahic silver. 3. The radiograph attains its final appearance by fixation; the fixer removes the unexposed and therefore undeveloped crystals. fet inns R5-L 145 -4b,svuvevrervyevwvvurvu ? > , ; Ruane & PPO hieil UNIT,R6® FILM PROCESSIN Film processing may be carried out manually or by using automatic film processors. ‘Manual film processing takes place in a durksoor under the illumination of safetights which usually consist of ordinary light bulbs behind orange filters. Other colours for filters exist, but the colour chosen must emit light of a wavelength which docs not detrimentally affect the emulsion. ‘The darkroom should preferably be divided into two sides, a dry side for loading and unloading of cassettes and a wet side for processing: this is so the films are not splashed prior to development, The wet side of the darkroom will usually have five tanks arranged in the following sequence: 1. Developer tank. Stopbath or rinse tank Fixer tank, Final wash tar’: Wetting agent tank. When the exposed film has been unloaded from its cassete, it is placed into a frame (oe spiral if its a long film) and placed into the developer. —_—_—_ Developer Developer iS an alkalijand is"uswally supplied as a liquid concentrate and is diluted with Water ata ratio governed by the manufaerarcrs instructions, e.g. 1 part developer to 4 parts water. Developer temperature and development time should be in accordance with the manufacturers recommendations or specification, out for manual processing is ;pically 20°21°C for to 5 minutes] The time should be taken from when the film the developer with a swiable darkroom timer. Once the film is in the developer it is agitated for approximnncly 20 seconds and then for approximately 10 seconds every minute. Agitation allows for fresh developer 10 flow over the film and provents the possibility of bromide streaking; agitation also cuts down development time. The frames or spirals should be tapped against the tanks to prevents any air bubbles sessing on the film which can cause light spots on the finished radiograph Developer Constituents Action Chemicals in common ase. Developing, Reduces the exposed silver halide | Metol. agent(s} grains to metallic silver. Hydroquinone, Phenidone. _| ‘Accelerator ‘A chemical which gives an alkaline | Borax. reaction which speeds up development. | Sodium carbonate. Sodium hydroxide. Preservative Prevents oxidation of the developer. Sodium sulphate Restrainer Controls the level of development | Potassium bromide. foxging -_ Sequestering | Prevents the formation of scale. Sodium) agent hexametaphosphate R6-1 147Penal pte crsetae ave nnespased ‘hes il nor Bae Been deiehpat Replenishment The activity of the developer gradually decreases with use and age. Replenishment ceasures that the activity of the developer and the developing time required remains constant throughout the useful life ofthe developer. When approximately I m of film has been developed, about 400 ml (2 cups) of replenisher needs to be added. After continuous replenishment the quality of the image will be affected and the developer will have to be changed. A common guide for the remixing time is when the replenisher added exceeds twice the volume of the original developer. Stopbath The stopbath may be: = Amacid stopbath + A.water spray rinse, © A fresh water tank. ‘The most efficient type of stopbath is sn acid stopbath which is typically made up of, [2% xlacial acctie acid in water. This stops the reaction of the doveloper, due to the developer bein; Iv and the stopbath an acid, Films should be placed and agitated in the stopbath/rinse tank for at feast 10 seconds; if this is no1 done properly. the fixer will soon become neutralised. Fixer Fixer is an acid which is supplied as a fiquid concentrate and is to be died with water, typically at a ratio of part fixer to 3 parts water (follow manufacturers instruetions): a hardening agent is also added [Fivarion is the process which removes the undeveloped silver halide crystals and jies the remaining developed crystals, thereby producing radiographs of a diagnostic (readabie) quality. ‘The fixer contains chemicals, e.g. ammonium or sodium thiosulphate, which convert the unwanted unexposed halides into water soluble compounds; they are then readily, dissolved or removed at the final wash stage. The Films must be agi ted in the fixer, failing 10 do so may result in light spots on the film. The fixing time is twice the time it takes for the image to clear, e.g if the milky mage disappears in 3 minutes. after looking under the itlumination of the safe lights, the films are returned to the fixing tank for another 3 minutes, ie. total fixing time 6 minut ‘When the fixer bocomies exhausted, e.g. as a guideline - when the WO nvinutes, the fixer should be replaced. Fixers are not exhausted fixer is retained because silver may be reclaimed. ing time is over sually replenished. The a clectrolysis methods. Final wash Films should be washed preferably in a tank with constant rosning water, for at least 20 minutes. This removes any soluble silver compounds left behind in the emulsion after fixing and removes the fixer which is an acid, Yellow fog appears on films which have not been sufficiently washed, “es R6-2 oC as Ce a a o~ cr o eRuane & TP ONell tao tog Wetting agent Wetting agent reduces the surface tension of the water and results in even drying of the films; this prevents Llack spots or streaks. Wetting agents are supplied as a liquid concenteate and ig to be diluted with water ata ratio of approximately I part wetting agent to 4000 pans af water. Films are only dipped in and out of te wetting agent Drying the film Initially excess water is removed from the films with a squeegee and then placed in cither a drying cabinet, other specially designed drying apparatus or a dust fre drying room. Care must be taken not to allow drops of water to fall onto the drying films, otherwise black marks will rain onthe radiograph ‘The drying time will depend on the temperanste, air circulation and the relative humidity of the warm air. Typicat deying times are 15 minutes in a drying cabinet, 45 minutes in a deving room, wae ne R63 199 ECe i 4 y ay ait 1 PAR pL aywer must he enpable 70 ofwhire Ha itonses stile for vesing radiographs up 19 the ‘maximum permiesible densities. the incite igh was 10% Ihe stensitvofthe ranged Tighe) = 10, fit wae 100% Nis D = 3.0 et. Radiographic quality can be discussed using four main terms: 1, Density - The density of a radiograph re sits degree of Blackness. 2. Contrast - Radiographic contrast is the degree of difference between density fields on a radiograph 3. Definition - Radiographic definition is the degree of sharpness at the Boundaries of density Fictds. 4. Sensitivity - Sensitivity is a term used to give an indication of overall radiographic quality There are two qualities of a radiograph usually measured: density and sensitivity. Density is measured using a densitometer and sensitivity is measured using an image quality indicator (1.Q-1), Sensitivity measurements give an overall guide as to the radiographic technique’ ability to detect fine defects. Sensitivity is affected directly by the contrast and definition, ic. if either of these qualities are lacking then the sensitivity is lacking, Density The density of a radiograph relates its degree of bla A Nigh density or dark area absorbs more light than a low density or light arca, The greater the amount of black metallic silver grains present in an area on a radiograph, the more Hight is absorbed! and thie denser the area appear More radiation passes through the thinner Scetions of a specimen, e.g. areas where or lack of fusion are preseat, therefore these areas will eventually show up on she radiograph as dark (dense) areas. Measuring der Density on a processed radiograph ig measured using an_ instrument called a densitometer, this compares the incident lighe with the transmitied light and expresses the result as logarithmic ratio. Incident light i light from the viewer; transmitted light is ight wansmited ihrough a flea when the film ison the viewer. ity . incident tighe Density = Login rinsmitted light Example: He the i font light was 316 times greater than the transmitted light: Densiy= Lagn UE Density = Log 316 Density =2.5 Before use, densitometers should be calibrated using a calibrated density strip - a strip of film containing known densitieson the same viewer which is 1 be used Cor interpreting the radiograph. The minimum density in the area of imeres, i. the weld, cequired by specifications is typically between 1.5 and 2.5. However, this is not always practical to determine feo 14 R7-L Wee -Feo hel Ea ‘when the area of interest has many thickness changes and therefore density changes 195 2910 stage thot the sdensty shall be betwen 22 find 30 the weld arc, range of one i aid fo fave wate laitade as is the case with certain types of mma. welds. In this situation the specification may specify that the density is (0 be measured immediately adjacent 10 the weld reinforcement. The maximum density stated in a speeitieation will typically be 3.0 or 3.5. 19} Lack of density - causes + Under exposure 10 radiation, + Insufficient development time. + Developer temperature 100 low + Exhausted developer + Incorrect developer ] + Solution af developer too weak Excessive density - causes 5) + Over exposure to radiation + Excessive development time. © Developer temperature 100 high, + Sneorcect developer. ‘al 7 Solution of developer too strong, Radiographic contrast Radiographic contrast is the degree of difference berween density fields on a so) radiograph When a radiograph contains only blacks and whites and no intermediate tones the contrast is high; when only tones of a similar density exist the contrast is low; the optimun contrast say Tie between these {vo extremes, it depends on the aint of the radiographic technique. co| If an application specification is not permitting any detected defects in the weld whatsoever, then the contrast shold ideally be as high as possible, i.e. high contrast is ideal for detecting defects, If however, an application specification permitled. certain defects, depending on the defects through thickness gisnensions, as well as length and/or width, then it would be necessary 10 have a range of fones on the radiographs so that the through thickness 1 depth of the defects and the height of weld reinforcements can be assessed. Therefore, to gain more information about the through thickness dimensions of any defects and the weld itself, we need 10 have intermediate tones, i.e. greys in addition to black and whites. Note: We are assuming that there are thickness changes or material density | changes present in order to display density changes. ‘The following chart shows the criteria which affect radiographic contrast: Radiographiccontrast *| Film contrast Subjectcontrast ———t—— 5 Filmtype density processing wavelength scatter screens filtration «yy xvii Ue R72 APAMHAAANANRARKRRANAMRATAAAAA ARAN AARA Aea Peon UNIT R7® RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY Measuring radiographic contrast 2 Radiographic contrast is. not wsvally measured exclusively; subje it is nonnally assessed ly, but could be measured by the use of a step wedge type L.Q.Iu. A wire type L.Q.L. used to measure sensitivity primarily gives information about the radiographic comrast, bu the degree of definition also goverss the result. Insufficient contrast - causes Radiation wavelength 100 short, i.e. KV/penetrating power (20 high. Over exposure to radiation, compensated for by shortened development time, . Prolonged development in too cold a developer or exhausted developer. 3 © Unsuitable or wrongly mixed developer. © Insufficient f © Fos. 2x] Excessive contrast - ) . uses Radiation wavelengh 190 long, i.e: kV/penetrating power too low. © Incorrect developer. © Wrongly mixed developer ; © Under exposure, compensated for by a prolonged developer. — ~ Definition Radiographic definition is the degree of sharpness at the boundaries of density fields. s<} ‘There are many factors that govern the final definition on 8 radiograph, including the . geometry of the set-up during exposure and the film type used. Perfect definition can > never be obtained duc 19 the existence of penumbra andthe films inherent ‘Annaliograph with poor unsharpness. - oO dentin iat dpe piiictnohutktow cones _| Measuring radiographic definition say have good defo Radiographic definition is not usually measured exclusively; it is normally assessed subjectively, but could be measured by the use of a duplex sype LOL A duplex type I.QLL. is a type III LQ. to BS 3971 - Image quality indicators, also referred to as a CERL pipe B. It consists of pairs of parallel platinum or tungsten wires of decreasing thickness, the thickness of the pairs usually being the same as the t rm] gap between them. If a pair of parallel wires blend into one on the radiographic age it will be due to the poor definition. ‘The largest pair of wires, the image of which has just merged fam that of two separate Wires into the single form, is taken as 7 the criterion of discemability. The total image unsharpness. U,, is given by: a Ufmm =d-+0 where: ) dis the width of the wire ais the spa Ws aerween the wo Wires Note: Type Ill .Q.1s are placed in the centre of the film adjacent to the weld, Poor definition - causes ) © Object to film distance (0.£ d.) too great (increases penumbra), 2 ©" Radiation somce to film distance too short (inereascs penumbra). oO . Dimensions of focal spot ar gamma source too large (increases penumbra). 5 Seer ome wes R7-3Pool aq) Mansmitied from exposed «ryst Is which have affected adjacent crystals. Lue R7.#, RADIOGRAPHIC + kV t00 high (inereases inherent unsharpness) + Vibration/movemen doing exposure. + Poor contaet between film and sercens # Salt screens (displays a grainy appearance). - ©] © Coarse grained film (displays a grainy appearance), | + Fog Inherent (film) unsharpness Inherent unsharpness is the unsharpness on a radiograph caused by stray clectrons ANA NANAMRAMRNARANRHRARARARH RRO Hm Inherent ns magnitude depending on grain size, grain distribution and radiation energy used; it increases with a reduction in wavelength. tunsharpness always exis Geometric unsharpness Goometric unsharpness or penumbra is the unsharpness on a radiograph caused by the geometry of the radiation be.m in rclation to the object being radiographed and the Film. Penumbra abways exists and borders all density fields. ‘The dimensions of the Focal spot or gamma source, abject to film distance (04.4,) an focal spot to film distance (F.4d) all affect penumbra, To miinisnise penumbra we must adhere to the following conditions: © The source oF focal spot should be as small as possible. + Q.E41 should be as small as possible. Fiid/s.f.d. should be as long as practicable, AARAAn nA atin 4 R74 meAe@SepeeeeeeTeeceeeeee eee Set ee tee eeeteeer tease Stas Eases Buone & I] TP Nell al cost RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY Penumbra size can be calculated by the following formula: size of source rofd. Penuma t “The maximum penumbra allowed on cadiographs is specified in certain standards. In contractual situations where the standards da nat quote maximum penumbra values, they may be agroed with the elient: a maxinnum penumbra of 0.25 mm is often used, “The BS 2910 docs not quote a maximum penumbra value, but recommends that the penumbra levels do not excord the maximum levels specified for inherent ‘unsharpness. The minimum ffd/s0.d. charts in BS 2910 are primarily based on penumbra considerations, ie.if these charts are being adhered to the penumbra is considered to be acceptable. MINIMUM FFD CHARTS FROM BS2910 Chart 1 - For all techniques other than OWDI using an y-ray coures on Wall thicknesses up Yo 20mm, 490 Focus-to-film distance F,mm imm maximum effective source dimension $ 10 1S 290 Single wail thickness, mm Sve R75 1gS -Ruane & TPONell il MINIMUM FED CHARTS FROM BS2910 chart 2- Forall techniques ather than DWD! using an ay su"o8 on wall iknest9s over 20mm, 1 Fine-geato film B Mediumspeet film ney . ‘ = t009} g ¢ OO * 250 ‘mm maximum effective source dimension - — 1 n _— 2% 40 60~—8OSCNOSC«C2 Single wall thickness,mm onan 3- For the OWDI tecnsique using an ray souco on pipe diameters up to 90mm. A Fine.grain Sitm, 8 Medium-speed film so : , wo : a i va * v0 3 l-1 [8 soot —L — "Ss Is 250 1s ! ° 8 ay 4080-90 100 Outside diameter of pipe, mm WE AAKAHEHHAAHMANANAMHMAHAHKANANRAAARAEA HOGRAPHIC QUALITY Determination of focal spot size The focal spor size of x-ray tubes can change over a period of tiene. To determine the size of the focal : pot, e.g. for penumbra calculations, the following procedure may be adopted. 