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Configuration and Power Effects

on Flight Stability
Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics, MAE 331,
2010

Wing design
Empennage design
Effects of angle-of-attack rate
Aerodynamic coefficient
estimation and measurement
Power Effects

Goals for Design

Shape of the airplane


determined by its purpose
Handling, performance,
functioning, and comfort
Agility vs. sedateness
Control surfaces adequate to
produce needed moments
Center of mass location
too far forward increases
unpowered control-stick forces
too far aft degrades static
stability

Copyright 2010 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only.
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE331.html
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/FlightDynamics.html

Configuration Driven By The


Mission and Flight Envelope

Airplane Balance
Conventional aft-tail configuration
c.m. near wing's aerodynamic center (point at which wing's
pitching moment coefficient is invariant with angle of attack
~25% mac)

Tailless airplane: c.m. ahead of the neutral point

Northrop N-9M

Douglas DC-3

Airplane Balance

Configuration Effects Can Be Evaluated


via Approximate Dynamic Models

Canard configuration:

Neutral point moved forward by canard surfaces


Center of mass may be behind the neutral point, requiring
closed-loop stabilization

Fly-by-wire feedback control can expand envelope


of allowable center-of-mass locations (e.g., openloop instability

Phugoid Mode
Short-Period Mode

! n " gLV / VN ; # "

%
L (
! n " # ' M$ + M q $ * ; + "
V )
&
N

Grumman X-29

Dutch Roll Mode

! nDR " N # 1 $
% DR

Yr

VN + N r

Y
&
)
" $ ( Nr + # V +
'
N*

McDonnell-Douglas X-36

Roll Mode

Spiral Mode

DV
2 gLV / VN
% L$
(
'& V # M q *)
N

%
L (
2 # ' M$ + M q $ *
VN )
&

Y#

VN

2 N# 1 $

Yr

Wing Design Effects

Planform

Aspect ratio
Sweep
Taper
Complex geometries
Shape at root
Shape at tip

Chord section
Airfoils
Twist

Movable surfaces
Leading- and trailing-edge devices
Ailerons
Spoilers

Interfaces
Fuselage
Powerplants
Dihedral angle

Y#

VN

$ #V '
! Roll " L p " Cl p & N ) Sb 2
% 4I xx (

However, important mode-coupling terms, e.g., MV and L!,


are neglected

Wing Design Parameters

VN + N r

!Spiral " 0

Effects of Wing Aspect Ratio

Lift slope

C L!wing =

" AR

Swept Wing
C L! =

Pitching moment slope

$ Static Margin (%) '


Cm! " #C L!total &
)(
%
100

2
)
# AR & ,
.
+1 + 1 + %
(
$ 2 ' .
+*
-

Lift-to-drag ratio

Sweep Reduces Subsonic Lift Slope

Neglecting air compressibility


Angles of attack below stall

C Ltotal
D = C + !C 2
Do
L

total

(C

Lo

+ C L" "

C L! =

Wing with taper

(C )
l p

wing

! p

C L$ & 1 + 3% )
= # wing (
+
12 ' 1 + % *

(C )
l p

Wing

Sweep also increases the


dihedral effect of the wing
(TBD)

C L! ,Cm! ,Cl p ,Cl"

[Incompressible flow]

2" 2 cot # LE
(" + $ )

m = cot # LE cot &


# LE , & : measured from y axis

Sweep Effect on Wing Moment


Coefficient (about the 1/4 chord)
!c/4 = 0

Low " center of pressure (c.p.)


is in front of the quarter chord
Stable break at stall (c.p. moves
aft)

Stall

!c/4 = 15

Low " c.p. is aft of the quarterchord


Stable break at stall (c.p. moves
aft)

Roll damping
Static margin

2
+
$ AR ' .
-1 + 1 +
0
& 2 cos # ) 0
%
14(
-,
0/

0/

where $ = m 0.38 + 2.26m % 0.86m 2

" AR
=!
32

!c/4 = sweep angle of quarterchord


Sweep moves subsonic lift
distribution toward the wing
tips

" AR

) 00

Thin triangular wing

Sweep Effect on Wing


Subsonic Lift Distribution

Triangular Wing

total

#$C Do + ! C L2 %&
total

Roll damping

! ( "Cl )wing

" AR
2
+
$ AR '
2
-1 + 1 +
& 2 cos # ) 1 * M cos #1 4
%
(
14
-,

CL(")

