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    ITAM 5 URANIUM Introduction To Australia's Minerals

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    ITAM 5 URANIUM Introduction to Australia's Minerals

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    rTAM D> Introduction to Australia | URANIUM Emest Rutherford. The Fission of U2: In 1911 Emest Rutherford discovered that the atom consists of an extremely small, dense nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons. Further work revealed that the nucleus contains positively-charged particles called protons. The key to further “understanding of the nucleus was the discovery of the neutron by James Chadwick in 1932, This neutral particle of similar mass to the proton, is also found in the atomic nucleus, ‘Two years later, Enrico Fermi bombarded uranium with neutrons in an attempt to create artificial nuclei heavier than uranium, Despite evidence that lighter nuclei were in fact being formed, he refused to believe this was possible. In 1938, Otto ‘Hahn also detected lighter elements in similar experiments in Berlin, He sent his results to Lise Meitner, with whom he had previously worked for many years and who had recently fled to Sweden to escape Nazi persecution. The Fission of Ue When a neutron enters the nucleus of wanium 235 for example (1), an unstable nucleus of uranium i formed, holding excess energy (excited see) 2) Ta about one Iundred milionth of a second it elongates in the shape ofa water drop and breaks into two “ragrions releasing energy (3) the ertcal mas. The fragments move away from each other with a certain Kinetc energy, releasing 2-3 neutrons and emitting ganna rays. The freed rneuarons may provoke further fsion of other nuclei in such a way’ that a nuclear chain reaction (4) would develop, ifthe mass exceeds a certain minimum value known as Front Cover: Bright yellow Saleeiteerystals from Number 1 ‘orebody atthe Ranger Mine, Northern Territory, Saevite is ‘magnestum-uranium phosphate Oto Hahn. Lise Meitner. Meitner considered the results with her nephew Otto Frisch, While walkingin the snow near Stockholm in January 1939they realised that the nucleus of the uranium atom could become unstable when it was hit by a neutron and might subsequently split into two smaller nuclei, ‘This idea was so revolutionary that, despite its simplicity, it had not been considered before. Frisch quickly performed calculations and experiments which showed that this process, which they dubbed “fission”, was indeed the explanation for Hahn's and Fermi’s observations, Scientists soon realised that a chain reaction would be possible. Each fission was found to release several neutrons, ‘which could collide with other uranium nuclei and cause further fission. This process, repeated many times in quick succession, would release a large amount of energy. Martin Heinrich Klaproch Uranium isa metal ‘was discovered by Martin Heinrich Klaproth in 1789 is named after the planet Uranus, discovered in 1788 ‘was first separated as a pure metal in 1841 is one of the most dense of the 92 naturally occurring elements ‘occurs naturally as a mix of two main isotopes Use and Use hasan average concentration in the earth's crust of — 3 parts per million (3 ppm) ‘commercial concentrations are ~ 0.1% upwards ‘was recognised by Rutherford in 1904 as an energy source vas first used as a nuclear fuel in 1942 was first used as a weapon in 1945 ‘was first used for commercial electricity generation in 1956 What is uranium? Uranium is an element with the atomic number 92. Natural occurrences of uranium contain three isotopes in the following relative abundances; Use 99.28% Une 071% Une 0.0085%, Discovery of uranium Martin Heinrich Klaproth, a German chemist, announced the discovery of uranium on the 24th September, 1789,in an address to the Prussian Academy of Science in Berlin. He named the new element after the recently discovered planet ‘Uranus, Klaproth made his discovery while analysing an ore known as pitchblende, from the mines at Joachimsthal in Bohemia (now known as Jachymov in the Czech and Slovak Republic). He treated the ore with acid and heated it strongly. The result was a black powder he named uranium. tert) A Ranger haul truck on No. 1 Pt haul road heads forthe primary ‘crusher. On average the primary erusher processes 25 000 tonnes of ‘ore per week. The decline at the Olympic Dam mine descends 420 metres below the surface s0 that major equipment can be moved tothe underground ‘workings. The portal, or entrance tothe declin, measures 6x 4.8 ‘metres allowing access for large vehicles. In fact, although Klaproth was correct in believing he had identified a new element, his black powder was not uranium itself, but an oxide. It was over fifty years later in 1841 that a Frenchman, Eugene Peligot, succeeded in separating pure uranium metal. In the firsthalf of the nineteenth century, uranium ore