fe Daniel Lim PMG ‘A2 Biology 9700 - Chapter L~ Energy & Respiration Peter Ting INTRODUCTION: This chapter explores the fisndamental process of energy harvesting within cells to provide the simple and basic requirements of ‘metabolic reactions happening inthe bod. Ge wee rye) ° “Sesily ner the ably todo work, ergy an eange for work bere k . - ae mrolecile, universal ene cunengy molecile. ° @ °e | " zi ieee To get AR in exam fi heed oe @ liege energy prior werk ‘ere a far you ltrs mow) Intranet rom onesie the ther. “Where he energy comes from and howe ended insets becomes tapes ‘our dlacarsion this chapter. a1 eer caren msec ofthe ‘Phe undamentalsymhesie of ATP Is the nergy released fe the odio of Glucose + Onygen «= HO + Energy + CO ‘Own notes‘A2 Biology 9700 ~ Chapter .~ Energy & Respiration Peter Ting. sguenatiecmcsorertinacancimmes, HEGUBEHREEEVou need to understand why living organisms require energy. The answer to this starting question will give you a reason why you need to learn about the upcoming processes and reactions about ATP production, All living organisms require energy to sustain work. Energy is all about performing work. Reason 1: {the synthesis 6f complex substances from simpler oned (anabolic reactions). Eg, Making polypeptides from amino acids. Reason 2: The active transport of substances against a concentration gradient. EgSadnepotassiim pomp. Flin pangs reqive mgy ta werk. — Reason 3: Mechanical work such as the beating of cilia, movement Of sperm, contraction of skeletal muscle, pseudopods movement in amoeba and movement of vesicles Reason 4: Bioluminescence and electrical discharge ~ Luciferin, is a small molecule substrate, which can be found in a most common firefly species, Lampyridae. This molecule can be catalytically oxidized by the luciferase enzyme, which yields a chemiluminescent reaction. But firstly the luciferin must be converted into a form which the luciferase can bind to, The conversion is possible n the presence of ATP. ATP + wtusiterin+ 0, AMP + PPL + LIGHT tar 6a it ay ape EE 6 2 ye RGPIBORITINow that you have understood WHY living organisms require energy, and that energy can only released by ATP, itis time-to learn and understand what is ATP and why ie is given the term as "energy currency molecule” Phos phaeyletin (+ Fi) Process: of adding inorganic phusphyte ts a compo ‘Comment (5: F¥@- ‘Stator November 2010/41/010(8) Essays Outline he need for ener 10 Own notes living organisms using named examples Mapes ey be ees)‘A2 Biology 9700 - Chapter .~ Energy & Respiration Peter Ting, [ATP {s known as adenosine triphosphate, The ATP isa nucleotide composed of; 1. adenine (a nitrogenous base) 2, ribose (the 5-carbon or pentose sugar found in RNA} and 3. three phosphate groups. ‘The kombination of adenine with ribosd makes adenosine. if one phosphate ‘group is attached we have adenosine monophosphate (AMP). if a second Phosphate becomes attached we have adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and a third | COMMarE IGE enone abe phosphate gives us ATP.ATP isan unstable molectle. ‘Stans regen ha) comne wth ose ah [Comment [7 Why ATP sss usta? ‘nrrisan unable mec wh Presreernon nt Ipdrotyes to ADP and nora espa we Z W So INAS ‘when it is in equilibria with water, The iAt YY ! NN ete las pele e Aan, " " ce Upon learning the structure of ATP, you must answer the following most important question, "Why ATP Is considered as the energy currency) molecule of the cell?” These are he 5 point — Fh Enis (Comment {8} What icenergy currency 11. Small and soluble..E859{10,tetiepock. ont; sseneray storage? ily hydvoiysed...0%., One. Pole. is. Oy ery fee crate) bus ‘hergy mac concerted tet ATP ‘ation belre ts ava wed Dyce ATP primary tem for eno‘A2 Biology 9700 ~ Chapter L.