!c/4 = 30

Low " c.p. is aft of the quarterchord


Unstable break at stall (c.p.
moves forward)
Swept outboard wing stalls
before inboard wing (tip stall)

NACA TR-1339

Cm(")

30 swept wing exhibits


pitch-up instability

Pitch Up

Shortal-Maggin
Longitudinal
Stability Boundary
for Swept Wings

Crossplot CL vs. Cm to obtain plots such as those shown on previous slide


Positive break in Cm is due to forward movement of net center of pressure,
decreasing static margin

North American F-100

Stable or unstable pitch


break at the stall
Stability boundary is
expressed as a function of

AR

Aspect ratio
Sweep angle of the
quarter chord
Taper ratio
F-100 crash due to tip stall
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NyJkKcXYqSU&feature=related

Cm!
!c/4

Taper Ratio Effects

Republic
XF-91

Taper makes lift


distribution more
elliptical
# ~ 0.45 is best
L/D effect (phugoid)

Tip stall (pitchup)


Bending stress
Roll Damping

(C )
l p

wing

=!

C L"wing $ 1 + 3# '
&
)
12 % 1 + # (

Republic XF-91

Cm!
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XF-91

NACA TR-1339

Sweep Effect on
Thickness Ratio

Airfoil Effects
Camber increases zero-" lift
coefficient C L
Thickness

increases " for stall and


softens the stall break
reduces subsonic drag
increases transonic drag
causes abrupt pitching
moment variation (more to
follow)

Grumman F-14

Profile design
can reduce c.p. (static
margin) variation with "
affects leading-edge and
trailing-edge flow separation

Cm!
from Asselin

Wing Twist Effects

Wing Location and Angle Effects

Washout twist
reduces tip angle of
attack
typical value: 2 - 4
changes lift distribution
(interplay with taper ratio)
reduces likelihood of tip
stall; allows stall to begin
at the wing root
separationburble
produces buffet at tail
surface, warning of stall

improves aileron
effectiveness at high "
Cl! A

Vertical location of the wing,


dihedral angle, and sweep
Sideslip induces yawing motion
Unequal lift on left and right
wings induces rolling motion

Lateral-directional (spiral mode)


stability effect (TBD) Cl
!

Effects of Secondary
Wing Structures

Vortex generators, fences, vortilons,


notched or dog-toothed wing leading edges
Boundary layer control
Maintain attached flow with increasing "
Avoid tip stall
McDonnell-Douglas F-4

Cm! ,C L!

Effects of Leading-Edge
Extensions

Strakes or leading edge extensions


Maintain lift at high "
Reduce c.p. shift at high Mach number

McDonnell Douglas F-18

General Dynamics F-16

LTV F-8

Sukhoi Su-22

Wingtip Design Effects

Winglets, rake, and Hoerner tip reduce induced drag by


controlling the tip vortices C D!
End plate, wingtip fence straightens flow, increasing apparent
aspect ratio (L/D)
Chamfer produces favorable roll w/ sideslip (spiral mode, TBD)
Boeing 747-400

Airbus A319

Boeing P-8A

Yankee AA-1

Tail Design Effects

Cm! ,C L!

Tail Design
Effects

Modes Strongly Affected


By The Empennage

Aerodynamics analogous to
those of the wing
Longitudinal stability

Horizontal stabilizer
Short period natural frequency
and damping

Short-Period Mode (horizontal tail)


%
L (
! n " # ' M$ + M q $ *
VN )
&

Directional stability

Vertical stabilizer (fin)

Ventral fins
Strakes
Leading-edge extensions
Multiple surfaces
Butterfly (V) tail

%L
(
+ " ' $ # Mq*
& VN
)

Dutch roll natural frequency and


damping

Stall or spin prevention/


recovery
Avoiding rudder lock (TBD)

! nDR " N # + N r

Horizontal Tail
Location and Size

15-30% of wing area


~ wing semi-span behind the c.m.
Requirement to trim neutrally stable airplane at maximum lift in ground
effect
Effect on short period mode
Horizontal Tail Volume: Typical value = 0.48
Lockheed Martin F-35

VH =

Y#

VN

Y
&
)
$ DR " % ( N r + # V +
'
N*

Cm! ,Cmq ,Cm!! ,Cn" ,Cnr ,Cn"!

