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♦ Introduction:
D.C Motors
♦ Construction:
A DC machine can operate as a motor or as a
generator. This kind of machine is usually realized as an
internal rotor/external pole machine. The ring coat shaped
housing of the machine is also used as a magnetic yoke for
the magnetic field through the armature and poles.
The excitation winding (field winding) is located directly
on the main poles of the stator. A current that flows in this
winding generates the main field. Since the machine is
operated with DC current, the magnetic field in the stator is
constant and so all iron parts of the stator can be made of
massive material. Nevertheless the main poles and the
commutating poles are often laminated because of easier
manufacture.
Modern DC machines, used in closed-loop controlled
drives, with a fast change in armature current and main
field consist of one completely laminated magnetic circuit. A
massive iron construction would strongly influence the
dynamics and the efficiency of the machine due to the
appearance of eddy currents. The rotating part of the
machine holds on its shaft the armature with the
commutator.
Since the alternating flux flows through the armature,
iron parts must be built from laminated, mutually insulated
and slotted magnetic steel sheets. The coils of the
armature winding are placed in the slots; their ends are
connected to the commutator segments. The current is fed
into the commutator by carbon brushes. As the rotor
revolves, conductors revolve with it. The brushes contact
the commutator segments.
♦ Armature
The armature rotates between the poles of the field windings.
The armature is made up of a shaft, core, armature windings,
and commutator. The armature windings are usually for
Wound and then placed in slots in the core.
• Magnetic Fields
You will recall from the previous section that there are two
electrical elements of a DC motor, the field windings and
armature. The armature windings are made up of current
carrying conductors that terminate at a commutator. DC
voltage is applied to the armature windings through carbon
brushes which ride on the commutator. In small DC motors,
permanent magnets can be used for the stator. However, in
large motors used in industrial applications the stator is an
electromagnet. When voltage is applied to stator windings an
electromagnet with north and south poles is established. The
resultant magnetic field is static (no rotational).
For simplicity of explanation, the stator will be represented
by permanent magnets in the following illustrations.
♦ Wiring types:
The dynamic behavior of the DC machine is mainly
determined by the type of the connection between the
excitation winding and the armature winding including the
commutation and compensation winding:
1. Separately excited DC machine:
Excitation and armature winding supplied at separate
voltages
2. Shunt DC machine:
Excitation and armature winding are connected in
parallel (i.e. fed by the same source)
2. Series-wound machine:
The excitation and the armature winding connected in
series; if the stator is laminated, series-wound machines
can operate at AC current
3. Compound machine:
This is a combination of 2 and 3 (both shunt and series
winding are available)
Types of DC Motors
The field of DC motors can be a permanent magnet, or
electromagnets connected in series, shunt, or compound.
1. Permanent Magnet Motors are use permanent
connected motor.
V= Ia*(Ra+Rf) + E If=Ia
E= K*Φ*ω = K*Ia* ω
T= K*Φ*Ia = K*Ia^2
3. Shunt Motors
Hint:
To reverse the direction of rotation of d.c motor, it is
necessary to reverse the direction of current through the
armature with respect to the current of field circuit. This is
simply done by reversing either the armature circuit
connection with respect to the field circuit or vise versa.
Reversal of both circuit connections will produce the same
direction of rotation. Usually armature circuit selected for
several reasons:
First: the field is highly inductive circuit and frequent
reversal induces undesirable high emf.
Second: if the shunt field is reversed the series field must
also reversed, otherwise the motor will be differential
compounded.
Third: if the reversing switch is defective and field is fails
to close, the motor may "run away".
Advantages and disadvantages of D.C machines
Advantages:
Easy to understand design
Disadvantages:
Armature reaction
Commutation process
Expensive to produce
• High maintenance
Speed Control Of D.C Motor
♦ Introduction:
The speed of a DC motor is directly proportional to the
supply voltage, so if we reduce the supply voltage from 12
Volts to 6 Volts, the motor will run at half the speed. How
can this be achieved when the battery is fixed at 12 Volts?