1. Place a lead sheet, approximately 4 mr thick containing a small hole about 0.25 mm diameter, exactly half way between the focal spot and a radiographic film. 2. Expose - the exposure should not be excessive otherwise the image will be blurred, ‘The image on the film will be the size of the focal spot plus twice the diameter of the hole. 3. Calontate the focal spot size by measuring the total diameter of the image and then deduct 2 x hole diameter. Fog Fog is unwanted density on a ratiograph and may be sub-divided ino the following terms + Grey fog - often simply tenned fog. * Yellow fos, * Dichroic fog - greenish eolour by reflected light, pink via transmitted light. * Mottled fog. Causes of fog Grey fo, © Accidental exposure to actinic radiationlight, x-rays, gamma rays. When fog is caused by light lenks, e.g, because of a faulty cassette, itis ofen termed lighe fog © Scatter. - © Unsuitable darkroom lighting, c.g-wrong.safelights, white light catering darkroom. * Bad film storage. Yellow fog, + tnsutficiont final wash + Exhausted fixer: + Prolonged development in badly oxidized developer Dichrwie fog + Prolonged development in exhausted developing bath + Film stuck to another film in fixer. + Devetoping tan’ contaminated with fixer. Mottied fog + Film badly stored, + Film out of dare 1g. in damp surroundings. ‘ine R7-7 IS7 -Artifacts ‘An artifact is a spurious indication on the radiographic image, e.g, a fault in or on the film usually caused by mishandling or incorrect developing. An artifact may be mistaken for a defect in the weld or parent material; an artifact may also mask a fault in the weld, therefore, itis essential that artifacts should be avoided. Static discharge Static discharge marks may oceur when the film is pulled quicidy from between the intensifying screens in a dry atmosphere. The appearance on the radiograph is usually lighmning like, but it may also be mottled. Reticula Reticulation is 2 ner like sirweture appearing in the emulsion due to rupture caused by excessive temperature differences between the processing tanks. It is a rare atifact ‘nowadays 1010 the flexible/plastic mature of modern day emulsions. ion Diffraction mottle Diffraction mottle may occur in a weld area on a cadiographic image because of the grain structure and grain orientation of cortain materials matching the wavelength of the radiation in a certain way. Austenitic stainless stecls and aluminium weids ace particularly susceprable, Diffraction mottle has the appearance of fine porosity throughout the weld area, I ‘may be reduced or eliminated by changing the wavelength of cadiation, i.e. increasing kV, or by changing the radiation angle by approximately 5°. ible causes Light patches © Film was nor poss atcd/tapped during development or fixation, Film insufficiently rinsed after development, © Drops of fixer foll onto tim prior to development. © Mechanical damage to emulsion. © Impurities between sercen and Film, Dark patches, lines or streaks - possible causes # Drops of developer fallen onto film p to development. © Drops of water fallen onto film prior to development. © Mechani 1 damage to emulsion after e ‘posure. Slow and uneven drying of film, i.e. when there are still droplets of water on the film, © Uneven drying, Scratches on lead sercens. | Bending cf film after exposure (usually between twa Fingers causes dark crescent | skaped marks) Whitish deposit - possible causes + Water used to make wp provessing solutions too har. et vie Sd R7-8 rhe he hfe tr fr fr tf ee PEELE OEE Rha hEvise cr oC L LS u L Ls a Ls PeeNell Alioth its desrabte or ‘e108 and the spec 0 Den he some material stata posse or _prosicable to eccamplish fine 1 ook of Nallbit. or west specimens made from sled clemants, the 1Q1 materia! chosen soni ‘have sitar radiaon ‘theonpieeqnsmieion ‘properties 10 the tse “pecinen ‘BS-2910 eal forfour !Q1s place atthe 86.9, and 12 ‘cnet positions. ol. so} where the worst Sensitivity is expected. A. specifics Sensitivity The term sensitivity, when used in its general we, is an overall assessment of quality whieh relates to the radiographic technique's ability to detect Fine defects, ona radiograph. The sensitivity sociated with a radiograph is directly affected by the radiographic contrast and clefinition, therefore all these factors which affect contrast and definition will also affect the sensitivity. Measuring sensi vity Sensitivity is measured by the use of image quality indicators (1.Q.Ls), also known as 8 ponetrameters. There are various types of 1.Q.1; the type commonly used consists of seven thin wiees within a plastic packaging. ‘The wires are placed eaneverely across the weld area being exantined during exposure. The sensitivity on the resultant radiograph is then given 2 numerical value by dividing the thickness'of the sinallest Wire visible on the radioxraph by the thickness of the specimen in the area being ‘exainined; this ig then multiplied by 100 in order to express the result as a percentage of the specimen thickness. Alteatively, some specifications simply specify the sninimum number of wires which have to be visible on the radiograph. sss of thinnest wire visible x 100 Thickn s of Specimen ‘The lower the Figure obtained, the better. Le, the higher the sensitivity. {e cnust be noted however, that the abtained LQ. sensitivity value does not directly folate to the minimum thickness change or defect size detectable by the ratiographic technique used, Bs 3971 - Image quality indicators is standard which specifics-inree typesiof LQ.Us: # Type T- wire type (BS EN 462-1 : 1994) ‘Type Il - step wedgeole type. Type III - duplex wire type for exclusively meas ing definition. Step wedgeMole type 1.Q.Ls are placed adjacer “The sensitivity is assessed in the same way a diameter instead of a wire thickness. to the weld in the centre of the film, for wire types except you use the hole With the exception of duplex wires, LQ.Ls are made of the same material as the specimen being ¢ xamined and are available ia a varict “of thickr.ess ranges. ‘Technically. the best position to place an 1.QU. is on the source side of the specimen, but for practical reasons LQ.L(s) are often placed on the film side, i.c. between the film and the specimen, It may also be stated that they must be positioned in the area 8 to radiographic n rel testing large diameter pipe welds may state: For a panoramic exposure at Least one LQ L. must be present, placed sition". Reason: because this area ground, the 6 o'clock nore susceptible to back scatter from the so] "For a multiple exposure technique two LQ-Ls must Le used, one at each end of the file within 25 mm of the diagnostic film length, with the thinnest wire facing towards the outside", Reason: the outsidefend of sensitive area duc to fe off i on a mullite exposure shot is Diane TRON Lara R7-9 5Peel ha Specific ser There are many specific terms relating to sensitivity which may be encountered; the following terms are in accordance with BS 3683 ~ Terms used in nondestructive testing : Part 3 - Radiolagical flaw detection tivity terms Contrast sensitivit ‘The density difference on a radiograph after processing, produced by a small change in specimen thickness. Note: Itis usually expressed as a percentage of the total specimen thickness Defeet detection sensitivity In a radiograph, the minimum dinvension of a specitied defect that can be discemed, measured in the divection of the primary radiation beam and usually expressed as. a percentage of the specimen thickness. Flaw sensi ‘The minimum flaw size detectable under specified conditions usually expressed as a percentage of the specimen thickness. (See also defect detection sensitivity) Image 4) ty Inéicator sensitiv The dimension in the direction of the radiation of the thinnest step-with-hole or wire that can be clearly identified. expressed as a percentage of the thickness of the ‘material under examination, Note: The duplex-wire image quality indicator is based on a different principle and sive: a measure of unsharpness Thickness sensitivity The smallest change in thickness which can be detected by radiography, sally expressed as a percentage of the specimen thickness, miesrronit — GO R7-10 ean nan ARRAN HRAAA MAH AHR AAAHAAAAPeon RC cise dte ten tesn teas Radiographic techniques for welds on stec\ are lis-ed in BS 2910 - Radiographic ‘examination of fusion welded circumferential butt joints in steel and BS 2600 - Radiographic examination of fusion wolded butt joints in steel. The radiographic examination of s plate weld would result in a single wall, single image technique being used; however, there are essentially Four ways to radiograph a gicth/pipe weld: 1, Single wall, single image (SWS1 - fl insi , Source outside, 2. Single wall, single image (SWSD = film outside, source inside (internal exposure, usally Full panoramic). 3. Double wall, single image (DWSS) - film outside, source outside (external exposure) 4, Double wall, double image (DWDI) - film outside, source outside (elliptical exposure) The panoramic scchnique is usually the preferred technique if the equipment is available, access permits and the minimum ff.d/s.£d, requirements aré met, This is duc to the fact that the entire weld can be examined in one exposure and good sensitivity can be achieved because of a lower level of scatter and kV in comparison, with a double walled exposure. SWSI: source outside, film inside For standard exposures, the radiation beam is positioned at normal incidence to the \weld face and film passing through the centre of the weld, “This technique is primarily intended for 100 mm diameter pipe welds and above, where access to the internal weld area permits. The main disadvantages of this technique are the number of exposures required due to a large amount of fade off, and the practical aspects of positioning the radiation source at sufficient fd. when dealing with fabcications in situ. Ir ig a technique nior. suited to targe diameter pipes, vessels and tanks where the curvature is closer 10 flat plate and therefore has @ reduced effect on the amount of fade off. ‘The cequired minimum number of exposures fo cover the full circumference of the weld depends on the wall thickness, pipe diameter and ffd/sfd.: see rable in BS 2910. eT use R8-L élPeo Nel Ge re SWSI: (panoramic) source inside, film outside For standard exposures, the radiation beam is positioned at nonwal incidence to the weld face and film passing through the centre. of the weld, with equal £645.44. around the circumference. ‘This technique cannot be wsed if the ninieun E6415... roquiroments cannot be met. DWSI This technique is commonly applied to all welds where the use of a panoramic technique is not possible o° practicable, e.g. on smal diameter pipe welds, For standard exposures on any diameter of pipe weld, the radiation beam is positioned at approximately 85° to the weld face and film, With this technique she radiation, beam cannot be positioned at normal incidence to the weld portion being examined because the weld on the radiation source side wit superimpose over the film side weld resulting in a reshootable radiograph. This problem mainly applies when using x-ray tubes; the x-ray tube must be moved approximately 60 unm to the side of the weld, so the central line of the x-ray beam shoots past the tbe side weld resulting in a diagnostic image of the filin side weld. Care must also be taken to ensure that the umber tape on the source side does not interfere with the image, i.c. shoot through {rom the opposite side af the weld to that which the number tape is positioned |. The required minimum auumber of exposures to cover the Fall circumference ofthe wvehd depends on she wal thickness, pipe diameter and ff; see table in BS 2910, ie xo ‘ ‘Source —- oteee tron sivas U2 R82 ‘ ‘ ‘ « e ~@ € € € € é € é € € € € é € é é é éPeo hel 3 a a! DWDI ’ “This technique is only applied to welds on pipe or fittings 90 mm diameter or below. "l The film cassettes are not bent around the pipe circumference unlike with the other a techniques; flat cassettes are used which are usually offset to the weld to record an elliptical image, purposely produced by offsetting the focal spot at least one fifth of the ’ ££.d8... From the elliptical image of the weld, the tube side weld is interpreted as well as the film side weld a 2] A minimum of three exposures are usuatly required, offset by 120° to each other; this J cesults in a total of six interpretable areas on the radiograph which should cover the fall cireunference of the weld 3 Note: On small bore pipework, itis sometimes permitted by specification or client tor the radiation to pass through the centre of the weld at normal incidence to the pipe: y sx] this will produce a eaiograph withthe tube side weld superimposed over the film side weld. 2 3 a ;| Fitm Film offset) 2 > : > ol » Section on X= 3 > el » Source yy Fe. wl “Vortset s 3S > 2 s y & > Foie R83 3 ‘ 163 3Peon | Sandwich technique The sandwich technique is a radiographic technique sometimes used in order 19 save time, wvay be used on components where there are substantial thickness differences causing the density on a single rathagcaph 10 be out of specification on cither the thicker side, the thinner side or both, Rather than carry ut so Seperate shots at Uifferent exposures for exch Weld or position, cussettes may be loaded with wo filins. Two radiographs will therefore be produced - one for the thick site and the other for | the thinnor sidebur they will have been produced in a single exposure. The films are usually of different speeds, e.g. a fine grained film foaded with a very 1 Fine grained film, however. the same effect will be produced by placing a ead serean, | thicker than uswal, berween two Films of the same specd. ' \ ‘ ‘ ‘ Parallax technique “4 ‘The technique is used after a defect has already been detected by conventional ( | of a spocimen’s surface close to the plan view location of the defect. Tivo exposures 4 pres dbus nge one ender an tet ‘ | the flowing criteria ire used to caleulate the distance of Whe dust Sw the fy 2 | citer by ancans ofa formula or grap ri a) Gap between defect images. bb. Gap between feat ware inn © Redssta, 4. Specimen thickness. ‘ 6. Dimension of shift between source of radiation, “4 = € ot 4 x 4 Tine 14 RdgPeon Remenber thar density affects ‘onrast and contrast affects be considered and controlled in order to meet with a specifications requirements. ‘The time to use for an exposure is only one factor to consider for an exposure, but it is this factor which changes most often. Gamma exposwe times are ustally calculated from special slide rules, usually referred to as gama exposure calculators, these take into consideration the following: a. Film density to be achieved. Source type c. Activity of source, d. Film speed za} ©. Source to film distance, Material type. Material thickness. When using x-ray equipment, the determination of exposure is less straightforward, This is because the wavelength and intensity of radiation may be adjusted, and differoat machines produce different quantities and qualities of x-radiation even | though they may be operated on the same panel settings. The following methods are used to determine