Sht lht
S c

North American F-86

Sht lht
= !C Ltail VH
S c
where !C Ltail is referenced to horizontal tail area

!Cmtail = !C Ltail

Cm! ,Cmq ,Cm!! ,Cn" ,Cnr ,Cn"!

Dutch Roll Mode (vertical tail)

North American P-51

%
L (
2 # ' M$ + M q $ *
VN )
&

2 N# + Nr

Y#

VN

Weathervane and damping effects

Vertical Tail Location


and Size

Analogous to horizontal tail volume


Effect on Dutch roll mode
Powerful rudder for spin recovery
Full-length rudder located behind the elevator
High horizontal tail so as not to block the flow over the rudder

Vertical Tail Volume: Typical value = 0.18


Piper Tomahawk

Curtiss SB2C

S l
VV = vt vt
S b

Svt lvt
= !C Ltail VV
S c
where !C Ltail is referenced to vertical tail area

!Cntail = !C Ltail

Distinction Between Angle of


Attack Rate and Pitch Rate
Vertical velocity distribution
induced by pitch rate

Apparent Mass and


Unsteady Aerodynamics

! Vertical heaving (or plunging)


motion of the c.m., produces
angle-of-attack rate with no
pitch rate

Angle-of-AttackRate Has Two


Effects
! Pressure variations at wing
convect downstream,
arriving at tail "t sec later
! Lag of the downwash
produces delayed taillift/pitch-moment effect

! Vertical force opposed by a


mass of air (apparent
mass) as well as the mass
of the airplane
! Vertical acceleration
produces added lift and
moment

!! = q

! With no vertical motion of the


c.m., pitch rate and angle-ofattack rate are the same

!! " 0 " q; q = 0

Incorporating Angle-of-Attack-Rate
Effects in the Short-Period Equations
! Lift and pitching moment affected by
angle-of-attack rate
!q! = M q !q + M " !" + M # E !# E + M "! !"!

( ) (

( )

( ) (

L
%
(
L
L
L
!"! = ' 1 $ q V * !q $ " V !" $ # E V !# E $ "! V !"!
&
N)
N
N
N

! Bring effects to left side


!q! " M #! !#! = M q !q + M # !# + M $ E !$ E

( )

L
%
(
L
L
L
!#! + #! V !#! = ' 1 " q V * !q " # V !# " $ E V !$ E
&
N
N)
N
N

! Vector-matrix form
#
&
# 1
Mq
!M "!
( # )q! & %
%
=
( % *
Lq L"!
%
#
& (%
% 0 $%1 +
VN '( ( %$ )"! (' % ,+ 1 ! VN /.
'
$
$

( )

M"

( )
L"

VN

&
#
M0E
( # )q & %
+
( %
(%
L0 E
( %$ )" (' % !
VN
$
'

&
(
( )0 E
(
'

Incorporating Angle-of-AttackRate Effects in Dynamic Equations


! Pre-multiply both sides by inverse
)1

& #
# 1
Mq
)M "!
# !q! & %
( %
=
( %
%
Lq L"!
#
& ( % *
%$ !"! (' % 0 %1 +
VN '( ( % ,+ 1 ) VN /.
$
' $
$

M"

( )

( )
L"

VN

&
#
M0E
( # !q & %
+
( %
(%
L0 E
( %$ !" (' % )
VN
$
'

&
(
( !0 E
(
'

( )

( )

L"!
#
&
%$1 +
VN (' M "!
0
1

( )

L
#
&
1 + "! V (
N '
$%

! Substitute
#
%
%
# !q! & %$
(=
%
%$ !"! ('

( )

L"!
#
&
%$1 +
VN (' M "!
0
1

( )

L
#
&
1 + "! V (
N '
$%

( )

! (s) =

Lq and L!!