was mined along with other minerals at Joachimsthal and a few minesin Comwall, England. Uranium was also discovered in Colorado in the United States in the 1870s. Uranium’s mild radioactivity was first observed in 1896 by Henri Becquerel, although he did not realise the full significance ofhis discovery. However, one ofhis students did, correctly interpret his results and chose the name ‘radioactivity’for the new phenomenon. She was Marie Cure. Working with her husband Pierre, Marie went on to discover another new clement she named radium, Radiumis formed in minute amounts from the decay of uranium and is intensely radioactive. The Curies had to use tonnes of uranium ore to obtain a fraction of a gram of radium. ‘There was a rapid expansion in the mining of uranium ore in the early 1900s because of the assumed medicinal properties of radium, It sold for extremely high prices, ‘becoming the most expensive commodity of the time. New discoveries were made in Colorado and Utah in the United States, at Radium Hill in South Australia, in Portugal, and later in the Belgian Congo (now Zaire) and Canada. In Europe and North America several plants were built to extract radium from the ores. Demand for uranium itself however was stil very small. ‘Most of the uranium mined was simply dumped as a waste product after the radium had been extracted. Note: Words set in bold type are explained in the Glossary on page 27, Uranium deposits ‘Trace amounts of uranium occurin almosteverything, living or otherwise. It occurs in most rock types, steam sediments, soils and plants. Average uranium contents expressed in parts per million (ppm) ‘Crustal abundance 2 Shale 32 Sea water 0.003 Sandstone 22 Basalt os Limestone 13 Andesite 2 Granite 4 Aneconomic uranium depositis one where theconcentration of uranium is high enough to make commercial extraction feasible. Uranium is known to have formed economic deposits in a great variety of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, ranging from the late Archaean ic. 2500-3000 million years (Ma) before the present 10 Holocene (10ppm) occur in many types of intrusive igneous rocks. Generally the uranium content of large igneous bodies does not exceed 20 ppm, but ‘the last part to crystallise (the most differentiated fraction) ‘may show extreme enrichment of uranium in relation to the average value for the entire body. In granites the highest ‘uranium concentrations are most commonly in pegmatitic or apltie portions of plutons. Intrusive igneous and associated metamorphic rocks are hhost to approximately one eighth of the western world’s reasonably assured uranium resources, Vein-lke Deposits Much ofthe world’s currently mineable uranium is found in vein-like deposits of uncertain origin. They consist of three general types. Most important are unconformity-related deposits and vein-like deposits in metamorphic rocks. Least important and probably of different origin are vein-like deposits in sedimentary rocks, The origin of all three typesis a ‘matter of much conjecture. Unconformity-related deposits and vein-like deposits in metamorphic rocks commonly ‘occur in breeeiated and foliated metamorphic rocks in stable Precambrian Shield areas. One such group of deposits are associated with middle Proterozoic unconformities in the Northern Territory of Australia. They contain about one quarter of the western world’s reasonably assured uranium resources. ‘The origin of these deposits is unknown, but they include ‘the world’s largest and richest deposits such as those at Koongarra, Ranger and Jabiluka in Australia and Rabbit Lake, Key Lake and Cigar Lake in Canada. Sedimentary Deposits One of the majorcategories of uranium depositsis that which, ‘occurs in sedimentary rocks. These deposits are usually considered to be secondary deposits because the uranium has come from the weathering and erosion of pre-existing uranium minerals in other rocks. Uranium dissolves readily in oxygen-rich waters which accounts for its presence in surface water, groundwater and the sea. Most of the dissolved uranium has come from the ‘weathering of igneous rocks that formed the earth’s original cust. Two types of sedimentary uranium concentrating processes have occurred. In late Archaean-early Proterozoic time (2800-2200 Ma), when a non-oxidising atmosphere existed, the original uranium minerals in the igneous crust were mechanically ‘weathered and transported to placer deposits because of their high density and because chemical weathering was minimal. After the development of the oxygen-rich atmosphere in the mid to Tate Proterozoic, uranium was dissolved from the crustal rocks and transported in solution to a variety of environments. Deposition of economic concentrations of uranium minerals from this source usually happen when ‘the solution encounters a reducing environment and precipitation occurs. Placer Deposits The placer deposits formed in the late