Forensics and Technology: Page 1

The Effect of Technology on Forensic Science and Police Investigations

Rebecca C. Reichel
Glen Allen High School

Forensics and Technology: Page 2

Introduction
The introduction of technology has not only changed the world, but has specifically
impacted the world of forensic science and police investigation. Because there have been
myriads of advancements made due to the technological advances of the last century and a half,
this essay will focus on a few key points, specifically Fingerprint Analysis, DNA Analysis, and
Crime Scene Photography. Crime scene investigation uses these and many other techniques in
order to gather as much accurate evidence as possible; therefore, although the focus is on the
three aforementioned techniques, others will be researched and referenced as well. This will all
accumulate to discover the specific consequences technology has had on the field of forensic
science, and as a side-effect, police investigations.

History
Fingerprint Cards: Using fingerprints as a means of identification had been used for centuries. In
Babylon, fingers were pressed into clay as records for business transactions, and the people of
Ancient China used ink to identify their children or as signatures. However, it wasnt used for
forensic purposes until the late 1850s, when Sir William Herschel used fingerprints in an attempt
to reduce fraud infractions while posted in India. Then, in the 1880s, Henry Faulds was
introduced to Sir Francis Galton, a eugenicist. Galton printed a book in 1892 called Fingerprints,
outlining the first fingerprint classification system. This was also the year when fingerprints were
first used in a criminal investigation, by police officer Juan Vucetich, who named this system
comparative dactyloscopy. Within the next several years, Sir Edward Henry added to Galtons
techniques, creating the Henry Classification System, leading to the creation of Scotland Yards
first Fingerprint Bureau in 1901. In 1903, New York prisons added the use of fingerprints to their
4. The scientific study of the measurements and proportions of the human body (Google)
5. particles of organic material between 5 and 500 micrometers; found in sedimentary

deposits, organic material, or other collection sites

6. Polymerase Chain Reaction; invented by Kary Mullis

Forensics and Technology: Page 3

identification system, followed by the FBI (Watson, 2008). Fingerprints were generally not
useful to investigations unless there was already a specific suspect, and even then the process
was tedious and difficult. Each fingerprint had to be analyzed and searched for similarities to the
ones found at the crime scene, from all possible angles.
Anthropometry: Designed by Alphonse Bertillon in 1890, anthropometry1 was widely used as the
preferred method of identification for approximately 20 years until fingerprints became
accessible. At the time of his creation of this system, there was not yet a way to identify
criminals fingerprinting was in its infancy and photography in the forensic world wasnt
accessible just yet. With the help of his father, Bertillon was able to implement the 11
measurement system in 1882. Each measurement was taken three times and averaged in order to
ensure the most accurate recordings. This method died out due to several reasons, primarily of
which was the growing population size. While there was a very small chance of any two people
having the same measurements (1: 4,194,304!) at the time of its implementation, the local
population was also much smaller than they are today. Secondly, with the rise of fingerprint
analysis and a few significant errors in identification (example: theft of the Mona Lisa in 1911),
anthropometry lived a short life in the face of criminal investigations (Yeshion, 2014)
Trace Analysis: On the border between old and modern technology, scientific trace analysis
began with dust analysis, or its correct name: palynology. Palynology is the study of fossilized
and modern palynomorphs2 (Beer, 2012). Palynology can be used to identify where exactly a
person has been from the palynomorphs that can be found on their clothes. These samples can be
found through vacuuming the objects or applying a sticky substance, such as tape. For example,
if pollen from an Edelweiss flower is found on someones boots or jacket, scientists can identify
that they were in the mountains sometime fairly recently. The first recorded instance of forensic
1. The scientific study of the measurements and proportions of the human body (Google)
2. particles of organic material between 5 and 500 micrometers; found in sedimentary
deposits, organic material, or other collection sites
3. Polymerase Chain Reaction; invented by Kary Mullis

Forensics and Technology: Page 4

palynology was in a Swedish murder mystery in 1959; the various samples collected from the
victims body did not match those from the surrounding area. Therefore, it became clear that the
woman was killed in a different place than the one where she was found. In another case, this
time cold, a Hispanic male had been stabbed, had his fingers removed, and dumped at the side of
a road in Texas. Due to their lack of evidence, the police search goes cold until one of the crime
scene investigators attended a lecture about forensic palynology. After further investigation,
traces of marijuana pollen, and two non-native plant species were found on his clothing, leading
to the conclusion that he had originally been from a more northern part of Texas. The subsequent
search uncovered a drug cartel in Kansas City; although the victim was never identified, police
believe him to have been a member or otherwise connected to the drug operations (Bryant).

