ITAM 4 Introduction to Australia's Minerals COPPER “eS ge ema WESTERN MINING foe) eLTN Ue MmO NIELS Native copper from the eit a meee Ut 7) DUNE Co Dee aFront cover: native copper from the Wallaroo Mine in South Australia (Courtesy Museum of South Australia TAM publications are written primarily for geology and science teachers and students. Technical terms used are generally well understood by this informed group, Copper ‘was the first metal to be used by Man is named from the Latin word for "ore of Cyprus” —cuprum, hence its symbol Cu combines more useful properties than probably any other metal * is the only metal other than gold that possesses a distinctive colour ‘occurs as the native metal and in a variety of compounds is tough, ductile and malleable * can be alloyed with @ number of metals * is an excellent conductor of electricity ‘The Pybus bell South Australia’s oldest daved bronze casting, il rings in the belfy of St. George’ Anglican Church, Magill Copper alloys Copper is alloyed with other metals to give it special properties. Bronze is an alloy of tin and copper and was one of the first alloys used by man. The earliest bronzes were natural alloys derived from mineral deposits which had several metals in the ore. In Iran, for example, arsenic-copper bronze was known in 3500 BC and elsewhere lead-copper bronze was used, Brassisan alloy of zinc and copper andis used extensively in boais because of its resistance to corrosion. Uses for copper Electrical conductor Copper is an excellent conductor of electricity. For the past 50 years about half ofthe total copper consumption has been used. for this purpose. It is used in electric generators and motors, lighting fixtures and wiring, radio and TV sets. computers and almost everything electrical. Heat conductor Because of the ability of copper to conduct heat itis used for ‘motor vehicle radiators. air-conditioners, home heating systems and steam condensers, to name a few applications. Copper wire being stranded at MIM's Townsville refinery. Industry Copper’ corrosion resistance and the ease with which itcan be Joined have made copper the choice for plumbing and piping systems, automotive fue ines, sea water desalination plantsand hydraulic systems. ‘The blue-green colour of treated timber is the result of solutions of copper napthenate and copper-chrome-arsenate ‘which have been introduced under pressure to help preserve the sood. Copper sulfate is used as a fungicide and can be used in drains and sewerage pipes to discourage plant roots from ‘entering and blocking them. Copperis used in the manufacture of motor vehicles aircraft, missiles, scientific instruments, coins and for many domestic purposes, It's use as a trace clement in fertilisers is increasing. ‘Copper resists the corrosive action of the atmosphere and sea ‘water and has been used on the hulls of centuries. Copper for Health ‘Copperis an important race mineral in human health. Ithelps form the myelin sheath around each of the millions of nerve fibres in our bodies. Calm nerves and clear thinking depend on copper. It builds proteins that give blood vessel walls strength and flexibility, activates a number of enzymes important to energy metabolism, probably influences taste perception and hhas an antiinflammatory role in healing.Copper in history Copper was first discovered in its native form mare than 10 000 years ago. The Copper-Bronze Age. about 6000 years ago was the period when copper was used for purposes other than decoration and jewellery. Copper weapons and tools have been found dating from about 5000 BC. This indicates the ability of ancient civilisations to smelt copper from its ores and to work the metal to produce copper products. Whilst much of thi development took place in the regions of Anatolia, Iran, Syria and Mesopotamia, similar developments were taking place in Thailand, Copper water pipes have been discovered in ruins that date back to nearly 3000 BC and itis known that the Romans made extensive use of copper for piping water and for other purposes, An Enascan bronze vase The ductility of copper which allowed it to be forged into containers and utensils led to the art of the coppersmith which has been ata high level for thousands of years. The Industrial Revolution inthe 19th century, when miningin Britain was at its peak, caused @ great upsurge in the need for metals. The deposits being worked were high-grade and the reserves were ‘quickly depleted. An intensive search for new deposits began, leading to discoveries in South America and North America. ‘Towards the end of the 19th century it was thought that most ‘of the world’s copper deposits were known and explored. ‘Copper was becoming scarce and yet it was obvious that in the future there would be an increase in demand for electrical use, ‘Two developments occurred at this time that enabled this need to be met, and the transmission of electrical power to become practicable, One was the recognition ofthe potential for economic copper production from the relatively low grade porphyry copper deposits. The second was the development in Australia of the froth flotation process. A Greck soldier's bronze hebmet... about 600 BC The froth flotation process, which was developed in the lead- zine mills of Broken Hill, allowed the metallic sulfides to be selectively floated off from the solution containing the finely ground ore. Because copper has a relatively low density this ‘method of separation is much more efficent than the formerly used gravity methods. The recovery of copper from the large. low grade porphyry ore deposits made it readily available. I also meant the demise of many small copper mines. The froth flotation process so reduced the cost of production that the price of copper fell Copper today Coppers the eighth most abundant metal in the Earth’s crust. ‘The average concentration in continental crust is 50 parts per million by weight. Much higher concentrations however are required before mining and recovery of copper are worthwhile, Such higher concentrations are rare and comprise copper ore deposits. ‘The main ore mineral of copper in Australia (and world- wide) is chalcopyrite (CuFeS:). Bomite (CusFeS.), covellite (CuS) and chaleoeite (CxS) are important sources in the world, and many orebodies also contain some malachite [CuKOF)CO}, azurite [CuOH){CO3)J, cuprite (Cu:0), tenorite (CuO) and native copper. The sulfides, which yield most of the copper produced throughout the