Archaean to early Proterozoic are called quartz-pebble conglomerate uranium deposits, They contain uranium minerals uraninite, brannerite, thucolite and uranothorite The origin of these deposits is controversial. Many of the conglomerates were deposited in stream channels while others appear to have been laid down in lakes, shallow ‘marine and deltaic environments. The most likely origin is a placer or detrital one, buta hydrothermal origin has not been completely ruled out [No.1 Pit at the Ranger Uranium Mine, Northem Territory Diamond drilling established this resource as 52 878 tonnes of high-grade uranium oxide in 15.87 million tonnes of or. Whenan Shaft headjrame, a landmark at Olympic Dam. Precambrian quartz-pebble conglomerates are low prade uranium resources in which uranium with a grade as low as 0.01% uranium oxide (U:0.) may be a by-product of gold ‘mining. In some deposits it may be the major ore mineral with grades from 0.01 to 0.15%. Individual deposits range in size from 5000 to 150 000 tonnes UsOs. ‘The Blind River-Flliot Lake district of Canada and the Witwatersrand in South Africa are the best known placer deposits, Others are known in Brazil, Finland, Algeria, India, the former USSR and the USA. ‘Sandone Deposits In contrast to the late Archaean-early Proterozoic deposits, the youngersedimentary uranium concentrations are formed by oxidising fluids carrying uranium in solution to sites where reducing conditions cause preci Uranium Deposits and Occurrences in Australia Most of the US reserves and production comes from such deposits in sandstones. These rocks acted as conduits for uraniuim-bearing groundwater that passed from oxidising to reducing conditions, Host sandstones are of river, lake, delta and shallow marine ‘origin, but deposits in fluvial sandstones are most common, Of the sandstone deposits 97% are continental, 2% are marginal marine and 1% are marine. The probable explanation for this is that continental deposits commonly contain abundant organic. material Which acts as a reducing agent, Support for this theory is that most continental sandstone-hosted deposits occur in Devonian or younger rocks which contain the remains of land plants. Prior to this time land plants had notevolved and therefore could not provide the chemically reducing environment. Occurrences in marine sandstones as old as Precambrian are possible because of the earlier presence of marine organisms. Deposits nearLake Fromein South Australia areexamples of a sandstone deposit, but the best known economic examples are those of the Colorado Plateau in the USA. Australia's Major Uranium Deposits epost jor Pariipat) Estate Tones Use NORTHERN TERRITORY anger Energy Resources of ust Lid, 82 00 a Eneray Resources of Aust Lis 181 600 Koongara Denison Aust Py. Lt 13.300 cueENsUND Westar Aca Cvecnstand Mines Lid) (RA poration Py. Ld! Urangesotscha Aust, Py. La! Mount sa Mines Li, 20 000 Ben Lomond “ia Mining Aus. ry. 4150 WESTERN AUSTRALIA eter estrn ining Corporation Lt Urangeselscha Aus. Py. Ue. 2 000 inyee Canning Fesources Py La 36 000 he Wy sao Gal Py Ut 3 600 ‘SOUTH AUSTRALIA Honeynoon MIM Holdings i. 3 400 Bovey General Ais 11 600 (ympic Dam Wester Mining Oxpraton La BP Austra Ls, 360 000" *Basod on in-situ ore reserve of 450 milion tonnes ‘Source: Bureau of Mineral Resources, various company reporis, et. Calerete Deposis special kind of sedimentary uranium concentration is that associated with calcrete. Calcrete is a layer of calcium ‘carbonate formed in the soil in arid environments. A deposit of this type was discovered by Western Mining Corporation nited in mid-Western Australia at Yeelirie. Uranium derived from the weathering of granitoid rocksis deposited as the uranium mineral carnotite in association with carbonate minerals in the calerete. Although the known calerete deposits are younger than 300 000 years they contain about 2.4% of the western world's reasonably assured uranium resources. Yeelirrie contains about 50 000 tonnes of UO», Langer Heinrich in Nami is the other major deposit of this type Estimated Resources of Uranium 1991 (tonnes U) _ 1 to USSBO/RGU (USS307 U0.) ‘COUNTRY Reasonably Esiimated ‘Assured Adtional Resourses Resouroes Ager 25 000 = ‘argentina 8 740 540 ‘Aveta, 489, 000 264 000 Brazil 73 000 30 000 Canada 148 000, 149 000 France 23 800 "4300 ‘Gabon 1 000 4 300 Nambia 24 780 20 000 Niger 188 O70 295 770 ‘South Attica 2a B00 31 800 in 17 850 — ‘Sweden 2 000 1 000 Usa 101 900 a Other counties” 32 330 22 270 Toual 1810 040) 348985 “austiia, Central Aican Republic, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Indonesia, tly, Peru, Portugal, Zaire, Zimbabwe. Source: World Energy Council, 1992 Survey of Energy Resources! ‘8in Eaton. A geologist examines dil core which can indicate promising signs of viable mineral deposi. CRA Exploration driling operation in the vast Rudatt region of Western Australia, Uranium exploration Since