Modern
Fingerprint Analysis: Today, the world generally uses the AFIS system, a biometric,
identification methodology that uses digital technology to obtain, store, and analyze fingerprint
data. This can be found anywhere from the FBI to iPod passwords (Rouse, 2014). Created by
the Japanese National Police Agency in the 1980s, AFIS worked faster and more accurately than
a single person using pencil and paper. However, all files were kept by each country separately
until the creation of Integrated AFIS in 1999 (IAFIS), which shared virtually all fingerprint files
worldwide. With the creation of IAFIS, local, state, and federal agencies could access
fingerprints from all around the world within an hour (Watson, 2008)
Photography: Accurately recording what a crime scene looks like can be incredibly important
when referring to cases of any degree, although cold cases have been known to be most impacted
by the recent improvements of photo quality. Forensic photography, or crime scene photography,
1. The scientific study of the measurements and proportions of the human body (Google)
2. particles of organic material between 5 and 500 micrometers; found in sedimentary
deposits, organic material, or other collection sites
3. Polymerase Chain Reaction; invented by Kary Mullis

Forensics and Technology: Page 5

was quickly added to the tools used by investigators almost as soon as cameras were invented.
Alphonse Bertillon, a 19th century Frenchman, began the systematic photographing that is still
generally used today. Pictures are taken from various angles (aerial, mid-range, and grounded)
and distances in order to recreate the scene as accurately as possible. Essentially, forensic
photography is used to freeze the crime scene in time, giving those involved in the trial an idea
of what it originally looked like before any bodies or pieces of evidence are lifted from the crime
scene, preserv[ing]the relation of evidence to others. (Dowdey, 2008)
The creation of digital photography, and even color photography, was instrumental in the
keeping of crime scene photographs. The various advancements of cameras have helped to the
photographs produced: filters, electronic flashed, and lenses created specifically for mid-range or
close-range photographs have all added to the better quality pictures that are now produced. For
instances in which textures are most important to the case, black and white photography is used
in order to minimize any outside distractions in the form of colors. However, when giving
context to an object or focusing on the patterns between objects, color photographs are generally
used (Dowdey, 2008).
DNA Analysis: DNA profiling, or DNA analysis, is one of the most modern tools used by
criminal investigators. DNA was first identified in the mid-1900s, although the forward
progressions were generally used for genetic fingerprinting identifying paternity through DNA.
It wasnt until 1986 when British molecular biologist Alec Jeffreys used DNA to prove a 17 year
old boy was not the perpetrator of two rape-murders. The first American case proven through
DNA took place in Orange County, Florida, in 1987. DNA profiling was not largely questioned
until it became more widespread by prosecutors, leading to the creation of two admissibility
standards: the Frye standard or the Daubert Standard (Watson, 2008)
1. The scientific study of the measurements and proportions of the human body (Google)
2. particles of organic material between 5 and 500 micrometers; found in sedimentary
deposits, organic material, or other collection sites
3. Polymerase Chain Reaction; invented by Kary Mullis

Forensics and Technology: Page 6

In a 1923 court case, Frye v. United States, the Supreme Court ruled that scientific
evidence must by sufficiently established to have gained general acceptance in the particular
field in which it belongs in order to be deemed admissible. Meaning, expert testimony of
scientific evidence was only permissible if the technique was generally accepted as reliable and
relevant in the scientific community. (Orsdel, 1923) This was the basis for the Frye Standard,
although it is no longer the standard practice anymore and was replaced by the Daubert standard.
The Daubert Standard came from a later Supreme Court Case in 1993, Daubert v Merrell Dow
Pharmaceuticals, in which they stated the thing from which the deduction is made must be
sufficiently established to have gained general acceptance in the particular field in which it
belongs (Supreme Court, 1993). This is almost identical to the Frye standard, except that the
Daubert standard widened the area over which it presides. The Frye standard was generally used
for the admissibility of scientific methods. With the use of the Daubert Standard, this was
expanded to include technology and specialized testimony as well. (Admin, 2012)
At the very end of the 20th century, advances were made in the field of DNA analysis,
moving from RLFP (restriction length fragment polymorphisms) to PCR3 DNA analysis. This
came about in part from the creation of the FBIs Combined DNA Index System (CODIS),
required by the federal DNA identification Act of 1994 it placed added pressured on
laboratories to make sure the methods were sound and accurate. CODIS has been expanded upon
by various acts, including the Justice for All Act, signed by President George Bush in 2004 in
addition to promoting quality assurance, state crime labs were given access to DNA profiles,
expanding law enforcement powers at all levels of jurisdiction (History of DNA, 2010)
Odontology: Forensic odontology, dentistry, or otherwise working with teeth and teeth patterns,
ranges from the patterns within a persons mouth to the imprints they leave behind. There is a
1. The scientific study of the measurements and proportions of the human body (Google)
2. particles of organic material between 5 and 500 micrometers; found in sedimentary
deposits, organic material, or other collection sites
3. Polymerase Chain Reaction; invented by Kary Mullis