~ Energy & Respiration Peter Ting, eee \s discussed in the previous section, the term energy currency must hhave the following criteria; + Existfora short term + Basily made/hydrolysed ‘+ Released a sufficient amount of energy for the ell to work + Unstable REISER ne fundamental process of ATP synthesis is summarized in this ssquation; ATP= ADP + Pi ‘“**The reason why ATP can deliver energy to cells is because the energy stored in ATP comes from the energy released by food (glucose) when it is broken down in respiration. This energy is quickly trapped within the phosphate bonds in ATP, where upon hydrolysis, this energy can be released** Looking at this in detail, blectron and energy has alot of implications together. Let's look at a few facts about electrons; + Electrons are found at different distances from the nucleus in energy levels. + Farther from the nucleus = higher energy levels = higher amount of energy ‘+ Bnergy is released as electrons move down an energy level (and vice versa) + If electrons are transferred from one substance to another, energy is transferred as well This is REDOX reaction, ‘The main idea of cellular respiration is that energy found in the electrons from the food we eat can be transferred through a series of redox reactions to eventually be used to join ADP + Pi yielding ATP, This electron transport ‘occurs in the membrane system ofthe inner mitochondrion, cristae. Own notes ADP +? = ATP hesphorylation sivas a Ppl ton Phesphoryeton pphetn Cece in phetayethesis) ~ ie 7 AN ynties rt Lin Seren ey) ‘Comment [105 F¥0- ‘October/November 2008/4/Q6(6)- APIs deserved shaving universal ‘rela the energy crreney avin croutons. Spa yt deed a‘A2 Biology 9700 - Chapter .~ Energy & Respiration Peter Ting o> ae SBBBEEMEs ness of ATP is an act of phosphorylation. Phosphorylation UG a describes « process that adds a Pi to a compound, Since the synthesis of ATP reduced. NAD involves the coupling a Pl to an ADP, therefore tis act i also known as (iii ee) LM on phosphorylation. There are two ways how phosphorylation can occur which ou 26-48) feventualy lead to the production of ATP. They are; Rls use Credeced. NAL) ‘Comment [13]: There are pharesin the SP 1. Substrate level phosphorylation (SLP) | Synthesis of ATP relies on breaking down substrate with enzymes. 2, Oxidative phosphorylation (OF) ~ Synthesis of ATP relies on the ‘transport of electrons, through a membrane. 2 fair lycolysis ~ Occurs in the cell cytoplasm in both aerobic and anaerobic | conditions. = Oxidation of glucose to pyruvate. One molecule glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate = Does not require the presence of oxygen ‘The process is divided into several tages, as futrated inthe igure below. 1 Glaage - 6C The wa CE Omyr@ 4 tyre — 3. pee “There & ko hse . ayy ae veadee (WH Gage 2 pret cet asl Ree, 4 2D wees) ‘energy investment produces i. TAT wel 2 Nh | 2 {bh ob ne st eae Ge tak @ SO Nok gain in ATT? 2 1. Glucose is phosphorylated, ic. ATP is used to add a phosphate group to slucose. This makes the glucose more reactive, allowing itto be broken down. A Sie carbon (6C) phosphorylated sugar is produced called fructose 1.6 vs bs bisphosphate. ce4G tn GAO ‘Own notes 1 WE ye SUP: 5 Oxidetve, ee a ee te O Glucose —> GHycolsis Ceyfiplss) LNAD'] f Broken down Creceives H or e) ® [yrvate — Link veaction (matrix) A ieales MAD fhe one oe | Broken dove of AT ei lyslsis, LR and KC dabes Gi => Yon . place, e are released an} G peety) CoA —> Krebs aycle ( marvin) cased NAD 4s the ilar where txidation Yalkes place.‘A2 Biology 9700 ~ Chapter L~ Energy & Respiration Peter Ting 2. The fructose 1,6 bisphosphate undergo lysis into two molecules of a 3C sugar phosphate called Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate / Triose Phosphate (TP) 3. Hydrogen is removed from each ofthe TP molecules, ie. the TP molecules are ‘oxidized. The hydrogen is passed to NAD, a coenzyme that, by definition, is said to be reduced. Remember - any substance that gains oxygen or loses hyragen or electrons is said tobe oxidised, Any substance that loses oxygen or gains hydrogen or electrons is said to be reduced. The enzymes, which remove hydrogen from substances, are called dehydrogenases, The hydrogen atoms picked up by NAD are used to generate four molecules of ATP. The removal of hydrogen from TP produces pyruvic acid (Pay, Dehydrogenation, NAD and dehydrogenases. ADlas cofactor/coemzyme, A nonprotein component of enzymes is called the cofactor. Ifthe cofactor is ‘organic, then itis called a coenzyme. Coenzymes are relatively small molecules compared to the protein part of the enzyme. Many of the coenzymes are derived from vitamins. ‘The coenzymes make up a part of the active site and since without the coenzyme, the enzyme will not function. Dehydrogenase ‘An enzyme that oxidizes the substrate and results in the removal of two hydrogen ions (dehydrogenation) and two electrons which are added to the NADY, converting t to NADH and Ht" ve Ris, buo® "Space oxidition GUEIonce glycolysis ts complete tn the cytoplasm, what happens to Pyruvate wl actly depen er wether theres aah onesie idl the system, Own notes Cotidises) Fer a substrate apin O/ loge H, HF requires engyme ard ery me, Cdabyewensse) (iho) NAD gets reduced G38 TA) releases Redwced NAD gets riaised ae because of thee © Ww oxygen , redteed NAD cannot be ga. 1k an) obs.