uraniumoccursin race amounts (02-50 ppm) in virtually all rocks, exploration for uranium is essentially the search for geological environments in which economic concentrations of uranium may have been produced. Uranium exploration uses most techniques employed in the search foro, gas and all other nfinerals,as well as some unique touranium. Initial target areas are large and as smaller areas of potential are recognised more intense methods are used. Geology, remote sensing, geophysics, geochemistry, geobotany and exploration drilling are all used at the same time. ‘Geological mapping and basin analysis helpsin the choice of geological environments witich are potentially favourable for Uranium occurrences. Remote sensing using satellite imagery and aerial photography is used as part of this initial stage. Follow-up surveys using airborne or ground gamma-ray spectrometry to detect high-energy gamma radiation from the decay of radioactive minerals associated with uranium are used in the later stages of the exploration, Geochemical surveys of stream and lake sediments are commonly used to detect broad chemical anomalies and provide information on sub-surface environments. Stream and lake sediment surveys enable the systematic sampling of the uranium content of bedrock terrain over large areas and in any kind of vegetative and soil cover. The Canadian Key Lake uranium-nickel deposit, beneath more than 60 metres of glacial drift, was discovered in this way. Once a promising target area is found, detailed exploration techniques are applied to carefully locate deposits, determine their size, shape and depth, and the concentration of uranium and other useful minerals, The techniques include the collection of geochemical and geophysical data from closely spaced locations as well as from drilling and the analysisoflarge samples, The final step isto see if itis possible to extract and separate the useful materials. ‘Uranium Exploration in Australia 8000 Uranium fret dscoveredin Auevala 1830s First mined at Racium Hil, South Ausra, fo ecover radium for medicibe and o colour glass {nd ceramics First major production al Rum Jundk Teritony ear Norther TeeorTes Tn the lle 1960s and early 1870s increased ‘exploration led tothe discovery of major deposits at: ‘Naberel, Norther Terrtory + Ranger, Nother Toro + Jabiika, Noaorn Teretory = Yealiie, Westen Austra + Olympic Dam, South Australia = Other smaller deposis were discovered in South Austalia and Queensland 78808 Exploration deciined Discovery of Kiniyre deposit in Westem Austraa (1988) NNabarek and Ranger commenced production at the $Boginning ofthe 1980s, Olympic Dam in mid-1988 Uses for uranium Uranium today has two major peaceful uses: * as the fuel in nuclear power reactors to generate electricity © the manufacture of radioisotopes in nuclear reactors. Early Uses In the 1800s the only use for uranium was to colour glass and ceramics. Glassmakers used uranium to produce a yellow-green colour: Ceramic glazes, ranging from orange to bright red, were used on household crockery and architectural decorations. Another radioactive element, produced in minute quantities from the decay of uranium, is radium. It was thought to have health-giving properties and products containing radium, such as radioactive carth, went on sale. It was used in tonics and also in paint on clocks and watches to make them luminous. Status of nuclear power as at 1st October 1992 Nudear Reacios 1901 a of total Country Operating it MWenet electricity Argentina 2 1 tear i941 Belgium 7 = 5454 593, Braz 1 1 tert 8 Bulgaria 6 = 3808 340 Canada 20 2 18437 164 hina 1 2 210 <10 (iS (Kazakstan|* 1 = 135 iS (Russi? 25 5 23639 126 (OS (Ukcaino)* 4 1 18086 Gzoch & Slovak Rep, 8 6 8804 288 Finland 4 = 2510 333 France 56 4 63588 7 Germany 2 - 2580 278 Hungary 4 = “T70 43.4 Inia a 6 2am 18 Japan “6 1 43661 238 Korea DPR, = 2 250 — Korea F.O. 8 5 ere 475 Lithuania 2 = 2760 600 Mexico i 1 1308 38 Netherlands 2 - 08 49 Pakistan 1 125 os Romania - 5 3100 — Slovenia/Croatia 1 - a2 200 ‘Sout Arica 2 = 14a 59 ‘Spain 9 = 7070 359) Sweden 2 = 9082 518 Seitzstand 5 = 2054 409 Taiwan 6 = 4800 gra United Kingdom a 112784 208 usa 10 2 r018i3 27 TOTAL 418 55 S71 995, “Total EUSSR 40 6 36819 128 ‘Source: ANSTO Lucas Helghts: AEA Vienna: USCEA Washington, In 1991, nuclear reactors provided 17% of the world’s electricity. Nuclear power reactors have collectively amassed over 6 000 years operating experience. ‘Two of the more unusual uses for uranium are as ballast in the Keels of oveangoing yachts and for mass balancing of control surfaces in modern jet aircraft. Depleted uranium (ie uranium in which the content of Us has been reduced as a result of the enrichment process) is sometimes used for these purposes as it is one and a half times more dense than lead. Electricity Generation Uranium is the principal fuel for the generation of electricity by nuclear reactors. Figures published