+ M "!
1

( )}
( )

M " ) M "!
)

L"

VN

VN

&
#
L
M * E ) M "! * E V
(#
& %
N
( % !q ( + %
( % !" ( %
L* E
'
$
)
(
%
VN
('
$

* but not for small aircraft, e.g., R/C models and micro-UAVs

( )

&
(
( !6 E
(
(
'

! Short-period characteristic polynomial

&
(
( !* E
(
(
'

( )
( )

&
$ s " M q + M #! & " $ M # " M #! L#
%
'
(%
VN )'
$
(% s +

"1

{M

&
(
( !0 E
('

With Lq and L!! = 0

M q and M !! are same order of magnitude

L"

VN

( )

# #
L
L
&
% %1 + "! V ( M 6 E ) M "! 6 E V
N '
N
+% $
%
L6 E
)
%
VN
$

and have larger effects

#
# !q! & %
("%
%
%
$% !"! (' %
%$

L"

( )

( )

&
(
(
(
'

Lq and L!! have small effects for large aircraft*

! Neglecting

&
# M0E
( # !q & %
( + % )L0 E
(%
( %$ !" (' %
VN
$
'

M"

! Multiply matrices

Simplification of Angle-of-AttackRate Effects


! Typically

&
(
(#
Mq
(%
'
% *
Lq % +, 1 ) VN ./
$

# 0#
L
3 &
*
- 3 0#
L
L
L
&
&
% 1 %1 + "!
M q + M "! , 1 ) q V / 4 1 %1 + "! V ( M " ) M "! " V 4 (
(
V
# !q! &
+
.
N
N
N
N
1
'
'
5 ( # !q &
% 2$
5 2$
(=
%
( % !" (
&%
L
('
%$ !"! (' #1 + L"!
*
L
q
( %$
) "V
, 1 ) V ./
VN (' %
$%
+
N
N
('
%$

! Inverse of the apparent mass matrix


#
%
!1
%
&
# 1
!M "!
%
(
%
$
L"!
%
#
& ( =
0
1
+
%
VN '( (
$%
'
$

Incorporating Angle-of-AttackRate Effects in Dynamic Equations

( )

L#

&
VN )'

*$
$ L
&
= s 2 + ( # V " M q + M #! ) s + + ( M # " M q + M #!
N
%
'
,%

( )

)( L

( )

L#
&
VN )' + M #!
VN ./

! Damping is increased
! Natural frequency is unaffected

( )

( )

*$
L
$ L
'
'! ( s ) = s 2 + & " V # M q + M "! ) s + + & M " # M q " V ) .
N
N (/
%
(
,%

= s 2 + 201 n s + 1 n2 = 0

( )

L
L
$
& $
&
= $% s " M q + M #! &' ( s + # V ) " ( M # " M #! # V )
N '
N '
%
%

Handbook Approach to
Aerodynamic Estimation

Aerodynamic Estimation
and Measurement

Wind Tunnel Data

NASA 30! x 60! Tunnel

Build estimates from component effects


USAF Stability and Control DATCOM (download at
http://www.pdas.com/datcomb.html)
USAF Digital DATCOM (see Wikipedia page)
ESDU Data Sheets (see Wikipedia page)

Wind Tunnel Force and Moment Data


Three-Strut Mount

Single-Strut Mount

Sting Balance

High-Angle-of-Attack
Sting Balance

Full-scale aircraft on balance


Sub-scale aircraft on sting
Sub-scale aircraft in free flight
Maximum airspeed = 118 mph
Constructed in 1931 for $37M
(~$500M in today!s dollars)
Two 4000-hp electric motors

