References

The professional organization that I, personally, take interest in is the discourse community of
people working in international relations. This field encompasses a large group of people. From
United Nations representatives to members of the CIA, this field is very broad and is centralized
around foreign affairs. I chose this because of my major in international and global studies and I
am interested in working for the United Nations or another organization that deals with global
affairs. To grasp a better understanding of the field, I will be focusing on the topic of how
political opinions, outlooks, and policies have changed after the terrorist attacks on September
11th, 2001. This topic has become very popular amongst leaders invested in global politics in
recent years as our security has been tested in multiple events post-September 11. I have
compiled various articles from databases that deal with this topic to further understand the
discussion. During my process of researching this topic, I will limit my documents to anything
after 2001. Documents prior to 2001 will not aid me as they will not have any ideas on the
attacks. I will allow articles focused on the public opinion of various groups around the world, as
well as the changes in ideology and policy of governments and groups. This will allow me to see
the bigger picture and not have a pure American opinion-based outcome.
Chanley, V. A. (2002). Trust in Government in the Aftermath of 9/11: Determinants and
Consequences. Political Psychology, 469-483. Virginia A. Chanley, author of this
academic article, is a member of the staff at Florida International University. She writes
this article for Political Psychology in 2002. The article deals with the trust in the
government in the aftermath of the September 11th terrorist attacks. Chanley states that
after September 11th, there was a large increase in the trust in the national government.
Citizens had very positive views on how the government would provide safety and

protection for them. She looks into the causes of this change in public opinion. The
results of her research show that the public began looking at international problems more
than domestic ones. They were more focused on national defense and terrorism instead of
problems faced in their day to day lives. Along with this, the economy was at a very good
point and the president had high approval ratings. These also helped push the public
opinion from being pessimistic. This article will help me in my research paper because it
will provide me with information on the public opinion of American citizens. The article
was written fairly recently after the attacks, published in 2002, so it will give us a very
initial public opinion. If the research was taken at a later date, the opinions might be
distorted and wouldnt be as accurate.
Crawford, N. C. (2004). The road to global empire: The logic of U.S. foreign policy after
9/11. Orbis: A Journal of World Affairs,48(4), 685-703. Neta Crawford, writer of this
academic article, is an associate professor at Brown Universitys Watson Institute for
International Studies. She writes this article on the topic of the logic of United States
foreign policy post- September 11th, 2001. She concludes that United States foreign
policy after this date, combines the moral certainty and global mission of the post-Cold
War era with a new sense of fear and urgency. She believes this new logic is dangerous
because it creates a blind urgency and gives the United States the feeling that it will not
do any wrong. This document is relevant to my research because it discusses foreign
policy and changes in it following September 11th, 2001.
Cunningham, L. F., Young, C. E., & Lee, M. (2004). Perceptions of airline service quality. Pre
and post 9/11. Public Works Management & Policy, 9(1), 10-25. This article, which was
published in Public Works Management & Policy in 2004, was written by Lawrence F.

Cunningham, Clifford E. Young, and Moonkyu Lee. Cunningham is a professor of

marketing at the University of Colorado who has written multiple journals on marketing
topics. Young is also a professor at University of Colorado who teaches in the business
school. He received a PH.D at the University of Utah. Lee is a marketing professor at
Yonsei University in Seoul, Korea. The three authors all specialize in marketing and write
this article to discuss how the perceptions of airline service quality has changed before
and after the September 2001 terrorist attacks. The attacks changed the business
environment as well and changed the public opinion on airline service. The results of this
research show that the number of trips declined drastically after the attacks. However, the
satisfaction of passenger did not change. This document is relative to my research
because consumers and producers in the business world were severely affected by the
attacks. This helps me see how the attacks changed the public opinion on flying on
airplanes.
Epifanio, M. (2011). Legislative response to international terrorism. Journal of Peace
Research, 48(3), 399-411. Mariaelisa Epifanio, a member of the Department of
Government at the University of Essex, writes an academic journal article on the
legislative response to international terrorism. In the article, Epifanio introduces a dataset
called LeRIT. This is short for legislative response to international terrorism and it
illustrates the legislative response to international terrorism in twenty different Western
democracies. The dataset was based on the time period of 2000 through 2008 and showed
that responses to terrorism differed quite a bit. Countries, such as the United States and
the United Kingdom, were more lenient on cutting some civil rights while countries, such
as Canada and Switzerland, were tried to avoid the reduction of civil rights. The article is