‘A2 Biology 9700 ~ Chapter L.~ Energy & Respiration Peter Ting as ‘ayes Ma a ae 52 Pecarbexsltion /Debydregntin| * why Pyrevede Only enters the mitch elie —inveWies remevel oF C00 when tea is sxggen ston aise Ceara) group) ang H = Unk. reaction stops. ~fyrinig is MhetinkReaction F¢lease 2 reduced WAD (| by each pyrevety) wine fh michele 2° in this reaction, pyruvate Is converted to a two-carbon acetyl group = Me auentrton attached to coenzyme A j¢el. 3 This redox reaction removes electrons from pyruvate by dehydrogenase 3 g,, _ using NADs as coenayme, Carbon dioride and hydrogen are removed [yrovate tess from the PA by decarboxylase and dehydrogenase enzymes respectively. » ‘im ayhplsm fF The VA is combined with coesayme A (CoA) to form a 2C compound 2. seg. cilledacetylonensyme A Lea navy epee OP conidative because an It fs removed; decarboxylation because a CO? is removed. 5. Reaction occurs twice foreach original glucose molecule Se: |... UW - perf) As each of the two acetyl CoA matecules enter the Krebs Cyele itis Joined to 2 4-carhon molecule (ovloacetate) w form 2 G-carbon Aceh -Coh Cltrate ‘molecule called citrate (citric acid). Kreb Cycle = Citric Acid Cycle. (29) fo 60) > The purpose ofthe Krebs Cycle isto remove electrons and hydrogen fons from the citrate, Joining the electrons and hydrogen ions with [NAD+ and FAD+ to form reduced NAD and reduced FAD. These are the + Oxaloacetuie molecules that cary the electrons tothe electron transport chain in (4 e thecristae > Thecycle aims to regenerate oxaloacetate asthe Kreb Cycle proceeds. ‘Owanotes Witheet acefil-Gh, Krebs ale Shps Feb yc products —3 redeces MAD — 1 reduced FAD for each SMT actlyl-af F2 Co,, As cittate & braken down, decarbezyeion ocaurs twice.‘A2 Biology 9700 ~ Chapter L~ Energy & Respiration Peter Ting Toomnerconeen’ or ‘The crTmIC ACIO CYCLE loecomes be creed is is an important section before we discuss about oxidative phosphorylation. The reason SLP is studied is to provide an explanation of how ATP can be made, but on top of that, it provide an explanation about electrons and its role in ATP synthesis. The role of electrons can be fully explained in ‘oxidative phosphorylation, the last step of ATP synthesis. However, you must understand where these electrons come from. The broductslor outcomes of SLP are as follow: ‘Comment [18] Freer mole of ‘Sica broken SL wel generate > ATP production > Release of electrons and H ions (dehydrogenation) (© Stored in carriers, eg. NAD and FAD > Release of CO2 (decarboxylation) ‘o_ Expelled in the alveoli through gaseous exchanj reduces NAD Breteed FAD cnr = Now les igure ot tere al hat (scat ome on 2-Gyalis D reduced res 8 reduce. Whe Glycolysis can sl continue inthe absence of oxygen Pyruvate doesn't enter mitochondria but remainsin the etoplasm ‘The gestions, what can pyruvate do in the cytoplasm? "Own notes‘A2 Biology 9700 ~ Chapter L.~ Energy & Respiration Peter Ting (a) Lactic acid fermentation occurs in humans. ap ATP oe 2a’ _2NADH 2 Pyruvate 2 Glucose ==. ‘No intermediate; pyruvate accepts ‘electrons from NADH 2 Lactate (b) Alcohol fermentation occurs in yeast. jucose is not only the respiratory substrate. In fact all carbohydrates, lipid and proteins can be used as respiratory substrate and produce energy. Energy values of different respiratory substrates ‘Comment [22 Why does as ate we Zogecucucnes apa quaten for snore ‘Own notes u{2 Biology 9700 ~ Chapter L.- Energy & Respiration Peter Ting AREBBBIREE is possible to get a good idea of which respiratory substrate the cells n an organism are using by measuring the volume of oxygen itis taking in Sand the volume of earbon diorde its giving out ‘The RQ is calculated as follows; volume of CO, produced volume of O, consumed Difierent substances/substrates give different RQ value. permit time RQ= Qs for different substrates undergoing aerobic respiration ‘REIBBAREEE Wil be discussed during practical 2