by the Australian Nuclear Science and ‘Technology Organisation (ANSTO) show that, at Septem ber, 1992: © 418 reactors with atotal output capacity of327 726 MWe were operating in 29 countries; * a further 55 reactors were under construction; ** in total, 473 reactors were operating or under construction, and 79 were on order or planned, in 36 countries. ‘The combined generating capacity of reactors in operation and under construction is nearly 372,000 MWe — equal to approximately eleven times Australia’s total clectricty generating capacity. If this amount of generating capacity was provided by coal-fired power stations, about one billion tonnes of coal would be burt each year, releasing carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide and nitrous oxides to the atmosphere, as well asa vatiety of toxic heavy metals in the cinder and ash. The light of London, and many other major ites ofthe worl, rely in ‘part on nuclear-gencrated electricity Radioisotopes z ‘sotopes are different forms of the nucleus ofa given chemical clement. They have the same chemical properties buta different atomic mass. While the number of protons is the same, the number of neutrons in the nucleus is different. Some isotopes are stable and others unstable or ‘radioactive. Itis the radioactive property ofthese unstable isotopes, usually called radioisotopes, which gives them many applications in modern science and technology. Some radioisotopes occur naturally. For example, hydrogen, potassium, chlorine and uranium all have radioactive isotopes. With nuclear reactors and accelerators, radioactive versions of all the elements can now be manufactured, Radioisotopes canbe used in many ways otake advantage of the characteristics of ionising radiation. These inchude: ‘© the emission of easily detectable radiation; ‘© the ability radiation to increase the genetic mutation rate in plants and animals; ‘the ability to detect single atoms; radiation’s ability to penetrate materials and substances; the steilising effect of high doses of ionising radiation ‘The following are some of the very many applications for radioisotopes in a variety of fields: Radioistopes are widely used for medical diagnosis and treatment ‘New high-technology equipment has led 19a rapid increase inthe use ‘of radioisoxopes to study the functioning ofthe body and forthe deection and location of disease. Health and Medicine + The use of radioisotopes with short half-lives to study the functioning of various organs in the body using gamma-ray ‘cameras that can detect locate and quantify small amounts of gamma radiation with great accuracy. + The detection, location and subsequent treatment of cancer ‘tumours using gamma raysto break-up the genetic material of the cells, thus preventing them from developing. + The use of radiation to sterlise medical products such as surgical dressings, sutures, catheters, syringes and ‘ointments, many of which include heat sensitive materials ‘that cannot be sterilised by steam or dry heat. A technician using gamma radiography to check pipe welds For long ‘Pipelines, sophisticated self-propelled, remote-conroled radioisotope vehicles are used Food and Agriculture ‘© Astracers to study the mechanisms used by plantsto take up fertilisers and weedkillers, 50 as to optimise their use and reduce pollution from agrochemicals. + To speed up the genetic mutation rate, allowing the development of crops with increased drought and disease resistance, increased yields and changed maturing times. * Controlling or eradicating insects, without the use of ‘chemicals, by breeding sterile male or female populations and releasing them into the wild so that when they mate no offspring are produced. AardelInstream Analysis probes provide on-line analysis of metals in “slurries and solutions. Used extensively in mining operations, this Australian technology has been exported world wide. Industry and Research * The use of adioactive sources in level, thickness and density ion source, radioisotopes have advantages over ‘Xerays. They do not need a power source and so can be used inthe field, eg, to check welds in pipelines and undertake a variety of non-destructive quality control tasks. * Components containing radioactive material allow direct observation of wear in operating machinery. ‘The sterile inset technique (SID) gives sterilising doses of ionizing radiation 10 laboraxory-raised male insects which are then released in large numbers in infested areas: Females that mate with the sterilized ‘males do not reproduce and the population of tsect pests, such asthe African weise fly which causes sleping sickness in humans and catde, ‘can be dramatically redueed. An ARI radioisotope (iridium-192) being wsed to examine a section (of a Qantas Boeing 747 jet engine to check hat vane segment locating pins are not distorted or damaged. 