relevant to my paper because it deals with the changes in legislative actions towards
terrorism. The data was taken during the period after the attacks and shows how countries
changed their counterterrorism policies to respond to the new threat.
Goldsmith, B. E. (2009). Spinning the globe? U.S. public diplomacy and foreign public
opinion. The Journal of Politics, 71(3), 863-875. Benjamin E. Goldsmith, a member of
the University of Sydney staff, and Yusaku Horiuchi, a member of the Australian national
University staff, combine their ideas and research to discuss United States public
diplomacy and foreign public opinion. They examine the amount of success that the U.S
diplomacy efforts post-9/11have created. They argue that the leaders of the United States
initially created large and positive effects by using its policy. However once the U.S
initiated the Iraq wars, the policies weakened the effect and foreign media began to report
negatively against the U.S. This document is important to my studies because it aids me
with research on United States public diplomacy policies and public opinion that was in
reaction to it.
Graber, D. A. (2009). Looking at the United States through distorted lenses. entertainment
television versus public diplomacy themes. American Behavioral Scientist, 52(5), 735754. In this article, the author discusses how the image of the United States in the Middle
East has drastically fallen post-9/11. Even though the United States diplomats stationed in
the Middle East give the diplomatic policies of the United States favorable ratings, the
image continues to decline. The author argues that television entertainment programs,
particularly American situation comedies broadcast throughout the Middle East, can be
another reason for the continued low regard for Americans and for the United States. The
author uses three different television shows as examples for this phenomena. The images

presented by the programs are distorted and portray an unrealistic picture of life in
America.
Gross, K., Brewer, P. R., & Aday, S. (2009). Confidence in government and emotional responses
to terrorism after September 11, 2001. American Politics Research, 37(1), 107-128. In
this academic article, found in American Politics Research, the authors analyze the
confidence in the government and emotional responses to terrorism after the 9/11 attacks.
Kimberly Gross and Sean Aday, professors at George Washington University, work
alongside Paul R. Brewer, a professor at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, to
compile their information and research into this article that was published in 2009. The
article uses data from a panel study to follow Americans' emotional responses to
terrorism and their levels of confidence in government. The panel study was conducted in
fall 2001 and summer 2002. It tracked the emotional responses of Americans pertaining
to terrorism. It also studied the American confidence in the government. The authors took
these two different sets of data and attempted to show how they are correlated. Their
analysis was focused on the relationships between hope, pride, and confidence. The data
reveals that there is a positive relationship amongst hope, pride, and confidence.
Americans experience both pride and hope when faced with threats of terrorism and
anxiety is not the only feeling being experienced. With this pride and hope, they felt
confident with the government in its ability to protect its people. This article is relative to
my research project because it shows the American public opinion post-9/11. It shows
how one groups opinions were affected by the attacks. The document seemed to be fairly
unbiased and displayed the data in a very objective way.

Haddad, S. (2003). Muslim attitude towards terrorism against the US: A case study of
Lebanon. International Studies, 40(4), 379-391. The author of this academic article,
Simon Haddad, is an associate professor of political science at Notre Dame University in
Beirut, Lebanon. In this article, Haddad discusses the Muslim attitudes towards
terrorisms against the United States. He put together two hypotheses. They were age
predicts support for the attacks and gender bears an impact on the support for the
attacks. Both hypotheses were concluded to be true. Also, socio-economic conditions
were proved to have no effect on the attitudes. This article is important in my research
because it shows how the Muslims in the Middle East, particularly in Lebanon, reacted to
the terrorist attacks.
Halabi, Y. (2006). US responses to major developments in the arab-islamic world. evaluation of
role of ideas. International Studies, 43(4), 339-365. Yakub Halabi, an adjunct lecturer at
the University of Haifa, published this academic article in 2006. The article deals with
U.S responses to the major developments in the Arab-Islamic world. The author divides
up his paper into three periods of crisis in the Arab region; the Arab oil embargo of 1973,
the Islamic Revolution of 1979, and the terrorist attacks of September 11th, 2001. Halabi
states that each of these time periods instigated new ideas in foreign policy and U.S
response. However, I will only use the portion of the article on foreign policy changes
regarding the 2001 attacks for my paper and omit the foreign policy changes on the other
two crises. The author states that the policy changed in the aftermath of the 2001 attacks
to be more far-reaching than just the Arab world. The need for long-term solutions to U.S
domestic security became a big debate in politics. The government wanted more stable
security on U.S soil. I chose this article because it provided information on the changes in