Sub-Scale Learjet

Full-Scale P-38

Sub-Scale F/A-18

Blended Wing-Body Model in Free Flight


http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B7zMkptajMQ

http://crgis.ndc.nasa.gov/historic/30_X_60_Full_Scale_Tunnel

Texas A&M

NACA Free Flight Wind Tunnels

Test section angle and airspeed adjusted to gliding flight


path angle and airspeed
5-ft Free Flight Wind Tunnel

12-ft Free Flight Wind Tunnel

Propulsion Effects on
Aircraft Stability

Model in 12-ft Free-Flight Tunnel


http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/videogallery/index.html?collection_id=16538&media_id=17245841
Dutch Roll of XF7U-1 Model in 12-ft Free-Flight Tunnel
http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/videogallery/index.html?collection_id=16538&media_id=17245841

http://crgis.ndc.nasa.gov/historic/12-Foot_Low_Speed_Tunnel

Multi-Engine Aircraft of World War II

Power Effects on Stability and Control

Gee Bee R1 Racer: an engine with


wings and almost no tail
During W.W.II, the size of fighters
remained about the same, but
installed horsepower doubled (F4F
vs. F8F)
Use of flaps means high power at
low speed, increasing relative
significance of thrust effects
Short-Takeoff-and-Landing (STOL)
aircraft augment takeoff/landing lift in
many ways, e.g.,

Boeing B-17

Consolidated B-24

Boeing B-29

GB R1

Douglas A-26

Grumman F4F

High foot-pedal force


Rudder stability problems
arising from balancing to reduce
pedal force

Full-span flaps
Deflected thrust
Grumman F8F

CTo ,CTV ,CT!T ,C L!T

Large W.W.II aircraft had


unpowered controls:

Severe engine-out problem for


twin-engine aircraft
Cn ,Cl
o

North American B-25

Martin B-26
o

Pitching Moment
Due to Thrust, MV

Loss of Engine

Loss of engine produces large yawing


(and sometimes rolling) moment(s),
requiring major application of controls
Engine-out training can be as
hazardous, especially during takeoff, for
both propeller and jet aircraft
Acute problem for general-aviation
pilots graduating from single-engine
aircraft
C ,C
no

Learjet 60

Velocity-Dependent ThrustInduced Pitching Moment

mo

Martin XB-51

mV

Consolidated PBY

lo

Beechcraft Baron

McDonnell Douglas MD-11

Fairchild-Republic A-10

! M thrust !T
"
# Moment Arm
!V
!V

Negative ! M/! V (Pitch-down effect) tends to increase velocity


Positive ! M/! V (Pitch-up effect) tends to decrease velocity
With propeller thrust line above the c.m., increased velocity
decreases thrust, producing a pitch-up moment
Cmo ,CmV
Tilting the thrust line can have benefits
Up: Lake Amphibian, MD-11
Down: F6F, F8F, AD-1
McDonnell Douglas
MD-11

Lake Amphibian
Grumman F8F

Thrust line above or below center of mass induces a pitching moment


Aerodynamic and thrust pitching moments sensitive to velocity perturbation
Couples phugoid and short-period modes
C ,C

Douglas AD-1

Next Time:
Aircraft Control Devices
and Systems

Planform Effect on Center of


Pressure Variation with Mach
Number
Straight Wing
Subsonic center of
pressure (c.p.) at ~1/4
mean aerodynamic
chord (m.a.c.)
Transonic-supersonic
c.p. at ~1/2 m.a.c.

Supplementary
Material

Delta Wing
Subsonic-supersonic
c.p. at ~2/3 m.a.c.

Mach number

Twin and Triple


Vertical Tails

Effects of Wing Aspect Ratio

Wing lift slope has direct effect on


Phugoid damping
Short period natural frequency and damping
Roll damping

increases the static margin of conventional configurations -> Short Period


Has less effect on delta wing static margin

Increased tail area with no increase in vertical height


End-plate effect for horizontal tail improves effectiveness
Proximity to propeller slipstream

Phugoid

1
!n " 2 gV ; # "
N
2 ( L / D )N

Short Period

$
L '
! n = " & M# + M q # ) ; * =
V (
%
N

Consolidated B-24

North American B-25

$ L#
'
&% V " M q )(
N
$
L '
2 " & M# + M q # )
VN (
%

Lockheed C-69
Fairchild-Republic A-10

Roll

$ #V '
! Roll " L p " Cl p & N ) Sb 2
% 4I xx (

Cm!