correct exposures when using x-ray equipment a. By reference to previous exposure records. b. By trial and erortest shors. c. “A.combination of the above. «| d. By using exposure chants Considerations for exposures so Wavelength of radiation ‘The wavelength of radiation used will affect the density, contrast and definition of @ radiographic image X-ray equipment - The lower the kV used to penetrate the specimen, the higher will be the contrast, but enough kV must be used to keep the exposure time reasonable. | Gamma isotopes - Different radioactive isotopes produce different wavelengths of ‘gamma radiation, e.g, Co60 produces shorter wavelength radiation than [e192 and is therefore more penetrating, but a radiograph produced on the same specimen using C060 will have lower contrast amd definition, | Intensity of radiation and exposure time The intensity of the radiation reaching the film and exposure time will affect the dens \y of the image. ation intensity and exposure time are related. Exposure time is proportional to the intensity of raciation: this relationship is known as the reciprocity law: Exposure time x intensity X-ray equipment - F you had an exposure of say 4minutes and 3mA, then 4x 3 12, therefore you would be using 12 mA-mins. You could also use 3 minutes and 4 mA to give you the same amount of exposure because 3-4 = 12, o¢ 1 minute 12 mA, 1x 12= 12, or 2 minutes 6 mA, 2x 6 = 12 ete.; all these give you the same amount of exposure “The higher the mA setting on the control panel, the greater the intensity of radiation produced, and therefore the darker the image will be, unless the time is reduced to compensate. Gamma isotopes - If you had an exposure of say 5 minutes using an isotope with an activity of 4 curies, then 5 x-4 = 20, therefore you would be using 20 Ci-mins, faved amen RO-1 wePenal sol Therefore, with ro OF EXPOSURE ‘The higher the activity of the isotope used, the greater the intensity of radiation produced, and therefore the darker the image will be, unless the time is «educed to compensate, X-ray equipment ‘Tw intensity of radiation (governed by mA) and quality of radiation (governed by kV) cean be affected by the eleciie eirevit of the equipment being used. The kV and mA, may be on the same pancl setting, but the radiation intensity and wavelenaths can vary from one set f0 another. Fikter types and thicknesses also differ between x-ray tubes, Filters are used t0 cut out secondary radiation to provide a more bomagencous x-ray beam with lower resultant scatter levels. Filters affect the exposure time, e.g. an x-ray tube with a thick fier will require more exposure than an x-ray tube with a thinner filter. ‘Type of film “The higher the speed of the film. the denser the image compared to that of «slow fin, at the same exposure, However, the radiograph’ definition for a slow film at the arvaet exposie will be better than that fora fat film atthe correct exposure Inter rying screens infonsifying screens reduces the exposure required t0 attain the required but fluorescent and fluorometalic screens have an adverse affect on the definition of the radiographic image. FE.dJs.t.d } The greater the £fd/s.fd. the smaller the penumbra, therefore the better the | radiographic definition, But, x-rays and gamma rays obey the inverse square lav. rd t0 exposure, the greater the FF.dJs.f.d. the greater the exposure should be to attain a given density “The Fetlowing formula, based on the inverse square law, can be used to determine new exposures whenthe ff. d/s.Fd., changes: 22D, B= expasiwe D = distance Therefore: New distanee’r Old Exposure (Old Distanes" New Exposur Object being radiographed ‘The radiation absorption and transmission characteris its thickness, density and atornie wa required 's of a matesial depends upon This will primarily govern penetrating power Processing the film The density. contrast and definition of a radidgraph are affected by the type. temperature, agitation and time ia the developer. The development process should not be adjusted omside & specifications requirements in order to compensate for incomrect exposures. i. t0 adjust the density of a radiograph. the expasure should be changed: not the developing process. ‘hone? Toa Me R9I-2 Pe a eee eePenal Exposure charts Exposure charts provide the exposure conditions for @ given thickness of material "| using x-ray equipment. An exposure chart will show the exposure t0 use in mA-min for a chosen specimen thickness and kV in order to alvin the density thatthe chart is based on Exposure charts are drawn up from preliminary charts mde up from exposures using different kilovoltages on step wedges 3] The vertical scale on an exposure chart is logarithmic and the horizontal scale is aries. Each chart must show the variables to which the chart is applicable to: a. Typeof xray set b. Film density afc Film ype 4. nvensifying screens ©. Focus to film distance. {Development conditions Materia ested 101 1 Mo wx mw 2 x0 a x “| 2 He Eom nol & Boss sea ONY aS Rene os ‘<.Filenigpe = Kodak CX. ea {econ 4 iter aac tote ncpen S$ 0 15 0 BW 35 @ 45 50 55 6 6s 70 Steet thickness (rm) mae R9-3 7 -PONE Guideline exposures The following chart shows gv ideline x-ray exposures using 3 conventional X-ay tnit "| on standard wall thickness ALI pipes using fine grain film with lead serens Technique i Tecasiaue [pia towed | Time ind [an kv al GOWDl ee 30 3 13 DWSI 100 3 DB DWSt 300) 5 | 13 DWSI 450 5 7swst | a50_— 5 *| 13 DWSt 600) 5 3 7SwSt “500 1B 5. 13DWST 900 5 3 7SWSI wo | 3 5 13 DWSL 1050 2 7swst__| 1050 35 ° Focus to film distance = 650 mm. oo nt ere 2 RI4Auane & ; FeO Nell UNITR10® CHARACTERISTIC CURVES OF FILM: A characteristic curve is a curve on a graph produced for a particular film which shows the relationship between different exposures applica! and the eesulting densities Information which can be gained from a char: cteristie curve is us otto a. The position of the curve.on the exposure axis gives information on film re speed. b. The gradient on the curve gives infonmation about fila contrast ‘caniast film will display a stoep gradient “The position of the straight line portion of the curve agninst the density axis will show the density range within which the film contrast will be at its ighes (usually opti md A new exposure time can be detemninat for a change of filmy type. For example, it would be possible to determine the now exposure for film type x in order to achiove @ density of 3.0, if she expasuce for film yee y' was 5 mAmins to achieve a density of 2.0 a high A characteristic curve will also show that the density does not vary, in the same proportion as the applied exposure A curve is produced by applying increasing exposures (0 adjacent areas of a steip of film. After development, the densities are measured with @ densitometer and den plotted on a graph against the corresponding exposures. Both the vertical axis (density) and hocizontal axis (exposure) ace calibrated in a logarithmic scale (log,,E): this method is the most practical method for the size and interpretation of a curve. ‘When the points obtained are joined together a curve will be produced, If characteristic curves of various films were superimposed on ante graph, it will be seen that the faster films lie closer to the left vertical axis, becanse faster files attain density at lower exposures, Therefore, it should be appecciated that it is possible to obtain the relative film factors from the characteristic curves of films. vo core 169 s R10-1Pe ee eeeseeneevuuveusuveeorouEs q a 170RADIOGRAPHIC INTERPRETATIONTable of Contents Weld Terminology .. Types of joint Types of weld... ‘Types of joint preparation Weld zone terms . Welding Processes General Oxy-gas welding .. Manual metal arc (m.m.a) welding - Metal inert gas and metal active gas welding ‘Tungsten inert gas (L.i.g.) welding ... Plasma arc welding (p.a.w.) ... Submerged arc welding (s.a.w.) Electroslag welding ... Steel Weld Metallurgy Grain structures... : The heat affected zone (h.az.) - The effect of hydrogen in ste! ‘The carbon equivalent of steel. Heat treatment . Weld Defects and Repairs Terminology . Weld defects Classification and significance of defects Defect acceptance levels Repair welding . Normative Documents . Non-destructive Testing Penetrant testing ...... Magnetic particle inspection Radiographic testing Ultrasonic testing Eddy current testing, 173 Ww2 W2.1 -. W2.1 . W2.2 w23 - W3.1 - W33 w3.4 Ww37 - W310 oe W313 - W314, W317 ws WS.1 WS5.1 oe WSS .W5.4 - W5.5 -. W9.1 WO . W9.6 - W9.6 W9.7 QA2 NDT1 NDTL1 NDTL1 NDT1.2 NDT13 NDTL3~ oe we ew ew we vprvvavs DIVISIVUVITY Types of joint Fadge Comer Crucijorm Types of weld RE op tb to single bevel butt weld Compound Filter oO: fl Bun Edge Ws oC Bute FOL, Spot (Fusion) Plug W2-1wa-2 196XN~wTwwruwuewevwvvwgd 178Fe OHEl 13 ® WELDING PROCESSE: General Welding is the process of joining two or more picces of muteral together by bringing the atoms of each piece immo such close contact dat an atomic bond takes place, ie. the separate pieces fuse together to form one. This process is not restricted to metals, many materials such a8 plastic and glass can sso be welded. ‘The fist welding carried out was called forge welding. AS ihe name implies. it was tased in the forge or smirhy by blacksmiths. The method invelves heating the pieces of icon to be joined (6 red heat and hanwnering them togetior, Because no melting of the materials is iavatved, the process is tented ho? Sole! phase welding or welding 1th pressure Fusion welding is the alternative process to welding with pressure Welding with pressure is used 10 obtain a welded joint belween owe materials wishout melting them. The process inwalves the vse Of High pressores to bring the materials into close enough contact for an atomic bond to be obtained To achieve an atomnic 0nd, the pressure applied must cau « plastic deformation of the surfaces being welded in order {© break up and remove Me Oxides on the Surfices The weld is obtained by atomic diffusion followed by crystal growth acrose te surfaces being joined. ‘The application of heat, of the generation of heat due 1 fictional effects. has the effect of reducing the amount of plastic deformation requiced to peaduce a bond, Welding with pressure has a low heat input when compared to fusion welding, this és advantageous for many welding applications. Welding with pressure can also join together dissimilar metals which ave. difficult 1a weld swish any fusion welding process However, fusion welding processes are more widely used than the welding processes nwolved with pressure. . ‘The fusion process celies on the propenies of molten materials 10 easily form atomic bonds. When a macerial melts, the lattice stewctures which form the mater destroyed, allowing the atoms 10 easily mix together. Upon cooling and solidification, the atoms ¢e-form into new lattice structures. These strvewses may well be differem to the original lattice for various reasons. including the rate of heating. the rempermnces ceached, the rate of cooling, and any additions mde to the molten material. Therefore the vinished weld may have’ propectins quite different fro the parent materials. Fusion welding processes require a local application of heat in order to bring the material 10 a temperature at which i will se, for steels this approxintately 140°C 10 1500°C. The temperature in the molten weld pool rvay bein the 2500°C vo 3000°C range, The average temperature in the arc is 600°C. This heat energy is dissipated ino the surrounding atmosphere and yacent matecial on gtr side of the weld Additions to the weld may be made unintentionally by expesing the molten matecat tothe atmosphere. The gases which form the air (primarily nitrogen and oxygen) are readily couubined with the molten metal and undesirable nitrides and oxides may be formed, It is therefore desirable to shield the molten weld mera from the ai: most fusion welding. processes incorporate a systenn 0. pretet the weld poo! fren inospherie caauarninstion meta 17%Se best ued! 6p 98 2 3 a h Ruane &Fe One! LDING PROCESSES Oxy-gas welding ‘The tenn axy-gas welding is 3 generic term for a fusion welding process which uses 4 "fuel gas and oxen to provide # flame ht engugh o weld the macerials ¥ be oined + Cros ences ee Acetylene ise only fuel gas, when nixed with oxygen, which gives suffiient thermal energy for the commercial welding of steels; a flame temperature of 3100°C is produced. Ory-acérylene welding is suitable for the welding of mast mete including carbon steels. stainless steels, cast iron, bronze. copper. aluminium etc zo] Focal materials except the carbon steels the use ofa flux is required “The main axes of application for oxy-gas welding is on mictals Yess than Sam thickness, although thicker sections may be welded ‘The main disadvantage of oxy-gas welding is the slow speed of reavel (and theretore heat input), this causes @ wide h.a.z,, possibly undesi ble nvetallur ical changes and se] distortion {In secent years the process has declined in popularity. mainly due to the development of other more efficient processes such as Li.g.. mig /m.a.g, and plasina ace Process technique The high temperature flame is used to bring a small area of the parent metal up 10 | melting point. a separate filler wire is then dipped iato the molten pool avd & pasion . melted off, his mies with the base metal to provide the weld Two main welding techniques are used for oxy--gas weldin Forehand technique zo] The filler wire precedes the blowpipe along the seam to be welded. The forehand technique is for general purpose work: Backhand technique ‘The backhand technique is vice versa to the forchand technique, ie. the blowpipe recedes the filler wire along the welded joint. This technique can be used on thicker eo| sections and, with modifications. on positional work. ‘The oxy-acetylene flame ‘There are three distinct lame types which can be set with oxy-acetytene amd these are as follows: The neutral Name The nestral flame is combined from equal quantities of oxygen and acetylene ind his a distinct inner white cone with a equnded cip. This fame isthe most frequently wet I suitable for all carbon steels, east irons, low alloy steels and aluminive Ta $8) . WiPP OWedl! NUE Gunn ues} ‘The carburizing (carbonizing) Mame ‘The carburizing flame has a slight excess of acetylene and is identified by the feather around the inner white cone, The flame is suitable for the welding of high carbon steels and for hard surfacing applications. Some welders pecfer a very slightly carburising flame when welding aluminium as it ensures that there is no chance of excess oxygen being present ro contaminate the weld pool The oxidizing Name ‘The oxidizing flame has an excess of oxygen and is identified by an inner white cone which is shoner and shacper than the neutral cone. This flame is sititable for all brass. bronze, zinc applications, ie. bronze welding and brazing. OXIDIZING Sharp inner cone, deeper colour in centre NEUTRAL Fully luminous CARBURIZING Feather of excess acerylene around inner cone Manual metal-are (.n.a) welding Manual metal arc welding is the most versatile of the welding processes, suitable for almost alt thicknesses and types of feraus and most non-ferrous metals. Welding can be carried out in all positions rel ly economically with reasonable ease of use. although the eventual weld quality is dependent mainly upon the skill of the welder. Manual metal arc welding is an are welding process, the heat being provided by an electric arc which is itself formed between 2 flux coated consuniable electrode and the metal being welded. The are has an average temperature of around 6,000' more than sufficient ro melt the parent meral, consumable electrode and flux sic weeding Coad ey eins charactercslec Elec troae Ae an or ea a | <= = tan 4 | T Etectrose cone a Feenerce ancy, fancn wed deporce Motren weer po —Swetaeng return Pasent plate mine Ue W3-4FPO fed Power requirements M.maa. welding is carried out