Modals in the Past

can't have

could

could have

couldn't

couldn't
have

didn't need
to

had to

may have

may not have

might
have

might not
have

must have

needn't have

ought not to
have

ought to
have

should have

shouldn't
have

would have

would not

certainty

can't have

e.g. I can't have lost my keys! (I'm sure I

didn't)

permission

could

e.g. When I was a teenager, I could go

out as late as I wanted.
general ability
e.g. Tom could walk by the age of 8
months.

possibility, but did not happen

could have

e.g. I could have passed my driving test if

I'd really tried.
uncertainty
e.g. I guess it could have been Sandra on
the phone.

permission

couldn't

e.g. When I was a teenager, I couldn't

stay out as late as I wanted.
general ability
e.g. I couldn't walk until I was 2.
ability in a particular situation
e.g. I tried hard but I couldn't persuade
him to go to the party with us.

possibility/ability

couldn't have

e.g. I couldn't possibly have passed my

driving test, even if I'd tried harder.
uncertainty
e.g. It couldn't have been Sandra on the

phone, could it?

with comparative adjectives
e.g. I couldn't have asked for better
weather on my wedding day.
unwillingness
e.g. I couldn't have left the dog in the
car for long (so I didn't).

unnecessary action not done

didnt need to

e.g. As I was alone this weekend, I didn't

need to do any cooking (so I didn't).

obligation (past form of must)

had to

e.g. I couldn't go out last night because I

had to do my homework.

uncertainty

may have

e.g. I guess I may have been a bit hard on

her when she came home an hour late.

uncertainty

may not have

e.g. He may not have found out yet that

he has passed the test.

possibility (didn't happen)

might have

e.g. You might have been killed!

uncertainty
e.g. I guess I might have been a bit hard
on her when she came home an hour late.
annoyance at someone's failure to do
something
e.g. You might have told me that you had
invited all your colleagues round for
dinner!
might have known + would (idiom to
ironically express that somebody's action
was typical)
e.g. I might have known that he would
finish with me as soon as he found out I
wasn't wealthy!

might not
have

uncertainty
e.g. He may not have found out yet that
he has passed the test.

certainty

must have

e.g. He must have known how much it was

going to cost. (I'm sure he knew.)
with surely in exclamations
e.g. Surely he must have known how much
it was going to cost!

unnecessary action that was actually

done

needn't have

ought not to
have

e.g. Oh, you needn't have done the

washing up!

criticism (more common is shouldn't have)

e.g. You ought not to have been so frank
with him.

ought to have

expectation (should have is more

common)
Why is she late? She ought to have
arrived by now!

expectation

should have

Why is she late? She should have arrived

by now!
should have + verbs of thinking
e.g. I should have thought you knew.
with be and adjectives, describing chance
e.g. It was weird that you should have
been staying in the same hostel last
month.
criticism (you didn't do something, but it
would have been the right thing to do)
e.g. The party was such fun last night!
You should have come!

shouldn't have

criticism
e.g. You shouldn't have been so frank with

him.
polite expression of thanks on receiving a
gift or favour
"Here's a bottle of wine for you"
"Oh, you really shouldn't have!"

events in the past that did not happen

would have

e.g. I wouldn't have gone out with him,

but he didn't ask me.
assumptions
e.g. Oh, that would have been Sarah on
the phone just now.

unwillingness

would not

e.g. I asked Tom to close the window, but

he wouldn't do it.