Interpreting Wind Tunnel Data

Ventral Fin Effects

Wall corrections, uniformity of the


flow, turbulence, flow recirculation,
temperature, external winds (open
circuit)

Open-throat tunnel equilibrates


pressure

Tunnel mounts and balances: struts,


wires, stings, magnetic support

Simulating power effects, flowthrough effects, aeroelastic


deformation, surface distortions

Artifices to improve reduced/fullscale correlation, e.g., boundary layer


trips and vortex generators

Increase directional stability


Counter roll due to sideslip of the dorsal fin
Cn! ,Cnr ,Cn!! ,Cl!
LTV F8U-3

Learjet 60

North American X-15

Beechcraft 1900D

Strip theory
Sum or integrate 2-D airfoil force
and moment estimates over wing
and tail spans

3-D calculations at grid points


Finite-element or finite-difference
modeling
Pressures and flow velocities (or
vorticity) at points or over panels of
aircraft surface
Euler equations neglect viscosity
Navier-Stokes equations do not

Full-Scale P-51 Fuselage

Sub-Scale
Supersonic Transport

Direct Thrust Effect on


Speed Stability, TV

Computational Fluid Dynamics

Full-Scale F-84

In powered, steady, level flight, nominal thrust balances nominal


drag
TN ! DN = CTN

1 2
1
"VN S ! C DN "VN2 S = 0
2
2

Effect of velocity change


# < 0, for propeller aircraft
!T %
= $ " 0, for turbojet aircraft
!V %
> 0, for ramjet aircraft
&

!D
>0
!V

for most flight regimes

Small velocity perturbation grows if

Therefore

!T ! D
"
>0
!V !V

propeller is stabilizing for velocity change


turbojet has neutral effect
ramjet is destabilizing

Jet Effects on Rigid-Body Motion

Propeller Effects

Slipstream over wing, tail, and fuselage


Increased dynamic pressure
Swirl of flow
Downwash and sidewash at the tail

DH-2 unstable with engine out


Single- and multi-engine effects
Design factors: fin offset (correct at one
airspeed only), c.m. offset
Propeller fin effect: Visualize
lateral/horizontal projections of the
propeller as forward surfaces
Counter-rotating propellers minimize
torque and swirl

DeHavilland DH-2

DeHavilland DHC-6

North American F-86

Cmo ,Cm! ,Cmq ,Cno ,Cn" ,Cnr ,Cn"!

Solutions to the
Engine-Out Problem

Engines on the centerline (Cessna


337 Skymaster)
More engines (B-36)
Cross-shafting of engines (V-22)
Large vertical tail (Boeing 737)

McDonnell Douglas F/A-18

Westland Wyvern

Cm! ,Cmq ,Cm!! ,Clo ,Cno ,Cn" ,Cnr ,Cn"!

Normal force at intake (analogous to propeller fin effect) (F-86)


Deflection of airflow past tail due to entrainment in exhaust (F/A-18)
Pitch and yaw damping due to internal exhaust flow
Angular momentum of rotating machinery

Ground Attack Aircraft


Cessna 337

Convair B-36

NASA TCV (Boeing 737)

Boeing/Bell V-22

Maneuverability, payload, low-speed/subsonic performance, ruggedness

General Aviation Aircraft

Approaches to Stealth

Low radar cross-section

Low cost, safety, comfort, ease of handling

Supersonic Flight

Low parasitic drag, high supersonic L/D

Open-loop instability
Need for closed-loop control

Hypersonic Flight

Transient vs. cruising flight


Hypersonic performance
Resistance to aerodynamic
heating

Commercial Transport

Business Aircraft

Safety, fuel economy, cost/passenger-mile,


maintenance factors
Regional vs. long-haul flight segments

Long-Range/-Endurance
Surveillance Aircraft

Subsonic performance

Segment between personal and commercial transport

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