using either a.c. of dic... lu the case of dhc., positive Gave) oF negative (ove) polarity may be used. The actual curren! fonn selected is dependent upon the composition of the electrode flux costing and the specified requirements of the weld. A.C. teansformers are die most eost effective fom of power source. Power for mun.a. can be obtained from either transformers, transformer-cectifiers, generators Or inverters. Regardless of type, the welding plant must provide the fotlowing: a. ahigh open circuit voltage (0.c.V) 10 initiate the arc, e.2, 65-90 volts, and a lower arc or welding voltage 19 maintain the arc, e.g. 20-40 volts: therefore the plam must have a drooping characteristic. See Unit W11 b. a reasonable range of current must be available; 30-350 amps is typical Approximately 500 amps would be the maximum capable of being handled manually. care stability. A rapid arc ccignition (are recovery) must be available after short circuiting without excessive current surges which can cause spatter 4. a current which remains almost constant even if, as is usual, the operator varies the arc length during welding, so that consistent electrode burn off cate and weld penetration characteristics are maintained Current (amperage) ‘The welding cent, measured in amperes, conteals electrode buns off rate and depth of penetration. The possible effects of having an incorrect amperage when using in.m.s. are shown below: Amperage (00 low Poor penetration or fusion, unstable arc, ievegular bead shape, slag inclusions: porosity, electrode freezes 10 the weld, possible stray are-strikes Amperage too high Excessive penetration. burn throughs. pocasity. spatter, deep craters. underest, electrode overheats, high deposition (positional welding difficult Voltage ‘The welding potential (voltage) controls the weld pool fluidit~ The possible effects of having an incorrect voltage when using m.m.a. are shown below: Voltage 100 tow Poor penetration, electrode freezes 10 work, possible stray ares, fusion defects slag inclusions. unstable arc, irregular bead shape, Vatuaye oo high Porosity, spamer are wander, stegatar bead. slug miclesions. very fhid wela pool. positional welding difficult emerezrosm 13 . w3.5PRR UNIT.W3 © WELDING PROCESSES Speed of travel The speed of travel affects heat input and therefore also affects metallurgical-and ‘mechanical-conditions. The possible effects of having an incorrect welding speed swhien using man.a are shown below: ‘Travel speed toa fast Naveow thin head, slag inclusions, ast cooling, (metallurgical problems?). rundercnt, poor fusian/peneteation, Travel speed too slow Excessive deposition, cold laps. slag inclusions. isvegstas bead shape. Current type ‘The current type, and more specifically its polarity, determines the heat distribution the are Dic. electrode positive ‘An electrode connected 10 the d.c. +ve pole will have two thirds’ of the available energy-wltich is mainly heat-developing, in the etecirode tip with the remaining one thied of the energy in the parent material This conmection produces a wide, shallow weld pool with # broad haz, which together slow down the rate of cooling and reduce the possibility of hydragen eageapment andor the development of a brite metallurgical sintctue Dee. electrode negative ‘An electrode connected to the d.c. -ve pole has reversed enerzy distribution compared to dic. +ve and therefore has one third of tive energy develops at the electrode ant to ‘hieds of the energy ia the parent material This cepates a capid development of the weld pool which is narrow. deep and fast freezing with a limited haz... Using this polarity with certain electrodes, may lead to hydrogen entrapment arid a bridle wetallurgicst sinnctvre which is more suscepiibie 10 cracking during contraction or when extemal steesses are applied. Ac In an ac. arc the polarity is reversing 100 times per second (50 ¢.9.s.1. This lax the effect-of equalising the heat distcibution; half the heat at the electcode and hall in the pavent material The weld zone and mechanical characteristics are therefore midway between those produced with electrode dic, +v and elesrode de, -we. Consumable electrodes Three electrode typ ‘overings ae commonly used: + ecllulose, + basic See Unit W10 (or futher devails on consiunable electrodes for wan. weldin: math 684 WaoAlvane & TP O'Neil a More are migimo processes which use a fbx, biter in the cre of he ire rasa coring on te wire Yo gus acini wil won fwoter sheen a ges iscrive i capac ofencrng with another chemical, ¢g. CO, an etre gat ond tl react ‘ith icon especial a gh fomponnares produce fo? Metal inert-gas and metal active-gas welding Metal inert-gas (M. g.) and metal active-gas (ma.g.) velding may be considered together becanse the welding equipment, including power sowce. ig essentially the same. [cis the shielding gas and consumables (filler wire) which differ THe migdna.g, welding process uses a bare wire consumable electrode to provide the are and weld metal. The wire, typically 0.8-1.6 mm diameter. is continuowsty fod fcom a coil through a specially designed welding gun Because the process is Hluxless, it is necessary «0 clininate the possibilty of avnospheric contamination by introducing a shielding ges For some materials. argon is an efficient shielding gas, bing inert, it docs not chemically react with the weld metal, When aa inert gs is used for shielding the weldin : process #s known as mera inertgas (mig) welding 1 vomwo @ cnersear @ wwrentoan 1 Seetomaensouenwsen @ tater ce @ waco contscton connor @ cmmmtonencut @ romncae 1B Steensce rom comune nove Differem shieiding gases change the electrical properties of the arc, this influences metal tansfer properties, heat input, penetration and weld profile characteristics, The shielding gas selected will depend on the materiat to be welded, the corresponding filler wire, and the required characteristics of the weld. For example, carbon steel-as an electrode-cannot be transferred successfully through a pure argon Shielded arc; a very inegular weld peotile with poor fusion would result | _ Dst an + 253 C07, wede akatter weld bead, bCaCtee Progete 1998 C02. deep, narrow weed Sead. KGk paagiee etme rrr 185 W37Sitcon is ¢ prinaey tednitier: mangenese is tecondary deowdiver A ‘erie degre igledeaiidised wires Carbon steel can be wansferced successfully dwougit an arc using carbon dioxide (CO,) as the shielding gas CO, ig an active gas, ie. it chemically reacts with the weld pool to produce an oxide, thecofoce extra denxidizers must exist in the wire for an acceptable weld to be produced. This process is widely referred to as CO, welding but is also called meal active-gas (mag.) weldixg. This Yaiter terminology also applies to the process when other acti 5% C gases/gas wvixisses we used, e.g. 75% argon, Shielding gases ‘The gas shield fulfils nwo main functions + itprovides a suitable ionizable aunosphere for the electric arc, It protects the weld poo! from atmospheric contanination, Example gases and applications for mi g./ma.g, welding 5% oxygen Stainless steel 0 teabon ddd “Teel wpe 026 ow aay net Nickel and its alloys Copper and its alloys ‘Aluminium and copper Austenitic siaintess steel Note: A H, wace may be added 10 most gases 10 increase arc vollage aud therefore overall depostion races Wire consucwable The solid wice consumable used for m.ig./n.ag. welding should conform 19 BS 2901 Filler rods aud wives for gas-shielded are welding or other agreed specitication Because of the porosity problems which can occur when welding carbon steels with the mag. process, fully deoxidized (killed) wire, such as silieos manganese, should beused. Metal transter modes Maat scansfer for mig /n JB. Welt ing may be achieved in one of four ways. spray or free flight teanstec + diptansfer (semi-short circuiting are) globular wansfer. pulsed transfer, oA 3 Forse 136 4 4 4 « € € € = = % y y oan ey 4Pool To JAS») inion alelel ss Gtobutes os Spray or free fight transfer {fa high welding current is used, dhe weld metal eansfers 2608s the 422 in the Foon of affine spray. This type of transfer gives high deposition rates and deep penetration welds, The spray transfer mode is suited to thick materials, and except for the light alloys may only be used ia the flat or hacizoatal welding positions Dip transfer (semi-short circuiting arc} Ta achieve dip tanster mode both low ainperage and tow are volts are required so that the consumable wire electrode touches the weld pool and short ciecwits. This is followed by a short. rapid cise in current which eauses die ip Of the wire ¢o mre off creating an are which gradually reduc process is eepeated ia Length until i short circuits again and the Because this transfer mode produces a relatively cool arc. it ean be used on thinner sections and for al} positional welding, including vertical down welding, Giobutar transfer Globular wansfer mode occurs in the intermediate cange between spray and dip teansfer. This transfer mode has no manual applicati and only area in mi.g/onag, welding nited success on mechanized and automatic set-ups. Pulsed transfer Pulsed arc is a modified form of spray teansfer which offecrively uses both the dip and spray wansfec modes in one operation. Pulses of high powered spray transfer current are superimposed over a constant low seini-short circuiting background mode. This results in a lower heat owput compared to toue spray transfer but is greater than with dip transfer: dhis pennits hawter welding which allows for high deposition rates and all positional welding The main advantage of the pulsed transfer mode is dat poor fusion of root runs is Vieually eliminated. There is also regular penetration. no spatter, good profile, and the welds are of high quality. Power requirements Power for miginag, welding is usually electeade de. tve of fat (constant voltage) characteristic. this can be obtained from a generator ur transformer reetitier See Unit W41 sages i cami ve . w3Peel then the are ony it wed 12 produce the wel, without the ition of separorely fod {ter wire he process is ‘yaoui aa amogenans 4. 4 Advantages and disadvantages The advantages and disadvantages of the m.i.g/m.a.g. welding prosess pasticulacty when compared to m.m.a. welding can be summarized as follows Advantages + minimal wastage of consumable electeode, no frequent changing of consumable electrode, + Title oF no imerpass cleaning cequired (no slag produced) + heavier weld beads are produced, + taster welding process. low hydrogen process « preheat may not be required Disadvantages increased risk of porosity - due to displacement of the gas shield + more maintenance of plant involved, + high risk of lack of fusion, Tungsten inert gas (ti.g.) welding General ‘The Lig. melding process uses 4 non-consumable tungsten electrode 10 provide an arc. Filler metal, when required, is fed front a separate filler rod in 2 manuee similar to oxy-acerylene welding, A shielding gas, e.g. argon. is fed through the welding gun to the weld area ant provides a gas shield to prevent contamination by the atmospheric gases. No fluxes are used with the process. Although initially developed for the light alloys, 1.6 aknunivns and magaesiun, tg welding may be wsed On a large variety of metals vanes 188 W3-10PBS Other aerinnrors now ‘available include evn and taveann sLDING PROCESSES The manual «ig. process is expensive when compared to most other manual arc welding techniques and is generally only used on carbon steels when high metallurgical and mechanical properties are requiccé for the weld. An example application is for the deposition of high quality root runs on pipework: the fillees and cap are usually deposited by a more cost effective process such asm.m.a, oF mag, When high quality coot nuns are’ to be deposited, a back purge is sed to prevent oxidizing (coking) ot dhe weld mera When access to the weld arca is difficult, e.g. with deep vee poparations or comer welds, the tungsten electrode stick-out Yength can be ine-eased providing a gas lens is fitted to stiffen the gas shield to prevent turbulence, which would otherwise lead to oxidanion of the weld eeral It is possible (0 awomate the Lig. process and many systems are in current use. particularly on pipe whee the walding head travels on fixed rings around the joint, the electrode may be stationary or may oscillate from side fa side. On root beads it is stal f9 pulse the current to contro! the peneteation ‘Tungsten electrodes ‘There are two classifications for tungsten electrodes, 1. Plain Ganactivated? cungsten Plain tungsten electrodes tend to laminate in use and can cause tungsten inclusions in the weld, This type of electrode is rarely used and is suitable for lower quality general purpose Welds on all merals. 2. Activated tungsten The addition of either thoria or zirconia to the tungsten gives considerable advamages including increased electron emission for better arc striking, re-ignition and stability, parficulaly with low curren) values. There is also a eduction in the possibility of tungsten inclusions in the weld, | % Thoriated tungsten electrodes: used with electrade d.c, -ve fac the welding, of all metals except the light alloys (aluminium and magnesive 29 Thoriated tungsten electrodes: as above, bt fac applications where lower amsperages are used and improved arc stability is required. Zirconiated tungsten electrodes are specifically wes with ac. for the welding of the light alloys. Selection of current type 1m selecting the type of creat to be used for Lig. Welding, consideration has to be given to the materi! being welded and the requirements of the are. Sometimes arc stability i of prime importance, but occasionally dhe removal of surface oxide. ie. a cleaning action, takes pr'rity Tungsten bas good ionization potential, i.e. electrons and therefore current flow. are easily produced: this produces an inherently stable arc. Eleetons flow from negative {0 positive, therefore natural stability will also be achieved with electrode dc. -ve, however, because most metals have some natural ionization poremial, then ssability will also result with electrode d.c, +ve, but the arc voltage will be higher When the electrode is negative it is at the cool-ead of the are: when it is posit at the hot end of the arc. tis Tungsten electrodes usually requice a clean sharp tip i be maintained a welding. Welding with clecirode d.c.