foreign policy that was caused by the 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center. It assesses
the extent at which a crisis, like the terrorist attacks, can affect a country as a whole.
Jomini Stroud, N., & Sparrow, B. H. (2011). Assessing public opinion after 9/11 and before the
iraq war. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 23(2), 148-168. Natalie
Jomini Stroud and Bartholomew H. Sparrow combined their research and ideas to discuss
public opinion after September 11th and before the Iraq War. Stroud is a member of the
Department of Communication Studies at Annette Strauss Institute for Civic Participation
and Sparrow is a member of the Department of Government at the University of Texas in
Austin. They argue that public opinion is guided by presidential speeches as well as the
priorities of the media. The way questions regarding Iraq and terrorism were phrased
proves of elite-influence. The study proves that polls cant be the only form of public
opinion because the public does not have a role in forming the questions. This document
is important because it discusses public opinion was formulated post-9/11.
Leffler, M. P. (2005). 9/11 and American Foreign Policy. Diplomatic History, 395-413. Melvyn P.
Leffler, who graduated from Cornell and received his PH.D at Ohio State, is a professor
at the University of Virginia. He specializes in the history of United States foreign
relations and wrote this article that I will be using in my research project. The article
deals with the attacks on America on September 11th, 2001 and American Foreign Policy.
Leffler discusses the controversy about foreign policy under the Bush administration. He
argues that there was more that stayed the same than changed regarding the foreign
policies of this administration. While he says there were many important changes, they
were not revolutionary changes. He concludes that with a larger amount of threat,
government officials are tempted to take their interests into more account than the

interests of their constituents. I chose this document because it will become relevant in
my project. It provides me with an opinion that is fairly different from the rest of the
opinions that I have read. Having varying opinions helps see the argument from all angles
and allows less biased research.
Maney, G. M., Woehrle, L. M., & Coy, P. G. (2009). Ideological consistency and contextual
adaptation. U.S. peace movement emotional work before and after 9/11. American
Behavioral Scientist, 53(1), 114-132 Maney, Woehrle, and Coy were members of Hofstra
University, Mount Mary College, and Kent State University, respectively. They came
together and researched the ideological consistency and contextual adaptation of the U.S
Peace Movement before and after September 11th. After their research was finished, they
compiled their evidence and data into this article which was published in an academic
journal, American Behavioral Scientist, in September 2009. The authors of this article
analyze the U.S peace movement responses to Bushs attempts to capitalize on the feeling
of threat after 9/11. They use statements issued by peace movement groups prior to and
after 9/11. Peace movement organizations, or PMOs for short, became very doubtful of
Bushs goals post-9/11. They questioned the existence of weapons of mass destruction in
Iraq and challenged the administration on its actions. In both time frames, the
organizations mention that the United States is a source of threat to people living outside
of the United States. In the time period of four months after the attacks, the groups
conversations changed to fit the fearful times. During the Iraq war, their conversations
diverted back to how they were pre-9/11 as threats to national security declined. I
included this document in my research because it analyzes the ideological changes in a

social group on the subject. We can see how PMO opinion has changed because of the
September 11th attacks.
Mustapha, J. (2011). Threat construction in the bush administration's post-9/11 foreign policy:
(critical) security implications for southeast asia. The Pacific Review, 24(4), 487-504. The
author of this article, Jennifer Mustapha, is a PhD candidate and lecturer in the
Department of Political Science at McMaster University. She writes this article to discuss
the threat construction in the Bush administrations post-9/11 foreign policy regarding
Southeast Asia. Mustapha concludes that the Bush Administrations foreign policy
discussions in Southeast Asia were seen and they created anti-democratic opinions in the
governments of the countries of Southeast Asia. This document is important to my
discussion topic because it discusses how the foreign policy changed in regards to
Southeast Asia. Prior to 9/11, United States foreign policy in Southeast Asia was not very
focused on antiterrorism. However the attacks changed the policy so that antiterrorism
plays a large role in the policies regarding Southeast Asia.
O'Loughlin, J., Tuathail, G. O., & Kolossov, V. (2004). Russian geopolitical storylines and public
opinion in the wake of 9-11: A critical geopolitical analysis and national
survey. Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 37(3), 281-318. John OLoughlin,
Gearoid O Tuathail, and Vladimir Kolossov come together to compile their thoughts and
research on Russian geopolitics in the wake of September 11th, 2001. The three men are
each members of different institutions. OLoughlin and O Tuathail are based in the
United States while Kolossov is based in Russia. The trio examine speeches, writings,
and editorials by Putins administration during the time after the terrorist attacks. The
Russian government related the terrorist attacks on America to the attacks by the Chechen