2. An interior view ofthe reactor at the Australian National Science & Technology Organisation in which radioisoropes are made for medical and ather uses, 3. otope handling in a hor cell atthe ANSTO Lucas Heights Laboratory, Sydney, Other Uses The use of radioisotopes and radiation is important in many areas of manufacturing, for example in processes which permit the grafting of plastics to metal, and in changing the chemical structure of materials to improve useful characteristics such as absorption capability and resistance to abrasion, They are also used to provide extremely sensitive smoke detection devices and power for remote weather stations and navigation beacons. In ‘mining, radioisotopes are used in prospecting for oil and some ainerals, and to determine the age of rocks and other materials that interest geologists, anthropologists and archaeologists. Radioisotopes are used to iradiate many types of food, reducing spoilage by microbes and pests, arid extending shelf life. Ths sof ‘pantcular benef to third-world tropical countries, Irradiation of strawberries and other foods was approved in the Netherlands in 1969. The nuclear fuel cycle Before it ean be used as a ‘fue’ in nuclear power reactors 0 generate electricity uranium requires some processing. The steps involved are mining and milling, conversion, enrichment and fuel fabrication. Together they are referred to as the front ‘endoofthe fuel yee. Afteruranium has been used inthe corcofa nuclear power reactor to produce electricity,itis known as speat fel and undergoes further treatment. This may include ‘temporary storage, reprocessing, recycling and waste disposal, Collectively these steps comprise the ‘back end’ ofthe nuclear fuck eye. The interim storage of spent fuel and HILW is as far as the nuclear fuel cycle goes at present. The final disposal of HLW from the reprocessing of spent fuel, orthe disposal of spent fuel, ‘without reprocessing, has not yet taken place, but has been demonstrated to be technically possible ‘An early phase in uranium mining. A viable depsit has been lscovered using high-technology exploration techniques. Te impact of ‘he potential mine siti illstrate in an Environmental Impact Study. a Major Steps in the Uranium Fuel Cycle A 40-1onne capacity dump truck hauls the ore from a loading sation toa sizing grizzly above the crusher station Deep underground at Olympic Dam, ore is extracted atthe base of a ‘stope using 7.2 euble metre load-haul-dump units and front-end loaders with 4.2 cubie metre buckets. 10 The front end Mining Uranium is usually mined by either surface (open cut) or underground mining techniques, depending on the depth at ‘which the orebody is found. In appropriate circumstances it ‘may also be mined by in-situ leaching in which an alkali oracid is pumped into the orebody to dissolve the uranium. Some ‘uranium is also obtained as a by-product of gold or phosphate mining. In Australia the Ranger mine in the Northern Territory js an open cut mine, while Olympic Dam in South Australia is, an underground mine, which also produces copper, gold and silver. Milling Milling is the term used to deseribe the grinding and further processing of uranium-bearing ore to extract the mincral it ‘contains. Milling stages typically include: Crushing: to reduce the broken ore fo @ more finely crushed material Grinding: finely crashed ore and water are combined with grinding media in a grinding mill where the tumbling action reduces the ore to size where the mineral particles are freed from the host rock. NS —— ‘Aer lasting the ores eased and sorted toasts ier than 20 illmeres Defer Being mixed wth water and ground to asa. Thickening & Leaching: the resulting slurry is thickened and then pumped toa leaching vessel where usually sulphuricacidis added to dissolve the uranium mineral together with some other ‘metals. In some cases an alkaline leach process may he used. Separation & Purification: the wranium-rich solution is separated from the remaining solids, called tailings, which are neutralised before being pumped to a tailings dam. consist of a variety of minerals, including the radioactive ‘materials other than uranium, that were present inthe ore. Solvent Extraction: the uraniumerich Teach solution is then filtered and the uranium separated and purified using a kerosene-based solvent extraction process. The resultis a pure, but weak, uranium solution, Precipitation: ammonia is added to the clear solution whi precipitates a bright yellow powder referred to as ‘yellowcake’. Drying: the yelloweake is heated to 700°C to produce a fine black powder containing over 98% uranium oxide (U:0.). ‘Separation tanks at Ranger where uranium in solution is separated from the ore. Afer separation the depleted ore ix neutralized before ‘being purped tothe tailings dam, while the uranium solution undergoes various processes to become yellowcake. Packing: the uranium oxide is packed into 200-ltre steel

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