+ve can overheat smd melt the tip, which becomes globular ia shape ecsulting in an uncontrolled ate and possible wnysten inclusions in the weld metal For most metals electrode dc. -ve is used, me exceptions sre siuminiems. wragaesivat, and theie alloys. Soran 189 W3-tPenal ‘The welding of the light alloys requires an electric arc which is capable of removing the oxide film which has a higher melting point than the material from which it was formed. There is @ scavenging action achieved wit clectrode dc. +ve Which docs aot exist with dc. -ve, therefore from a cleaning point of view, this connection is the one most suitable fo¢ the welding of the Light alloys. However, eleciode d.c. +e polarity will melt the electrode tip as stated earlier, unless a low current with a very large electrode is used, but this is unsuitable as it creates an wastable are. ‘A comproinise is met by using altemating current, so that for 50% of each current cycle the electrode is positive, therefore cleaning and welding takes place, end for the coxher 50% of the time the electrode is negative and is cooled down, therefore melting, of the electrode i prevented. In ac. ares, because of the reversal of polarity, the fieat disteibution is even, CaS Protection of the molten pool “The gas shielé fulfils two main functions: ‘+ i provides » suitable ionizable amnosphere for the electric arc. js protects the weld poo! {rom atmospheric contamination, Gas type and yas Clow cates ace import considerations. Excessive gas pressure can cause rippling of the weld pool and give a coarse finish (0 the weld bead. Thee gases may be considered for Lig. welding: argon, heli Aegon and aitrogen. The inert yas argon provides a very cost effective gas shield for all metal types, it \coduces 8 smooth, quiet are with lov are volts which makes it ideal fur light gauge ‘material or positional welding. I improves the cleaning action when used with 4 oon Light alloys. ‘Tue addition of between 1% and 5% of the active gas hydrogen will ease the are voltage and give deeper penetration or increased welding speed on stainless steel, or ‘on carbon steels that can accept the exiea hydrogen content in the weld”h.n.z ‘The inest gas helium is lighter than argon, therefore requires higher flow rates (2 to 2 Stimes} to give the same effective shielding, Helium creates 2 higher ase voltage which is useful for welding thick sections and metals with 2 high thernal conductivity. When used with ac on the light alloys here is tess cleaning setion when Compared 10 argon. Hetiwn 1s also more expensive han aegon Niccogea Inert at vont temperature. nivagen combines with oxygen st ate Kemperatares and becomes wcrive, therefore it is unsuitable for the majority of metals but give 70 \ anaan prpenianannananannaanaaaase Annan‘UNIT.W3 © WELDING PROCESSES cesults on copper as it iv reases are voltage which creates more heat and is far more ccost effective than argon or heliaun. Filler material The filler material used for 1.g. welding should confonn to BS 2901-Filler rads and wires for inert gas welding (or other nationalfintemnational specifications) Bacawse of the porosity problems which can occur when welding carbon steets with the Lig. process, killed oF fully deoxidized wire-such as silicon manganesa-should be used. For very high quality welds, wriple deoxidized silicon/manganese/aluminiuin wire is recommended. Power source requirements A high 0.¢.v. of around 90 volts is cequired for 43.8, welding 10 ensure are stability at all times. The power source, which may be a generator, wansfonmer or anstormer-eectifier must be of 3 drooping characteristic 10 msintain a relatively constant current value, the operator being responsible (or arc length control Unit 15. To assist arc initiation, 10 prevent tungsten inclusions in the weld and t0 prevent damage to the electrode tip, a high valiage, bigh feequency custent 15 superimposed st the start of all d.c. welding operations, These characteristics are permanent wher a. ‘g-used, 10 assist arc eeignition at the beginning of each positive half cycle. Plasma are welding (p.a.w.) Plasma arc welding is basically a modification of the Li.g. process, the majority of the cequtipment being similar, but with modifications t0 the power source and torch design P.a.w. can be complementary 10, of used as a substitute for. Lig. welding, offering greater welding speed, less sensitivity 10 process variations and consequently better, ‘weld quality. outer cas nozmee nem, A The welding capability range is much greater than ti.g., parneylarly for low material thicknesses where mycrn-plngma ynits can operate as Tow as O.1 amps, for th welding of very thin nvatcrials, The p.a.w. process has the ability to perform welds by the Keyhole technique. this is ‘used on closed square butts on material 1.5-10,0:mm thick Full penetration in a single pass is achieved with considerably reduced distacion compared 10 wore conventional welding processes. Paw. may require the use of a separately fed filler wire or may be used autogenousty crue 8 PO 49} 7 W3-13Peres Method of operation The welding, torch consists of a non-consumable tungsten electrode set back into a constricted nozzle through which the plasma gas flows, this nozzle lies within another nozzle tlvough which the shielding gas flows, Gas is fed into the inner nozzle under low pressure and passes through the electric are where it becomes ionized before being forced through the nozzle constriction. This increases the gas pressure and thus the temperature which is in the eange of 10,000-17,000°C. This superheated ionized gas is referred t0 as plasma Power source and equipment A conventional ti.g. power source, i. tansformerirectifier capable of operating in the range from 5 t0 200 amps, may be used with an additional plug inn plasma arc nodule, although purpose built units are available Shielding and plasma gases used are pure argon, helium or argon/heliwmn/hydrogen ixtues dependent upon the material type being welded ‘The electrode should be connected to the negative pole when dc. is being used. When ‘Ae. is used, asquare wave form is recommended 10 give instant reversal of current Methods of arc transfer Two means of are transfer are used in plasma arc Welding, these being dhe transferred ave and non-transferred are processes With the teansferred are process. the workpiece fons part of the cixcuit, The are wansfers from the eleciode to the workpiece via the plasma gas: this cosulls in additional heat ouput, The combined temperature of both arc and plasma is in the gion of 17,000°C. ‘With the non-transferred arc process, the arc is initiated beween the electrode and the constricting nozzle within the torch and only plasma gas {no asc} exits the nozzle; the work does not form part of the circuit, The plasma temperature is in the range af 1o,000°C. Submerged are welding ‘Submerged are welding uses a continuously fed bare wire consumable electrode, 1.6 to 64mm diameter. t0 produce a weld pool which is protected from aumospheric contamination by a separately supplied shielding flux in fused or agglomerated toon. Etectaodetal.t.t on a were guest rte ropoen | Suction Contact nosete sone Granular (tux | Tupicat tee arn re W3-l4 on arnt - CS Lar’ acl a a 4aPeo HE Are-blow ic devinnon ofthe five due to magneric Infimences cowed daring welding INIT W3® WELDING PROCESSES It is possible 10 feed more than one consumable wise electrode into the weld pool at the same time 10 increase production rates by up t0 a factor of five ti sing a single wire, imes compared 10 Submerged arc welding is normally fully mechanised, Lut may be used manually oF in a fully automatic mode The are and moticn weld meta are completely sulnerged beneath the layer of shielding flux and are not visible 10 the eye, protection against the acc light is therefore unnecessary. “The flux also provides additives 10 the weld, removes impurities from the weld and provides a thermal blanket (slag) protecting the weld as it cools dawn. The remaining, Lunfused flux is recovered (or ee-use after the removal of impurities and sieving, le may be specified that the flux used can only contain a limited amount of recycled Aus, &.g. a maximum of 25%. If this is the case the recycled flux must always be thoroughly mixed in with the new flux before use. An advantage of the submerged arc welding process is that very hig can be used To prodnee the eapid deposition of heavy weld beads without spatter Although it is possible to use 5,000 amps or more 10 product for example a 37 mm thick weld in one pass, it is more usual 10 eestrict the current to around 1000-2000 amps and deposit 2 mlti-ran weld because of the impro\ metallurgical properties. Power source and equipment Both a.c. and d.c. power sources are used with s.a.w. with a gypical current output of 200-1500 amps. Bath drooping characteristic and flat characteristic power sources are used. See also Unit WII. Becsuse of the high current draw off, 3 100% duty cycle capability is recommended. Flat characteristic dic. power souces are the wpe most commonly used for applications where the current does not exceed 1000 amps, they are also the best for the high speed welding of thinner steel sections. Above 1000 amps and for thicker sections, drooping characteristic ac. is preferred and works best if the sine waves are square because polarity reversal is instantaneous. ‘Acc. is also preferable for multi-wire techniques and applications where arc-blow is a problem, Single, twin or tiple wire feed systems are commonly used, all feeding into the same weld pool. All the wires may be Zive. or dead fillers way be applied. In a multi-wiee application, the leadin wire is usually d.c. +ve polarity, this will limit the risk of burn theaugh, although deep penetration will be achieved because of the high current uused. A.c. would normally be used for the remaining wire(s}. oF dead fillers could be uused, of a combination of both. Application areas Submerged arc wel ing is widely used in ship building. stnctural steel work, general engineering applications. and fr she fabrication of pipes and pipelines. ¢ 8 double jointing stations. Carbon steel, alloy stel and stainless steols are the main materials ‘welded! using this process Because of the heavy deposition rates and fluid slag, i is only possible to weld in che flat oF horizontal vertical position, However. circumferential welds may be made on pipes or vesseis. For this application the welding head remains stationary while the workpiece rotates beneath it. Fluxes and wires to BS 4165 Weld quality and properties’ are influenced by the choice of wire and flux, The Gutwomvination of the best wire and flix’ combination f0 use © give optimwn qualities is offen a case of trial and error The BS A1G5.-Bleerude wares ana flares for she erm 3 - WLSRuane & TP ONei ‘UNIT. W3'® WELDING PROCESSES s.a.w. of carbon steel and mediwn-tensile steel, gives requirements for wie wice and flux, designates a coding system for $.a.w. wires and fluxes, and also offers guidance on choice. Fluxes Fluxes for s.a.w. are divided into two types: + used - granulated, + agglomerated - powdered, Fluxes can be further classified depending on their basicity or acidity. Pused fluxes Fused fluxes are manufactured as follows: the ingredients aro mixed and melted at a high temperature, the mixture is then poured onto large chill blocks or directed into a stream of water 10 produce granules which have a hard glassy appearance. The ‘material is then crushed, sieved tor size, and packaged, Advantages of fused fluxes include: + good chemical mix achieved, © they do nor attract moisture (not hygroscopic) this improves handling, storage, use, and weldability. Any moisture peosent is easily removed by low temperate eying, + the easy cemoval of impurities and fine particles ete. when recycling, The main disadvantage is the difficulty in adding deoxidants and ferro-alloys. These woutd be lost during the high temperate manufacture. The maintenance of a controlled flix depth is considered critical Agglomerated fluxes All the flix materials are dry mixed and then bonded with either potassiun or sudivm silicate, they are then baked at a temperature below dhe {usion or melting point and therefore remain as a powder which is sieved for size and packaged. Advantages of agglomerated flux s include: + can be colow coded, +, asy addition of deoxidants and fero.aloys, + flux depth not s0 critical Disadvantages include: + tendency for flux to absory moisture and difficult redeying procedure, + possibilty of molten slag causing porosny * difficult re-cycting, ie. the removal of impurities and sieving, Flux basicity or classification A cectain amount of oxygen will exist during welding, some will rentain in the welel ‘metal cither in gaseous form oF as oxide inclusions. The oxygen can be contcotted by chemical reactions with the molten flux, Basic oxides tend to be more stable than acidic oxides Generally The INigher the basicity of a flux, the less she production/formation of on: (porosity) and oxide inclusions, Yeading 10 an improvement of weld metal strength ewe A TFONea 194 ont W3-L6 ann mn wen nnn nnMONANAAANAA AW 4he nme cletrosig i derive fom the ft tha the prac wes ebecerieaty Condnesing sag | Fluxas fac $.a.w, may be classified as follows: acid—generat purpose use and for dirty (rusty) stect IMPROVING QUALITY + neutral + semi-basic = basic high basicity-maximam weld toughness aiid performance Electroslag welding (e.s.w.) The main application area of the electroslag process is the joining of plates approximately 10 mm thick and above, although plas in excess of SO mmm thick are more likely to be welded wsing this process. Carbon sicel. low alloy satis and austenitic stainless stets are the only materials weldable withthe electroslag process Welding is carried out only when the plates are in the vertical, o¢ near vertical position, A square cut joint is always used. Once welding has started it must be carcied aw to Complotion becanse restarts produce defective aveas. The process is tused on ships, pressure vessels, steel castings, structural steel ec For welds up to 75 aim thick, the es, process uses less weld metal and 90% less flux than s.a.w.; plates 75-300mny thick are welded at 600-1200 mnvfhe, Anguar distortion is eliminated Electcaslag welds are relatively defect Free, slag enteapment, porosity and lack of fusion defects are almost non-existant, Electrostag welds nonnally require post-weld, heat treatment especially on the thicker materials, due to dhe resultant coarse grain A flat characteristic power source is required. A typical mor dianoter wice will require 40 voles and 600 amps Method of operation Exs.w. is 2 fasion welding process which uses te coutlwed effect of curent and electrical resistance (0 produce a conducting bath of molnen slag which mets both the filler wire(s) and the surfaces of the workpieces ta be weliist The weld pool és atso artes Was 5Ruane & TPONe ll shielded by this slag which covers the full surface of the weld and rises as the weld progresses up the joint The process is initiated by an arc, usually struck on wire wool type materiat, which is itself laid onto a starting block which supports the initial liquid material Powdered flex is placed at the bottom of the joint, this is liquified by the are which is then extinguished by te now cunductive, though highly resistive, molten slag. All the curreat now passes through this inolien slag, the resistance creating heat In order to retaia the molten mass of flux and weld metal, water cooled copper shoes are fitted either side of the joint and walk or slide progressively upwards as the welding proceeds Process options ‘Two variations of e.s.w. ae in general use. These are the non-consumable guide and consumable guide processes. Non-consumable guide process In this technique, one or more wiees, depending pon inctal thickness, ure fed into the molten slag through a guide or guides which are constantly maintained approximately 75mm atoue the molten slag. One electrode is required for cach 60 mm of metal thickness. If an oscillating or pendulum technique is used this can be increased 10 120 mm. ‘This method of e.s.w. i8 suitable for material thicknesses ranging from 10 to 500 min thick Consumable guide process With this method, filler metal is supplied by both the electrode and its compatible metal guide, The weral guide directs the wire 10 the botiom of the joint and extends for the full weld height which may be as much as 10 metees. ‘The guide is consumed as welding progresses upwards and can provide from 5.10 15% of the fillee metal One clectrode/guide is required “or each 60 mm of weld metal but this increases 10, 150 mm if an oscillating technique is used. The consumable guide technique ix suitable for material of unlimited thickness, lane 4 POSE (6 W3-18 e e © Se e = € € & e c é & & € 6 é é é é é é te oo <PEON Comentite i won carbide (Pee. Grain structures The grain structure of » material will influence its weldabitity, its mechanical properties and in-service performance. Single o¢ multiple grain sinvctures may be present in a snaterial; the type and number of these grain structures will be primarily influenced by the elements in the material, the temperatures reached during welding andjor post-weld hem wreatment and the cooling rates prediced. Austenite Austenite is the high temperature fonn of C, C-Mn and alloy steels which exists above 723°C. The temperature at whieh the steels wre Cully austenitic depends on carbon ‘content, c.g. low carbon <0.1%C - over 910°C; 0,8%C aboutt 730°C. ‘The cooling rare