1.1. Rheostat
1.2. Choppers
1.2-1.Single quadrant
1.2-2.Two quadrant
1.2-3.Four quadrants
2. A.C-D.C converter (Thyristor Rectifiers)
:diagram
We will start off with a very simple circuit (see the figure
below). The inductance of the field windings and the
armature windings has been lumped together and called La.
The resistance of the windings and brushes is not important
to this discussion, and so has not been drawn.
Q1 is the MOSFET. When Q1 is on, current flows
through the field and armature windings, and the motor
rotates. When Q1 is turned off , the current through an
inductor cannot immediately turn off, and so the inductor
voltage drives a diminishing current in the same direction,
which will now flow through the armature, and back through
D1 as shown by the red arrow in the figure below. If D1
wasn’t in place, a very large voltage would build up across
Q1 and blow it up.
Reversing
To reverse a DC motor, the supply voltage to the
armature must be reversed, or the magnetic field must be
reversed. In a series motor, the magnetic field is supplied
from the supply voltage, so when that is reversed, so is the
field, therefore the motor would continue in the same
direction. We must switch either the field winding’s supply,
or the armature winding’s supply, but not both.
2- Two quadrant
3- Four quadrant
•Introduction
The Induction motor is a three phase AC motor and is the most
widely used machine. Its characteristic features are-
• Construction
The stator and rotor of the induction machine both are equipped
with a symmetrical Three phase winding. Because of the symmetry
it is sufficient to take only one phase.
Every phase of the stator and the rotor winding has an active
resistance of R1 and R2, As well as a self-inductance of L1 and
L2.
The windings of the stator and the rotor are magnetically
coupled through a mutual Inductance M.
Since the current flowing in the stator winding has the frequency f1
and the current Flowing in the rotor winding has the frequency f2,
then at the rotor speed n.
• Currents induced from the stator into the rotor have f = f2
• Currents induced from the rotor into the stator have f = f1.
According to this, voltage equations for the primary and
secondary sides can be derived.
The equivalent circuit diagram after the conversion of the rotor
parameters on The stator side is presented
Fr = p (Ns-Nr)/60 = S*Fs
Where Fr = frequency of induced rotor voltage
Fs = frequency of applied stator voltage
Classes of Polyphase Induction motor
The rotor of a polyphase induction machine may be one of two
types; the squirrel cage-rotor, with alternatives for motor classes A,
B, C, D and the wound rotor.
The polyphase induction motor has a squirrel-cage rotor with a
winding consisting of conducting bars embedded in slots in the
rotor iron and short-circuited at each end by conducting end rings.
The extreme simplicity and ruggedness of the squirrel-cage
construction are outstanding advantages of this type of induction
motor and make it by far the most commonly used type of motor in
sizes ranging from fractional horsepower on up.
Design Class A:
Normal Starting Torque, Normal Starting Current, Low Slip
This design usually has a low-resistance, single-cage rotor. It
emphasizes good running performance at the expense of starting.
The full-load slip is low and the full-load efficiency is high. The
maximum torque usually is well over 200 percent of full-load torque
and occurs at a small slip (less than 20 percent). The high starting
current (500 to 800 percent of full-load current when started at
rated voltage) is the principal disadvantage of this design.
Design Class B:
Normal Starting Torque, Low Starting Current, Low Slip
This design has approximately the same starting torque as the
class-A design with but 75 percent of the starting current. Full-
voltage starting, therefore, may be used with larger sizes than with
class A. The starting current is reduced by designing for relatively
high leakage reactance, and the starting torque is maintained by
use of a double-cage or deep-bar rotor. The full-load slip and
efficiency are good, about the same as for the class A design.
However, the use of high reactance slightly decreases the power
factor and decidedly lowers the maximum torque (usually only
slightly over 200 percent of full-load torque being obtainable).