Forensics and Technology: Page 7

large amount of information that goes into a persons dental records, including any written notes,
clinical photographs, study models, drug prescriptions, and other pieces that make up a
comprehensive medical history (Charangowda, 2010). Due to the extreme hardness of enamel
(the outermost layer of the tooth and the hardest substance within the human body), dental
records are often used to identify the deceased. Only a few teeth are necessary for the positive
identification of a person. By storing and sharing these records online, identifying the bodies in
cases which go across county or state lines becomes much easier, especially if the person is not
immediately recognized. Although the teeth are examined by an individual as well, having the
dental records of hundreds of people readily available in a comparatively short period of time
reduces the likelihood of a case going cold due to a lack of identification (Freeman, 2008)
In the Chi Omega murder cases of 1978, bite marks were used as a focal part of the
prosecutors investigation (Wilson, 1989). However, just like most forensic evidence, dental
records or teeth marks are generally only a small portion of a trial. In addition, bite marks, due to
their semi-permanence and the myriad of factors that impact them, can be very difficult to use to
identify a perpetrator. Marks are among the first pieces to be collected, if any are found. Forensic
dentists must first identify it as human teeth, then swab for DNA samples and take
measurements. Extensive photographs are then taken due to a bite marks changing nature. If the
victim is deceased, the bit area is removed and preserved in formalin (contains formaldehyde) in
order for a cast to be made at a later time (Freeman, 2008)
Bite marks and dental records as evidence in prosecution trials has become more
controversial as more information has come to light. This is due to the nature of the
investigation, as forensic dentists are often told information about suspected biters before
looking for information, distorting their evidence. In addition, bite marks arent as original as
1. The scientific study of the measurements and proportions of the human body (Google)
2. particles of organic material between 5 and 500 micrometers; found in sedimentary
deposits, organic material, or other collection sites
3. Polymerase Chain Reaction; invented by Kary Mullis

Forensics and Technology: Page 8

DNA or fingerprints it can happen that multiple people have similar enough teeth sets that they
can be mistaken for each other. Due to the varying nature of bite marks, not all people are
convinced they should be a part of criminal trials. (Freeman, 2008)
Computer Forensics: Delving into the purely technical, where there is internet there are traces
web history, files (deleted or otherwise), emails, games, even sticky notes. Following the digital
revolution, the United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) created a digital
evidence program. This program was initially formed to recover information from computers
and magnetic storage media those used before our modern computers. However, as all fields,
the program has since evolved to include network servers, answering machines, GPS, palm-top
computers, and even digital watches (DEA).
In the popular police drama Criminal Minds, Agent Garcia can complete what used to be
impossible feats with her technical knowledge, such as tracking cell phones into the canyons and
retrieving data from even the most encrypted of computers. However, even she has faced some
minds capable of scrambling their technology to be irretrievable. As Steve Burgess answered his
student, Theres always a race between how harmful software and cyber-marauders can be and
the defenses against them In most cases, people will continue to forget to hide or cover all of
their tracks and there will still usually be evidence to find. (Burgess, 2009) Even as our ability
to find and apprehend technology grows, so too do the counter-measures. This entire field,
however, is barely twenty years old and therefore there remains much to be seen before
conjectures can really be made with any solid evidence.

Future

1. The scientific study of the measurements and proportions of the human body (Google)
2. particles of organic material between 5 and 500 micrometers; found in sedimentary
deposits, organic material, or other collection sites
3. Polymerase Chain Reaction; invented by Kary Mullis