from the austenite region determines the hardness of the sicel at room temperature, Very slow cooling produces very soft sieels: medivwn cooling rates produce soft 10 medium stects; fast eooting can produce very hard and brithe sicels depending on the carbon content and thickness of the stee! Ferrite Ferrite is essentiatly pure icon at room temperature, i contains either very litle or 0 carbon. This grain structure is formed from the austenite region by holdiag. at 2 temperature which depends on the carbon content of the steel. eg. 910°C for low carbon steel. Ferrite is very soft and dvetite and has tow wonsite Sirensth bur has yood machining properties Pearlite Peartite forms feo the austenite region under stow cooting and consists of plates of ferrite and cementite, tis harder than ferrite because of the layers of hard cementite it contains. Pearlite is the most frequently encownte:ed gh constructional steel nm svucture in a Bainite Bainite forms from the austenite region when the cooling rate is too fast for peattite (0 form, it is harder and usually tougher tan pearlite. Bainite often forms in the haz. area of C-Mn steel welds Martensite Martensite is @ very hi sd and beitte grain strwetuie but itn be Teenpored in order 1 improve toughness. Ic is formed from sive austenite region by quenching or very fast cooling. This grain structure can only be formed in plain steels when sufficient carbon exists, usually over 0.3%. For alloy steels this figure may be much lower because omher alloys in the steel-especially chrowiwm-alsa have an intlusnce. Unless specifically designed info the sce, the presence of nrartensite should be wide The heat affected zone (h.a.z.) During welding using a fusion welding process there i a huge temperanute difference benween the weld and parent mate 1. Because of this temperature difference. the material immediately adjacem 10 the weld wndergoes micrestmnctural changes. This area. which lies berween the fusion boundary and the unaffected parent material. is celled the heat affected zone (hs) tron W5-h “a7 -Ruane & TPO Ne x ange = Die LA = a ll “The extent of the changes in microstructure will depend on the following: Material composition; especially carbon content b. Heat input. ‘The higher the heat input or arc energy, the wider the heat affected zone. Metallurgical properties will also be affected Volts x Amps Arc energy (kl/ta0 = er speed (anenfs) x 1000 The rate of cooling. The faster the rate of cooling the harder the heat affected zone, especially if the carbon equivalent of the steel is high. The haz. of a fusion weld on steel! consists of up to four separate regions of microstructure, the actual condition will be dependant upon the alloying elements present and the thermal conditions applied during welding. The following grain steuctures-starting {com the area immediately adjacent (0 the weld-are typically present on a 0.15% C steel LA coarse grained region (heated between 1100°C and melting point) 2. A grain cefined region (900 to 110°C) 3, Acegion of partial transformation (750 t0 900°C). 4. A cegion of spheroidization (just below 750°C). (On.C-Mi and low alloy steels, the h.a.2. of the weld tends 10 be more bette, ie, it has a lower notch toughness, than the uctwal weld metal. The haz. area is therefore more pprone to cracking, especially when hydrogen induced, although it must be noted that the tensile strength of the h.a.z. is normally high in comparison with the weld and parent material. Unfortunately, if a fusion welding peacess is being used, the heat affected zone cannot be elimina’2d, although it can be controlled using a properly applied welding procedure, The effect of hydrogen in steel The presence of hydrogen causes general embrittlement in steel and during welding. may lead directly to cracking of the weld zone. The following terms are forms of hydrogen related problems: + hydrogen induced cold evacking (hice) * fissures/oicro-fissures, + chewon cracks, + fisheyes Mechanism The following text describes the mechanisms believed te be involved with the formation of hydrogen induced cold cracking (h.ic.c.) in soot Hydivogen enters a weld via the welding arc, The source of hydrogen may be from moisture in the atmosphere, contamination on the weld preparation, oF moistuce in the electrode flux. With the man.a. and s.a.w. processes. the selection of flux type will also affect the H, consent The intense beat of the acc is enough to breakdown the molecular hydrogen (H,) into. its atomic form (H). Hydrogen atoms are the smallest ams known to wan and therefore can easily infilyate amongst the iran atoms while the weld is still hot When the weld area is hot, te iron atoms are more mobile thereby producing larger ‘gaps between themselves, ic. the see! is in an expanded condition "8 W5-2 mA nn nannnanna aA om AaanaRuane & ¥ TP ONeill AED aaAoeen ci enn sol AS the weld cools down most of the hydrogen diffuses outwards info the parent imaterial and atmosphere, but some of the hydrogen atoms become trapped within the weld zone, This is due to the iron atoms settling as the weld cools, therefore the gaps benween then become smaller, ic. the steel is Contracting, Below -200°C the element of hydrogen prefers to be in iis molecular form (H,), the individual atoms of hydrogen ace attracted towards each other as the weld cools and they congregate in any convenient space as microscopic gas bubbles. When the hydrogen molecsles exist in large numbers, a lot of pressure is exerted=60,000 to 200,000 p.s.i.! Because of this intemal pressure, the adjacent geain sinvcie nay react in one of nwo ways: 1. icmay deform slightly to reduce the pressure, This will occur if the surrounding metal is ductie, c.g. peartie: 2. it may separate completely to reduce the pressure, ive crack, This will occur if the surrounding nvetal is brittle, © 3. wvartensite Weld fractures associated with hydrogen are more likely to avcur in the ha. as this area tends 10 have increased brittleness, [t must also be observed that it usually takes an extemal sitess to initiate and propagate a crack, Lower temperatures will decrease the fracture toughness of the steel and at the same tiene increase H” pressure. Conclusion: before hydrogen cracking occurs the follow! wy criteria must exist: + hydrogen, + a grain steucture susceptible 10 crackingnonnally meas brittle but wot necessarily: martensite grain steyctures, which are brtlle, are very susceptible to cracking, + stress, To reduce the chance of hydrogen cracking: + ensme joint preparations are clean + preheat the joint preparations, + usea low hydrogen welding process + ifusing man.a.. use hydrogen controlled electrodes. use H. release post-heat treatment Hydrogen seates ‘The following chart shows tenninology wsed by the International Institute of Welding (IW) and BS 5135 with regard to hydrogen tevels pox \M grams Of weld metal deposited < 4 Vary tow [Seale D | Uydragen content of weld processes The hydrogen content in a specific weld depends on a vatrety of factors such se we ddogeee of contamination on the weld preparation, the are length wsed. the aewount of water vapour in the immediate environment and cooling rine ¢f the weld, Hawever. i is sill possible to approximate hydrogen contents of welds mist under typical well controlled conditions. The amoun vf hydrogen comaiaing in a weld-assumiing Ho hydrogen release post-heat treatment process has been used-will depend largely om ae 199 :Fyne & TP ONeill the welding process used. Shown below are welding processes wish hydrogen levels, achieved per 100 grams of weld metal deposited: lL Tig < I mis possible. 2 Mighnag. — - <2ealis possible 3. Electroslag > 3 lis likely. 4 Mima < 5 ml possible for high temperatise baked basic electeades, bbut could be as mich as 70 ml for certain coliutose eleerodes, Submerged are > Sanl but could be as niuch as 50 ml Depends on fli type and ineat treatment of fu 6 Flux cored mag. - > 10 mis likely. ‘The carbon equivalent of steel Preheat iemporstures on steel pips and many’ steel structures a arrived at by laking info consideration the carbon equivalent (Ces Ahicknese and de are standard specification: %) of the material, the material energy or heat input (kJ/mm) Reference may be made to e.g. BS 5135-Process of arc welding of carbon and carbon manganese steels, which define preheat temperatures based on Coq%. thicknesses and The welding inspector would usually find the pecheat temperature to be used from the elevant welding procedure. ‘The Coat of a steel primarily relates to its hardenability. If a steel has a relatively high Ceg% it will be more susceptible to hardening in the heat a€ected none of any welds made, in comparison with welds made on stoels of low Ce’. Hardenability affects weldabitzy therefore materials of Kigh Coa are considered more difficult co weld. ‘The Ceq% of a material depends on ite allaying elements; me typical elements in a high-grade carbon manganese steel are as follows: leon (Fe) Silicon (Si) Carbon (C) Tivaniuon (THY Mangenese (Ma) Niobium (Nb) Cheominra (Cs) Vanadium (V) Molybdenum (Mol Nickel (Ni) Aluminium (AQ) Tin (Sab Sulphur ($) Phosphorus (P) ‘The Coq of steel is usually caleulated from the L11V. carbon equivalent formula’ Mu, Cre Mo +. 5 Oni carbon and manganese have any significa Coy te = effect on the finat Cogs figure on cearboiifearbon manganese steels, therefore the formula may sometines-be shorwned te: Mn Cegst = C+ Me qh = C48 The manganese coment is divided by 6 becuse i has one sixth Of the effect of eaebon in relazion tg hardenability. 400 nanan em nnn Aaanannannnan a ?eeonEl Ihe gas used Jor preventing fensnatlyox-propane adnedion sestems vse frequency ie ie prehearing is being applied and tack welling corned (ut prior 19 the main wei, ese wots should ute be UWhen applica ms Cand CA ateele, proatng rence the caf cocking which cx Ibe canced beens ofthe Jormution of martensie FUN ELIS ae yao oy UV ARA eye A.carbon equivalent value less than approximately 0.4% would be considered fow for steel A typical specification example of preheat temperatures Sor C-Ma steel 8-20 mm thick is as follows “For Coq £0.4% - minimum preheat 50°C. For Ceq > 0.4 $0.48% - mininnwn preheat 100°C. For Coq > 0.48% » minimum preheat 200°C." EXAMPLE What is the Ceq% of a stee! which contains 0.12% carbon and 1.8% manganese? a Coqte= c+ Me 0-336k g 0.124 b. Coq 0.12+ Coq =0.1240.216r 4. Coq =0.336% Thicker materials may eequite fiigher preheat temperauwres, however, for a given CeqGe and sre energy. he peehent temperature is like'y to be the same for wall thicknesses up 0 approximately 20 nym Heat treatment Ta reduce the risk of cracking in the h.a.2, preheat, controlled interpass temperatures and possibly post-heating may be applied to the weld areas Heat treatment is an expensive operation and is therefore only carried owt when necessary. ic. if there is a significant chance that adve'se metallurgical sevctures and/or cracks could occur. Preheat Preheat is the application of heat to a joint prior to welding. Preheat is usually applied by a gas torch or induction system Prehoating has many advantages: + it slows down the cooling rate of the weld and h.a.x. which eeduees the risk of hardening and also allows absorbed hydrogen a better opportunity of diffusing fut, thereby reducing the chance of cracking. Basically speaking. the application of a preheat helps to counteract the adverse metallurgical effects Produced by welding on the materia + itremoves any nvoistre in the cegion of the preparation + itimproves the overall fusion characteristics during welding + itensues mae uniform expansion and contraction a lowers the steess between the weld and parent material Preheat temperatures may be measured by the use of a toch pycometer (thermocouple) or temperature indicating erayons. (Tempil sticks). Temperature indicating crayons exist in wo Forms: the type thet met. and the type tar chang: colour. The method of temperature measurement to be uscd is sometimes stated in the specification for the work being carried out tanne £F Psit 20] -Perel UNIT W5 STEEL WELD METALLURGY: Preheat temperatures are measured at intervals along or around a joint to be welded. ‘The number of measurements taken must allow the inspector to be confident that the required temperature has born eeached over the full area to be welded. Specifications sometimes specify that die preheat temperature must be maintained over a specified distance fram the joint faces, ¢.g. 50-100 mm. "! The preheat temperature should be taken immediately prior to welding, If a gas heat source has been used, sufficient time must be allowed for the temperature to equalize throughout the thickness of the components to be welded, otherwise only the sucface Temperature will be measured. ‘Time lapses vary depending on specification requirements, e.g, BS 5135 states 2 minutes for a 25 mm wall thickness. to] The temperature of the joint ducing welding and between passes is known as the interpass temperature. It is often specified that the interpass temperature must not drop below the minimum preheat temperature, Post-heat treatment Post-heat treatment in this context is a process in which metal in the solid state is 2] subjected to one or more controlled heating cycles after welding, The post heat treatment of welds (p.w-h.t) is normally carried out for the purpose of stress reli ise. the reduction of localised residual stresses... Post-heat treatment may also be used {0 produce certain properties, such as * softening after cold working, “| + hardening to produce improved strength and hardness, this may be very hard and brittle, * tempering to improve han'ened structures giving ranges of strength with | roughness. Auother p.w.lt. process which may be used is for hydrogen release only. 7) The relevant variables for a p.w.h.A. process which must be carefully controlled are as follows: | heating cate, © temperature attained, | time at the attained temperature, * cooling rate - in certain circumstances. Note: Any temperatures quoted in the following sub-seerions apply to C-Mn ro] | Steels Temperarares may afer for other steels. Stress relieving Used to relax welding stresses without any significant affects on the components metallurgical structure because austenite is not produced, | Stress relief is achieved by heating to 550-650°C, holding for the required tive eg. [hour per 25 mm thickness, and then cooling down in air. Local heating is carried out with gas flame or electric elements: whole components may be stress relieved in a fumace, Annealing, S| Full anneal . is wsod 1 prodvee a very soft, low hardness amiterial suitable for machining or extensive cold working. A full anneal is achieved by very slow cooling after the steel hgs been heated fo above 910°C and made fully austenitic. By the fine the steel has been very slowly cooled down to 700°C, all the austenite changes 10 fervite and poarlive with extensive grain growth. The component is cooled down ia aie so OI GBOC cumestronan — LOL W5-6 nn Ann nana anPeonl "UNIT W5® STEEL WELD METALLURGY Subericat anneal - his process ig also known a8 spheroiticing snd is weed 10 produce stl, fx hardhes ste!cheaper than full anton Tempersturs ne a Foe above TOC. A sub-eiealaneeal pachieved by esting to 660. 