Design Class C:
High Starting Torque, Low Starting Current. This design uses a
double-cage rotor with higher rotor resistance than the class-B
design. The result is higher starting torque with low starting current
but somewhat lower running efficiency and higher slip than the class-
A and class-B designs.
Design Class D:
High Starting Torque, High Slip This design usually has a single-
cage, high-resistance rotor (frequently brass bars). It produces
very high starting torque at low starting current, high maximum
torque at 50 to 100 percent slip, but runs at a high slip at full load (7
to 11 percent) and consequently has low running efficiency.
Modes of operation
An induction machine has three operation modes:
• Motor (the rotor rotates slower than the rotation field):
M > 0, n > 0, 0 < s < 1
• Generator (the rotor rotates faster than the rotation field):
M < 0, n > n1, s < 0
• Braking operation (the rotor rotates in reverse direction to the
rotating field:
M > 0, n < 0, s > 1
Efficiency
By neglecting the copper losses in the stator R1 = 0 the efficiency
of an induction
Machine at rated operation is:
To obtain a higher rated efficiency, the rated slip Sn should be as
small as possible. In Practice, under the consideration of the stator
copper losses and the iron losses, the Efficiency reaches a value
between 0.8 - 0.95.
Single-Phase Theory
Split-Phase Motors
The split phase motor
achieves its starting capability
by having two separate
windings wound in the stator. The two windings are separated from
each other. One winding is used only for starting and it is wound
with a smaller wire size having higher electrical resistance than the
main windings. From the rotor's point of view, this time delay
coupled with the physical location of the starting winding produces
a field that appears to rotate. The apparent rotation causes the
motor to start. A centrifugal switch is used to disconnect the
starting winding when the motor reaches approximately 75% of
rated speed. The motor then continues to run on the basis of
normal induction motor principles.
Capacitor-Start Motors
Permanent-Split Capacitor
Motors
The capacitor of this motor is left in series with the starting
winding during normal operation. The starting torque is quite low,
roughly 40% of full-load, so low-inertia loads such as fans and
blowers make common
applications. Running
performance and speed
regulation can be tailored by
selecting an appropriate capacitor value. No centrifugal switch is
required.
Shaded-Pole Motors
The shaded pole motor is simple and inexpensive, but has low
efficiency and a very low starting torque. Speed regulation is poor,
and it must be fan-cooled during normal operation. Shaded-pole
motors are thus used in shaft-mounted fans and blowers, and also
small pumps, toys, and intermittently used household items.
Advantages & Disadvantages
• Advantages:
- Simple & robust construction
- Can run directly from the main supply
- Power electronic may be applied to improve the performance of
the motor
- Brushless
- Low cost and minimum maintenance
- High reliability and sufficiently high efficiency
• Disadvantages:
- Difficult model to understand and complicated to compute
simulation
- Cogging & crawling phenomenon
- Its complicate to apply speed control
Flux Vector
The flux vector control retains the Volts/Hertz core and adds
additional blocks around the core to improve the performance of
the drive. A “current resolver” attempts to identify the flux and
torque producing currents in the motor and makes these values
available to other blocks in the drive. A current regulator that more
accurately controls the motor replaces the current limit block.
Notice that the output of the current regulator is still a frequency
reference.
The early versions of Flux vector required a speed feedback
signal (typically an encoder) and also detailed information about
the motor in order to properly identify the flux and torque currents.
This led to the requirement for “matched motor/drive”
combinations.
While there is nothing inherently wrong with this approach, it does
limit the users motor choices and does not offer independent
control of motor flux and torque.
Flux vector control improves the dynamic response of the
drive and in some cases can even control motor torque as well as
motor speed. However, it still relies on the basic volts/Hertz core
for controlling the motor.
Comparison
between D.C
&A.C Drives
D.C A.C
Weight Heavy Light