Forensics and Technology: Page 9

Forensics in general isnt as scientific as the scientists would like; there needs to be more
research and that means more government spending. In order to be granted these funds, there
needs to be an acknowledged government interest for these changes, otherwise cases will
continue to be based on conclusions not justified by science (Madren, 2013). The Innocence
Project, dedicated to overturning wrongful convictions, reports invalidated or improper
forensics in more than half of the cases, helping to promote the need for better researched and
standardized tests in all areas of forensic science.
DNA Analysis: Last year, a company called QuantuMD came out with one of the first
commercialized handheld laboratories, called the Q-POCTM. Despite its small size, it can create
an accurate drug resistance analysis and rapid response diagnostic in 10-15 minutes. Each test
costs between $15-20, as each test uses a separate disposable test cartridges, and the actual
instrument costs about as much as a smart phone, making it an affordable future option.
(QuantoMD, 2014). NEC, the Nippon Electric Company, has created one as well, so if capitalism
runs its course, the technology will hopefully be expanded upon as accurately as possible before
it hits mass markets, in order to avoid the potential for hastily created devices overshadowing
more expensive and better working devices. For more information about how it works, a
brochure outlining the basic ideas of a hand-held DNA analyzer will be attached in the footnotes
(NEC, 2014).
One of the major issues with DNA testing is the lack of really stable standards for how
the tests should be performed. Improvements on the standards continue to be made, with the
most recent being implemented in 2009. From the worlds largest scientific society, member Jay
Siegel explains some of the problems with forensic DNA testing: We do a lot of evidence
analysis using methods that have not been scientifically validated, and we dont have a lot of
1. The scientific study of the measurements and proportions of the human body (Google)
2. particles of organic material between 5 and 500 micrometers; found in sedimentary
deposits, organic material, or other collection sites
3. Polymerase Chain Reaction; invented by Kary Mullis

Forensics and Technology: Page 10

agreement on what methods should be used for evaluating certain types of evidence. (Madren,
2013). This insecurity is not the best way to introduce what could become one of the most crucial
aspects of criminal investigation but it also emphasizes where this field could go. If so much
progress has been made without the help of strict global standards and government funding, the
possibilities of their effects are exhilarating.
Phenotyping: A subfield within the world of forensic DNA analysis, forensic phenotyping
focuses on what can be learned about a person from their DNA hair and eye color, hand
dominance, if they are at a higher risk for cancer or not, and so on. Rather than looking solely
into the short tandem repeats (STRs) of DNA analysis, scientists are retrieving single nucleotide
polymorphisms (SNPs) in order to create a description of a criminal. Depending on the SNP,
these can identify a persons heritage, hair, eye, or skin color. However, factors such as
environmental changes nutritional conditions, and changing physical appearances (such as dying
your hair or shaving your head) can complicate the final determination or serve as masks.
(Sundquist, 2010).
Palm Prints: A subcategory of fingerprints, palm prints are often encountered on crime scenes,
but cannot be analyzed due the lack of comparable evidence. Palm prints constitute
approximately 30% of all latent prints found at crime scenes already, and although there are
methods which use palm prints, they only use full-to-full palm print matching. In order for this
method to become obviously useful to police investigations, latent-to-full palm print
identification would need to be researched and applied. In addition, better methods of transport
and image quality need to be implemented an algorithm to reliably estimate the local ridge
direction and frequency in palm prints has already been developed for use (Feng and Jain,

1. The scientific study of the measurements and proportions of the human body (Google)
2. particles of organic material between 5 and 500 micrometers; found in sedimentary
deposits, organic material, or other collection sites
3. Polymerase Chain Reaction; invented by Kary Mullis

Forensics and Technology: Page 11

2009). Despite the difficulties this method could pose, missing as much as 30% of the evidence
present at a crime scene could prove to create worse hardships.

Conclusion:
Due to the fact that this is a research-based question, there isnt much controversy
regarding many, if any, of the topics researched within this paper. Generally, however, the
sources agree that advancements have been greatly furthered by technology, even something as
simple as a color-camera. By using machines, accumulation, assessment, and accuracy of
evidence has increased exponentially, only helped by the international cooperation of all
countries. Although there is the danger that an incredibly tech-savvy individual or group could
break into police databases from around the world (due to the internet not necessarily being the
most secure of places), measures are in place through world-wide governments and enforcement
agencies to prohibit such an occurrence from happening. Overall, technology has created a form
of law enforcement across the globe that grows ever more accurate, creating a safer home for
everyone.

1. The scientific study of the measurements and proportions of the human body (Google)
2. particles of organic material between 5 and 500 micrometers; found in sedimentary
deposits, organic material, or other collection sites
3. Polymerase Chain Reaction; invented by Kary Mullis

Forensics and Technology: Page 12

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1. The scientific study of the measurements and proportions of the human body (Google)
2. particles of organic material between 5 and 500 micrometers; found in sedimentary
deposits, organic material, or other collection sites
3. Polymerase Chain Reaction; invented by Kary Mullis

Forensics and Technology: Page 13

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1. The scientific study of the measurements and proportions of the human body (Google)
2. particles of organic material between 5 and 500 micrometers; found in sedimentary
deposits, organic material, or other collection sites
3. Polymerase Chain Reaction; invented by Kary Mullis