700%C: hag for sticient tine fr fll erystalsation to oceur, Le. ew fer ras toforne ae ere pe riecr eee Normalising, Normalising is used to maintain and improve mechanical properties and 10 modify grain structures by making them more uniform giving a refined siructsre avoiding grain growth. Nonnalising is achieved by heating the sweet wntil it is fully austenitic-the same remperature as that used fac full anneal-soaking for the minimum tine necessary to achieve a uniform through thickness temperature and then air cooling, Hardening/quenching Hardening is achieves by very fast cooling (rom the auste te region, The steel is first heared 10 produce austenite; it is then allowed to soak at this temperature to produce grain uniformity, and then fast cooled by quenching into oit or ‘water (beine) to achieve the desired hardness After quenching, the steel is highly stressed, very hard and brittle with a high tensile strength. Quenched sicel is very prone to cracking, and therefore cequices tempering “Pempering Tempering is used to produce a range of desired mechanical properties to moet specific requirements, “Tempering is achieved by slowly heating the hardened steel £0 a remperature between 200-650°C to produce the required tensile strength and toughness. properties; the component may then be aic cooled, At 200°C the quenching stresses sre reduced and the steel will give maximum tensile and hardness with a reduced risk of cracking. luceeasing the tempering temperature reduces the hardness and tensile strength whilst increasing the toughness and ductility. At 650°C. a full Comper is produced, giv ‘very fine grained soft steel with a spheroidized structure. Hydrogen release Both nonnalising and annealing heat treatment processes will help 10 release hydrogen from a weld area, However, there may be a sitwation where only hydrogen release is required. This may be performed by heating te weld area 10 150-200°C and soaking for approximately 10-24 hours, anv 203OFTBS Wel Termine to 1S 199. Pave) 199) Welding terms and smabots: Gloseary for weiding, Dracig ond ternal avr asterik UNIT Woe WELD DEFECTS AND REPAIRS Terminology Weld defect (British): Any physical icoguleity in whe weld or hem affected zone, which may oF may noe aifect the usefulness of # part Weld detect (Americaa) "A discontinuity the size, shape, orientation of location of which makes it dete:mental to the woeful service of AHE pint in which ir occurs, ie. discontinuity out of specification." Discontinuity (American) “Any interuption in the normal physical structure or configuration of a part, such as cracks, lack of fusion, inclusions or porosity A discontinuity may oF may not affect the usefulness of a par.” Weld defects Cracks Definition: A tinear d:scontinuty produced by fcactuee. Cracks may be to transverse, edge, crater, Centeline. fusion zone, underbead. weld metal, or parent vers There ace wany types of cracks, some of which only occur with certain types of material, Listed below are sore crack types encountered 1. Weld metal cracks: 2. solidification cracking (hot tearing) bb. yrogen induced cold eracking (hice) i. mea orcs, ii, furs, rrierofisaacs je chewon cracks 2. Heat affected zone cracks: 3. iquation cracks 1 sehest cracks, © hice 3. Parent materialfaz. a. lamellar tearing Because of the various crack types and causes, a welling inspector, under most circumstances, need only tac in tertns of the position of a crack, ¢.g, longitudinal entre line erack; longitudinal crack in the har” of the eoot (root aierbead crack transverse crack, crater crack ete A crack is the most serious type of detect. 4 qack exosts an the weld zone, the application specification imay require the entire weld (0 be removed (ct! out! and rewelded, rather than cary out a localised weld repair Some application specifications will penmit a localised weld cepaic on the cracked area, but very few specifications will allow the acceptance of a detected crack. 0 matter how smal caro 305 WorlBuane & TB OWe il 9} Incomplete root penetration T butt joint Larettan Leaning Toe crack VW Root waderbead crac Contre Cine eusch Definition: The failure of metal to extend into the ¢oot of a joint* Other tems for wre same defect are: ack of penetration and lack af vaot penetration In the case of double sided welds the tenns: lack of interpenetration and lack of eross-peneirasion way also be encountered, Causes: a F001 faces too large. brook gap too snail, arc too long, 4. weong polarity, @electrode too large for joint preparation, (incorrect electrode angie, g Lack 06 root penttration travel speed 100 high for current Root concavity Defiaition: A shallow groove that may occur in th — =: na fy lack af interpenetration 001 of a butt weld* ‘The weins suckback and undderwasting may algo be encountered Causes: b 001 face 100 large, insufficient arc energy excessive back purge pressure with Lig, welding. £06 wo?PDE UNIT. W9® WELD DEFECTS AND REPAIRS: Lack of fusion Definition: Lack of union in a weld* + benveen weld metal and parent metal, + between parent metal and parent metal, © between weld metal and weld metal. Lack of fusion can be stib-divided as shown in the diageam: tach of inter-min Fusion cap overtop za __ oS f no0t fusion Lack of side ute fusion Causes: 2. contaminated weld preparation - prevertts the melting of material beneath, amperage t00 low, c. amperage too high - may cause welder to increase his travel speed resulting in a lack of melting on the underlying mete, d. excessive inductance in m.i.g, or m.a.g. dip transfer welding. Sce also causes for incomplete oot penetration Undereut Definition: An iregular groove at the toe of a run in the parent material, or in previously deposited weld nvetal, due to welding* Cap undercut Root undercut Causes excessive welding current, b. welding speed too high, c. incorrect electrode angle, . excessive weaving, e. electrode too large, Incompletely filled groove DeGinition: A cbatinuous or imermitent channel im the surface of a weld, running, along its length, due to insufficient weld metal. The :hannel may be along the cenice ‘or along one or both edges of the weld. ete Tro Sat 207 WdPurell Causes: a, insufficient weld metal deposited, b. improper welding technique, Shrinkage groove ' Definition: A shallow groove caused by contraction in the metal along each side af a penetration beac Gas pores/porosity ) xl Definition: A gas pore is s cavity, generally under 1.5 movin diameter. fonned by ‘entrapped gas during the solidification of molten metal* \ atv bend see minod ema vertcat down (uiovepipel voor beads ung + Hollow bead - clongaved porosity in the root bead (pipeline terminology) Herringbone porosity - wormholes side by side taking on a herving hone pattern caobacote EP . WA NWO ole +t _______— = Weringbone porosity ; Et Pépingluoanhates eee v \ro \ t Xv 7) ‘ a Hottou beat Causes all ype contaminated weld preparation sale oxides at. Gk sea low welding cent ave lengih too long (especially wth basi hydrogen cooled elecicdes) damaged eleewode fe &_kncoreet weaving Yechniq, *! th. removal of gas shield, e.g. wind on site. Slag inclusion . : Sing is defined as: a fused, nonmetallic residue produced from sone welding \ 208 W9-4FeO hell A slag inclusion is an entcapped non-metallic deposit it. the weld originating fom the welding flux. Lineat slag inclusions, of slag lines, almost exclusively exist at the toes of a weld pass. Equiaxed slag inclusions may exis! anywhere in the weld, Stag/atag Lines Parallel slag ines/ungon tracks Causes: a. _ insufficient cleaning between passes, b, contaminated weld preparation. ¢. welding over an iregulae profile, 4. incorrect welding speed fe. arc t00 long. Tungsten inclusion Definition: An inclusion of tungsten from the electrode in tungsten inert-gis welding*. Copper inclusion Definition: An inclusion of copper due to the accidenta. melting of the contact we nozzle in self-adjusting and controtled-arc welding, or to pick-up by contact beween the copper nozzle and the molten poo! in tungsten inert-gas welding* Burn through Definition: A localised collapse of the molten pool due 10 excessive penetration cesulting in a hole in the weld run* Burn throughs are usually associated with the coors of butt welds, Burn through (hote on root) Causes a, excessive emperage during the welding of the root or hot pass on butt welds, b. excessive root grinding, which may cause the sicond pass to burn through, . improper welding technique. Crater pipe Definition: A depression due 10 shrinkage at the end of a weld nin, where the source of heat was removed. Crater pipes must not be confused with bum throughs Or gas pores Cause: a, Deoxidation reactions and liquid to solid volume change, Foal wo m £04FeO fNel Are strike (stray flash) Definition: Damage on the parent material resulting from the accidental striking of an are from the weld. Arc strikes may have a very brittle sieucture, especially on stecls With a high carbon equivalent. Causes: a, clecteade straying onto parent material, b. electrode holder with poor insulation touching workpiece, ‘¢._ poor contact of the earth clamp. fatter Definition: Small droplets of electrode material which have strayed away frem the are, which may or may not have fused to-the parent plate. Causes: b. excessive arc length, «damp electrodes, dacc-blow Classification and significance of defects Defects may be classified depending on their shape: + Planiar defects: linear from at least one dimension: crack like, e.g, cracks, lack of fusion, Relative (0 other defects, these defects usually have a high significance. Linear volumetric defects: e.g. slag lines, elongated porosity. + Equiaxed defects: rounded and nonlinear, e.g. gas pores, slag_ inclusions Relative to other defects, these defects usually have a low significance, The position of a defect in the cross-section of @ weld is also an impotant consideration. Stress is more concentrated at a surface and corrosion may also be taking place in the region, therefore a noa-planar defect breaking the surface may be classed as highly significant defect. ‘The actual defect acceptance or rejection will depend on the defect acceprance levels listed in the relevant specification, | Defect acceptance levels General Defect acceptance levels are included in certain specifications - especially in application specifications, The tolerances are usually determined by the use of fracture mechanics, a subject which uses mathematical calculations and mechanical tests, in order to arrive at maxim am defect dimensions permissible prior to cemedial action. ‘Some specifications contain defect acceptance tolerances which are more strict than vthers, depending on the criticality rating of the structure or application to which the specification applies. Overall criticality rating depends on a variety of factors including: the stresses | involved, e.g. pipe pressiies: the environment, e.g. contact with corrosive chemicals erosion, eg, from Fluid flow. 210 “imine W9-6 aan nm nn nn AK MAMAMAHRANA A.ARuane & TP ONeill HI ‘The following list is shows a variety of applications ia a descending criticality: order of 1. Vessels and pipework for radioactive substances. Pressure vessels welded to BS $500 or the ASME boiler code 2 3, Pipework welded to BS 2633. 4, Pipelines welded to BS 4515, API 1104, BGC PS P2, 5. Bridges, ships and general construction Repair welding If not property controlled, i is possible for a weld repair io be more detcimental than une original defect, due to adverse microstructural effects in the h.a.2., especially on high Coq% materials, therefore separate repair welding procedures are normally: required Some specifications may not peritic the same weld area to be eepaired more than once, again due to adverse metallurgical effects, Some specifications may limit the length of repairs. taking into consideration resulting metallurgical changes and stresses acting on the rest of the unppened weld Removal of defective arcas The specification oF procedure will govern how the defective areas are t0 be removed. ‘Ac least one of the following removal methods will be wsed + grinding + gouging using an arc process, gouging wsing a fuel gas process chipping, machining, filing, Prior 10 repair welding, the defective arca would normally be removed or blended without impinging onto the parent material, ic, the original weld joint profite would noamally have to be maintained. If unacceptable defects exist in the parent material e.g. surface laminations, arc sirikes, gouges ete., the action t0 be taken wild again depend on the specification requirements, Some specifications will allow grinding, and re-welding, whist others will require the defective area to be cut off it the material thickness is ceduced below certain limits after gei ding/blending, wo-7 2il| | BUY UBVOUDUBYBED eo»sunuuysvy ow ww yy 9D o 7~ 212FeO Nel » ie tow meting prim of posponme compound mae far bee lem and mas edt ification eraeking Cracks found within weld zones may be divided into wo broad categories: 1, Weld process eracks: attributable to the weld process itself 2. Service induced cracks: attributable to some external influence during service such as vibrat’on or cyclic thermal stresses. Weld process cracks are categorized/tenned in maay ways, but there are essentially ‘only four crack types caused through weiding 1. Solidification eracks. 2. Hydrogen induced cracks (HIC) 3, Lamellar tearing. 4. Reheat cracks, ‘There are also many ways 10 eategorizejterm service list identifies the main types Leracks. ‘The followi 1, Brite fracture 2. Ductile fractuce 3. Fatigue fracture 4 Creep failure 5. St ‘orrosion eracking, 6. Hydrogen erucking induced by comesion, Cencks may. ‘0 he 1ermed in relation to their direction or shape: © Longitudinal with the weld axis, © Transverse watthe Weld axis, + Branched © Mutti-directionat Chevron, Terminology used may also indicate the foc fon of the erack(s) relative to the weld: + Eage. + Haz + Centretine: = Crater. Fusion zone. + Underbead. © Parent metal Cracks may be smooth or jagged in profile, Some eracks have branches, some are more multidirectional and some occur intermittently Weld process cracks Solidification cracking Cracking that takes place during the weld solidifiention process is termed either hor cracking oF solidification ceacking and occurs in all sicels which have a high sulphur comtent-sulphur causes low ductility at elevated tempera res In order for a erack to develop the solidifying metal must be subjected to a high tensite stress. this may be present as a result of weld metal contraction combined with bigh resitaint. Solidification cracks wsually occur longitudinally down the centre of a weld Sarva W9S-IPoel Ee because of the segregation of impurities and have a blunt profile compared to other crack types. A Crater crack is a type of solidification crack and is often star shaped, hence the altemative definition-star crack. IC a high longitudinal stress was present this may cause transverse cracks to develop, e.g. on large submerged arc welds. Liquation cracking, Solidification cracks in welds may be due in part to the presence of materials within the metal which have a lower defined melting point than that of the metal itself. | These tow melting point materials usually accumulate at the grain boundaries and can sof cHUSE problemas in the HAZ near the fusion boundary where melting of the parent metal does sot occur, but where the temperature is high enough 10 cause melting of the grain boundary. If this melting occurs in the presence of a high tensile (contraction) stress, then the be incaries will be pulled apart and a liquation crack Within the stee! itself. sulphur is the major liquation material. If the welding involves sa) a very high heat input, the sulphur in the HAZ is laken into solution by the surrounding steel and precipitates out during cooling as sulphides, causing embritied grain boundaries which significantly weaken the steel. If such, an occurrence has happened. the steel is said 10 be burned. Copper pick-up may also cause this pparticatlar form of liquation cracking, Liquation cracks are very small and can iniatiate hydrogen cracking Hydrogen induced cracking See other course notes Lamellar tearing 2} Lamettac tearing has a characteristic step like appearance. [t may occur in the parent plate. or HAZ of steels with poor through thickness ductility. where the fusion boundary of the weld is parallel with the plate/pipe surface, ie. lamellar tearing only ‘occurs in the rolled direction of the parent material, It is usually associated with festrained joints that are subjected to through thickness stresses on corners, tees oF fillet welds joining thick plate which have @ high sulphur content, although