terrorists. This created a strong case for Russian alignments with the United States.
Skeptics surfaced and began questioning if the alliance would be beneficial. The authors
found that supporters of Putins ideals were typically rich members of the Edinstvo party,
males, and fans of the Western way. The skeptics tended to be members of the
Communist party, elders, Muslims, women, and the poor. This document is important to
my studies because it provides me with responses to the attacks from one of Americas
biggest challenger, Russia. It also gives insight into the public opinion of the Russian
citizens.
Rehman, J., & Ghosh, S. (2008). International Law, US Foreign Policy and Post-9/11 Islamic
Fundamentalism: The Legal Status of the 'War on Terror'. Nordic Journal Of
International Law, 77(1/2), 87-103. This article was written by Javaid Rehman and
Saptarshi Ghosh. Rehman is a professor of international law at Brunel Law School in
London. Ghosh is a PhD candidate at that law school. They worked together to compile
information and place their own input on international law, foreign policy in the united
states, and post 9/11 Islamic Fundamentalism. The attacks of 9/11 created much activity
in the agencies involved with the policy making of international law. The international
community labeled the 9/11 attacks as a crime against community and the public opinion
of the world was, overall, very sympathetic. The author provides us with information on
how the United States took this global sympathy and used it to change up international
law and begin to take down dictators and install U.S-like regimes. This document is
important because it helps analyze U.S foreign policy changes in the period after
September 11th, 2001.

Rohall, D. E., Ender, M. G., & Matthews, M. D. (2006). The effects of military affiliation,
gender, and political ideology on attitudes toward the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq.
Armed Forces & Society, 33(1), 59-77. A survey was administered in January and
February 2003 to determine if military affiliation is associated with attitudes toward
sending troops into Afghanistan after the war started and Iraq before sending troops.
Majorities of all students supported both war efforts, though United States Military
Academy at West Point and ROTC cadets are somewhat more supportive of both wars
compared to civilian students. However, most differences are explained by students'
gender and political affiliation, suggesting that differences between groups result from
selection effects rather than cultural differences. The authors contend a fourth wave in
civil-military affairs potentially has emerged in the immediate aftermath of 9/11 through
a civil-military attitude fusion complicated by a gender-politics gap.
Schildkraut, D. J. (2009). The dynamics of public opinion on ethnic profiling after 9/11. results
from a survey experiment. American Behavioral Scientist, 53(1), 61-79. Deborah J.
Schildkraut, a Princeton graduate and professor at Tuffs University, writes this article to
assess the dynamics of public opinion on ethnic profiling in the post-9/11 era. Her article
was published in American Behavioral Scientist in September 2009. The first step in the
study was comparing support for counterterrorism profiling with support for profiling
Black motorists. Then the study goes on to examine whether the status of the profilee as a
U.S. citizen of Arab or Middle Eastern appearance or as an immigrant alters either
support for profiling or the determinants of that support. The results show that support for
counterterrorism profiling is higher than support for profiling Black motorists, that people
are more supportive of profiling immigrants than they are of profiling U.S. citizens, 9/11

profiling ( practices that involve subjecting people who look Middle Eastern, Arab, or
Muslim to discretionary law enforcement attention as a way to prevent terrorist attacks) is
much more accepted than traditional profiling, and that how people define what it means
to be American is a powerful predictor of such support. I chose this article to add to my
studies because it focuses on the public opinion of U.S citizens on a matter that has been
affected by the attacks of September 11th.
Shlapentokh, V., & Woods, J. (2004). Foreign perceptions of the USA after the terrorist attacks of
2001. International Studies,41(2), 159-182. Vladimir Shlapentokh, a Soviet-born
professor who works at Michigan State University and has published over thirty books,
worked with Joshua Woods, an associate professor at West Virginia University with a
PH.D in Sociology, to create this academic article on foreign perceptions of the United
States after the terrorist attacks of 2001. The two professors measure the attitudes of
China, Colombia, Germany, Egypt, India, Lithuania, and Russia in the four days after
September 11th, 2001. They used print media to find these attitudes. Shlapentokh and
Woods found that countries that identified with the American image of an enemy were
more favorable to the United States and supportive. Germany and Lithuania were more
supportive of the U.S while the rest of the countries were not as supportive. Russia and
Egypt were the clearest in their negative opinions of the United States. I chose this
document because it discusses how the opinions and outlooks of foreign nations were
affected by 9/11. While some of the countries changed their perceptions to be more
sympathetic others viewed America in a negative light.