other non-metallic inclusions may also play a part. The presence of hydrogen increases a steet's susceptability to lamellar tearing quite significantly. ‘The through thickness ductility of the parent material may be assessed by using the short tensile test - see BS5135, | Re-heat cracking Re-heat eracking-also known a stress relavation crucking-ssinly occurs in the HAZ of welds, particularly in low alloy steets during post weld heat weatinent or service at elevated temperatures } Most alloy st cls are subject 10 an inerease of embrittlement of the coarse grained el region of the HAZ when heated above 600°C. the problem is worse with thicker stecls containing Ce, Cu, Mo, V, Nb and Ti: $ and P also have an influence. Typieal steels tke Haren the fet susceptable would be the 2 Cr-Mo-V types, e.g, ereep resisting steels, pighmwmuas resco! | During post weld stres relief and at high operating temperatures, the residual stresses will be relieved by creep deformation whieh involves erain bannlary shin, ant peat deformation. If, due to hist creep strength these actions € | boundaries may open up into cracks. Figuatoncrteh mot uccur, the gran Re-heat crucks most frequently occur in areas of high stress concentration and existing defects. They are not unknown in the weld area where the cracks may + originate from sharp profiles. e.g. incomplete roo! penetration or at the toes of badly’? shaped fillet welds. strewn 24 W9S-2Peo Neil ioe een Precautions against re-heat cracking include toc-grinding, elimination of partial penetration welds, the rejection of poor weld profiles, the selection of steels resistant to Hiquation cracks, the use of the lowest strength weld metal acceptable and controlled post weld heat treatment Note: A crack which ras only been found after post-weld heat treatment is not necessarily a reheat cr ick Service induced failures Brittle and duc ile failure See Unit WISS, Patigue cracks Fatigue cracking is « service failure which occurs under cyclic sess conditions. I nonmally occues at a change in seetion, eg. gro0ve, radius, step, weld toe ete therefore design and workmanship are important 10 minimise Failure by Fatigue All materials are suseeptable to fatigue failure. Since design and workmanship play @ onajor part ferrous based materials have an endurance limit applied 10 one grade of steel in a specific heat treated condition operating within specific parameters, below this limit farigue is unlikely to eee. Other metals will all awe the potential to fail by fatigue given the required conditions, Fatigue failures start at a specitie poin and propagate with each stress eyele a rte that depends on the applied stress. Fatigue failure is eisilé identified by etc markings on the fexctored face. Final failure ean be any ether made of fracture e.g, bitte or ductile fuine Thermal fatigue cracks smay occur if the eycte stresses are provided by frequent temperature changes producing fhacinating thermal svesses Corrosion fatigue failure results from a combination of evelic stress and a corresive environment at the fatigue site Creep/ereep failures Deformation by ereep is the slow plastic deformation of w meal. under a eonstant stvess at any temperate, The plastic defornation is very stall compared with normal tensile loading whilst the temperature eange for ercep in # given material is between 0.5 f0 0.7 of its melting point expressed in degrees Kelvin (°K). Creep may lead to fracture. The stages of ereep ae 1 Primary ereep 2. Secondary creep « steady state constant rate ereep the mest important stage 3. Tontiary creep - The stage when the rite of extension acceierates and leads to silure Creep may occur in any situation where a steady’ state of stress exists, € From lead pipes at room temperature to steamy and power gene 500°C. Materials such as Cr.Mo-V have been developed for ii st resist creep by blocking the plastic defornation slip systems ranging wing plant at 450°C to msperature service which Stress corrosion cracking This type of cracking may occur in materials in a state of tensile steéss and ia contact with a corrosive medium. The level of stress which can cause the cracking may be well below the yield point of the nrarerial W9S-3TeONell AA aan Eee ‘Suess corrosion cracks are surface breaking and are found at any sharp change in section, noch or ereviee, especially in sructures which have nt been sess relieve, Both ferrous and non-ferrous materials are susceptable to stress corosion cracking (_—=—— = ¢ Weld decay in austenitic stainless steel ¢ Weld decay, also known a Anife-tine aatack, occurs in unstabilse austenite stantess steels, c.g, 18-8 type, within the 600-850°C range in the HAZ. At this temperature é range carbon is absorbed by tie chroinan and ehvominm carbide fs precipitated a s|_ the grain boundaries as the metal cools down. This causes a local reduction in € chromiun content which has the aect of lowering the resistance to corosive attack slowing rusting to-occur é Weld decay i prevented in stabilised stanlest steels by she addition of niobium or 4d docarbntze the molten ste! to below 0.03% C ; 4 ‘ A t ‘ ‘ _ / 5 | Se org WoS-4FeO Ell 6. Normative document: Document characteristics for activities or their eesults that provides niles, guidelines o¢ The erm normative document is a generic term that covers such documents as standards, technical specifications, codes of practice and regulations. {so GUIDE At Standard: Document, established By consensus and approved by a cocognized ody, that provides, tor common and repeated use. ules, guidelines or characteristics for activities oF their results, aimed at the aciievement of the coptimuun dogree of order in a given context. [ISO GUIDE 2] Code of practice: Decument that cecommends practi design, manufactwe. installation, structures ar products eS OF procedures for the maintenance or utilization of equipment A code of practice may be a standard a part of a standard or independent of a standard, (ISO GUIDE 2) Specification: The document that presceibes the requirements with whieh the product or service has o conform A specification should refer 10 oF include drawings, patterns or other celevant documents and should also indicsie the means and the ccitecia whereby confonnity can be checked. (BS4778: PART 1] NDT Procedure: A written description of ati essential parameters and Precautions to be observed when applying an NOT tecinique (0 a specific ses following an established standard, code or specification, [PCN/GEN/92 ALI] NDT Instruction: A written description of the precise steps 10 be followed in testing (0 an established standard. code. speciticuts IPCN/GEN/92 ALI] ‘o¢ NOT procedure eed Q7 QaztaEPeo 0» forrimognetc materia it 1s normely preferable 0 uce Penetrant testing This type of testing uses the forces of capillary action to -detact suetace becaking defects. It is impossible to detect defects which do not break the surface with this method, but i e8 be used on both magnetic and no i-magnetic materials providing they are non-porous. ‘There are several types of penoteant system, this includes the following which are shown in a descending order of Flasv detection sensitivity © Post-emulsitiabl fluorescent © Solvent based - fluorescent + Water based - fivoreseent + Solvent based - colour contrast © Water based - catour conteast Fluorescent penerrants require the use of an ultraviolet (UV-A) light to view indications, whilst colour contrast penetrants are viewed with the naked eye, One of the most common site used penctrait systems uses solvent based colour ‘contrast ponctrants in geroyots. A typical sequence of operations on a steel test item is as follows: 1, Clean acca using wive brush, cfoth amd solvem, On shuminiuns, other soft alloys and plastics. wire brushing should not be used, as there is a danger tat surface breaking detects may be closed 2. Apply penetrant- leave for 15 minutes. Colour contrast penetrants are noanally red jp colour and should remain on me part long enough to be drawn into any surface discontinitics. This time can vary fcom about ten minutes 10 several hhours depending on she type of material and size/type of defect sought 3. Remove surface penetrant using cloth and solvent. Apply solvent to the cloth and not directly ont to the work pioze, Clean thoroughly. 4. Apply developer leave for 15 minutes, The developer draws any penetrant remaiding, ia any suctace beeaking discontinmities with a blotting action, 5. Interpret area, Any discontinuities are indicated by a red mark, e.g. Tine or dot against a white background. Fluorescent penetrants would show gracn-yellow: when viewed with an ultraviolet (UV-A) light, Magnetic particle inspection This method of NDT itay detect surace, and in certain cases, slight sub-surface discontinuities up to 2-3 mm below the surta ‘materials only. Mp4. cam be used on Ferromagnetic, ‘A magnetic field is introduced into a specimen to be tested, fine particles of Ferromagnetic powder, or ferromagnetic particles in a ‘iquid suspension, are then applied to the test area, Any discontimuisy which interupts te magnetic lines of force will create a leakage fictd, which has a north and south pale on either side of it. This attracts the ferromagnetic particles in great numbers, The discontinuity may show as a black indication against the contrasting background-usually white contrast paint-or as a fluorescent indication which is wally sreen/yetiow against a dark violet backgrosind, When mpi. is carrind out using fluorescent inks the us> of an ultraviolet (UV-A) Aight is necessary to cause fluorescence of the particles, although there is no need to apply a conteast paint NDT1-1 PIGPeo Neil Fars bgp 130-00 Ue tpl nse on sce Approssnatele 4 mm it Ickes Cota 6 (CoB) has igh pene tise on tals wp to Ui un hick. Win 192 {0r182) is common nse on Stef wokdments art 30 0m thick i therefore prices au wtb longer vonage thon Cob. ‘Fhuorescem ink methods are more sensitive than black ink methods, ‘There are many ways (0 apply # magnetic field, e.g, a permanent magnet, coils, prods, cables and threading bar Listed! below is a sequence of operations to ins; ‘with black ink: fa weld, using a permanent magnet 1, Clean area using wire brush and cloth plus solvent if necessary. 2, Apply a thin layer of white contrast paint 3. When paint is dry, stradille the magnet over the weld, 4. Apply ink (1.25 to 3.5% particles toa paraffin base). 5, Interpret area 6. To look for transverse defects, turn magnet approximately 90° and re-apply ink. 7. Interpret area Radiographic testing Principles Radiography is (radioisotopes). airied out using x-ray machines or artificial gamma sources Xerays or | on e radio, imma rays pass dheough the object to be radiographed and record an image raphic film om the opposite side. The radiation reaching the film will be determined by the objects thickness and density, eg. lack of root penetration in a weld ‘vill inerease the amount oF radiation Falling on the film in that area due to a reduction in thickness, 1h is the wavelength of rhe radiation ‘which govems its peneirating power: this is governed by te kilovoltage (kV) when using x-rays, and isotope type with gamma rays. The intensity of the radiation is governed by the milli-amperage (nA) when using X-rays, and by the activity of the specitic isotope with gamma. Activity is sured in Curies (Cid oF gigabecquerets (Gq) A negative is produced when the film is processed. ‘The thin areas of an object will be darker than the thicker areas. therefore most weld defects will show up dark in ation to the Surrounding areas; exceptions are excess weld metal, spatter, tungsten and copper inglusious, Radiographic quality An overall assessment of radiographic quality is: made by the use of image quality lndicauues (QUI: these ysually consist of seven shin wires decreasing in thickness, 1QUG) are pre-placed on the weld being examined and therefore show on the radiographic image. The more wires visible the better the flaw detection sensitivity is Tikelyto be, The density-degeee of blackness-of » radiograph is also measured by wing a densitometer to ensure it lies Withia a specitied range for optimum quality. Advantages and disadvantages | Xeeadiognaphy cequives bully and zxpensive machinery in comparison with gamma radiography, but x-radiography generally produces better quality radiographs. an safer, X-ray machines ean be switched on and off, unlike gamma source’ which permanently produce radiation and therefore require shielding, When not in use. A major disadvantage with radiography is sha it will only detect defects which have significant depth in relation to the axis of the x-ray beam-roughly over 2% of the wall fame ETON 220 NDT1-2 ARRRARANAHHA AMNH ARH HAA AANA AA AMEE E EE EO mH@@@66066686€ SCBIESEGSVSSSSCS TFG YH ASIO Ruane & I] TP ONeil Sometines two erin are ied, one to act ava ‘ransmiter of lrasound ant ‘Me other tact asa receiver: thickness in the same axis as the x-ray beam, i.e. radiography will not usually detect plate laminations, lack of inter-run fusion or cracks perpendicular to the x-ray beam, A inajor advantage of radiographic testing is that a pennanent record is produced, i.e. the radiograph. Ultrasonic testing This method uses the ability of high frequency sound waves, typically above 2 MHz, (2,000,000 c.p.s.), to pass through materials. A probe is used which contains a piczo electric crystal to transmit and receive ultrasonic pulses. Ultrasound hitting any air interface, or an imterface with a different ‘material density, which is perpendicular to the ultrasonic beam is reflected back and displayed on 1 cathode ray tube (e.r.). The actual display relates to the time taken for the ultrasonic pulses to trav the distance to a interface and back, i. longer the time, the further away the interfa An interface could be the oppasite side of the plate, therefore wall thickness ‘measurements can easily be made. Lamination checks are easily eaied out using ultrasonic methods (opposite to radiography). Welds can be tested using angle type probes, although this requires more operator skill to apply and interpret results. Defects in welds usually can be located but the type of defect is sometimes difficult to identify To detect a linear defect with adiography, the defects must have depth in line with the radiation beany; the opposite is true for ultrasonic flaw detection, i.e. when using ultwasonic testing the defects should ideally have their major face at 90° to the axis of the ultrasonie beam, For the ultrasound to enter » material a couplant must be introduced between the probe and the specimen, e.x. grease, oil, glycerine or water, because ultrasound does not travel very well through air. Ulteasonic equipment is quite portable, but ane major disadvantage with most of the ceauipment used is that no permanent record of results is produced. Equipment that is able to record results is currently expensive, Eddy current testing Eddy current esting us i the electromagnet inluction of electrical currents-eddy. curvents-in material, The currents are affected by any section change in the material, e.g. the presence of defects. ‘These current changes are detected by the test instrument, often by the use of a probe which induced the currents initially, they are then displayed on a meter or a cathode ray tube (cr. Eddy current testing is quite versatile. It is used for coating thicknes. cladding thie’ ness measurements and alloy sorting as well as flaw detection, Eddy current testing is able to detect sub-surface é scontinuities, but the depth of eddy current penetration is limited. It is excellent for surface flaw detection, but for a types of testing, can be only used on conductive materials: both magnetic and non-magnetic. Many different types of probe attachments are available, these include: intemal bobbin-type coils, external coils, knife edge probes and many unique designs for specific applications ‘@ tame £T PON . NDTI1-3 Z2tCON ee ee et et ed ed de) a EES ST TTT STITT POPP ES