world, generally ‘occupy the deeper parts of lodes, which have not been exposed to weathering. Near the surface, they are altered by oxidation and other chemical actions to the native metal, oxides, and carbonates. These secondary copper minerals may form rich ore in the "upper parts of many deposits, and, owing to their characteristic green or blue colour, even small amounts are easily seen in the rocks in which they occur.How and where do copper deposits form? ‘The majority of the world’s coppercomes from three main types of copper deposit, Porphyry copper deposits Porphyry copper deposits are associated with plutonic igneous rocks which have a porphyritic texture, Hence the name “porphyry copper”. The Bougainville deposit is an example of this type of deposit. Porphyry copper deposits are often associated with intrusions of intermediate igneous rocks such as diorite or granodiorte. “The host rocks into which the igneous body is introduced are altered in concentric zones by hydrothermal fluids, Pipe-tike bodies of breccia are also associated with the porphyry. Copper sulfides and other metal sulfides are present s_veins, stockworks and disseminations throughout the ore body. In some places the ore body may Tie within the breccia pipes as veins. The important primary ore minerals in such a depositare chalcopyrite and occasionally bornite and rarely molybdenite. Chaleocite is present in weathered deposits as a secondary alteration mineral Porphyry copper deposits are usually very large low grade deposits. Typical primary grades are 0.5%copperand up 100.1% molybdenum Stratiform copper deposits “These are deposits associated with some sedimentary rocks in which copper ore minerals are contained in extensive sheet-like or lenseshaped bodies which are part of the sedimentary sequence. Stratiform deposits are found in sediments which have been deposited in lakes or lagoons in continental basins, and in sediments deposited in shallow seas which have been receiving material from nearby continental areas. AS well as clastic sediments there are usually voleanic rocks in the sequence. There have been to major times of stratiform copper deposition: during the Upper Proterozoic from 1300-800 Ma and during the early Phanerozoic from 404-200 Ma rer 4000 people, mots locals were employed at the Panguna copper mine on Bougaisite Ilond unit was suspended due ‘0 poitea! unre ‘The older deposits are extensive and comprise the “copper belt"in Central Africa, the N.E. (Michigan) and NW. (Montana and Idaho) United States and in central east Asia (Udokan). OF these, Zaire and Zambia produce more than 6% of the stratiform copper from the Central African copper belt. This area contains the largest copper concentration in the world. The younger deposits include those west of the Urals and Kazakhstan in the USSR, the Kupferschiefer deposits of central Europe and the Texas-Oklahoma deposits, USA. The source of copper for this type of deposit is probably the sediments in the basins which contain the deposits, They form ancient rift basins and are contained in sediments deposited ‘on continental crust in these slowly subsiding basins. The copper ions were precipitated from solution by reduced sulfur probably produced in part by sulfate reducing bacteria. The source of the sulfur may be the sulfates in evaporite deposits in the sedimentary sequence. Stratiform copper deposits are high grade and are the second ‘most important type of deposit, producing about one quarter of the world’s copper. Copper mineralisation at Mount Isa replaced pre-existing reactive rocks and probably occurred well after. the NAMIBIA * ustRALia + Important copper depositsVolcanogenic massive sulfide deposits Approximately one-fith of the world’s copper comes from sulfides originally precipitated in deep ocean water from the emanations of submarine voleanoes. Metals leached from the rocks by hot volcanic fuids and heated sea water are precipitated as massive sulfide deposits on the sea floor as a resultof interaction ofthe hot fluids with sea water. The massive sulfides are associated with volcanie flows and breccias, and with water-deposited tuts cherts, sulfates and carbonates The oe minerals often form lenses between a thin upper chemical sediment layer enriched in silica, iron and manganese and a lower layer of very altered sulfide-rich lava ‘The metallic minerals in the ore are zoned with pyrite and zine minerals near the top and copper minerals near the bottom. ‘There are three main types of volcanozenie massive sulfide ‘deposit. cach representing a different geological environment: 1, Zine-Copper Type: These are mostly confined to voleanis rocks of Archaean age which range in composition trom basaitstoshyoites. The ore consists principally of sphalerit. chalcopyrite and pyrite Silver and sometimes gold oscar in important amounts in the sulfides. The best examples are in the Archaean Greenstone Belts of the Canadian Shield, Lead-Zine-Copper Type: Consists principally of galena, sphalerte. pyrite and only minor amounts of chaleopyrite Silver occurs in important quantities but gold is usually absent. The volcanic host rocks are principally shyofites and significant depositsofthistype first appearin Proterozoicage rocks such as the Sudbury Basin in Ontario, Canada. ‘Younger Palaeozoic examples occur at Woodlawn in NS\\ and Bathurst in Canada Other Australian examples ofthis type are Hellyer, Que River. Rosebery and Mi Lyell in Tasmania and Mt Morgan in Queensland, The famous Kuroko deposits of Japan are found in mach younger Miocene rocks. 2. Copper-Pyrite (Cyprus) Type: The best known deposits of this type are the Mesozoic deposits in Cyprus. They consist of chaleopyrite and pyrite and contain significantly more gold than the other two types. The associated igneous rocks ange in composition irom basalts 0 ultramafic lavas formed at ocean-floor spreading centres. A SSeionne capacity ore hauler emerges fom Renison Goldfelds Consolidated Leds copper mine at Me Lyell, Tasmania: Flotation Pilot Plant carrying out project feasibility study tests on a ‘copper sulfide ore The In-siream Analyst system (entre top improves ciency. The plant operates by continuously monitoring copper levels in hey concentrate and tiling steams. (Cours Amel Limited) ‘The Fscondida Copper Mine in Chiles Atacama Deser, 3000 m above sea level. BHP Minerals holds major terest in Escondida, she world’s third largest copper mine.Important copper deposits in Australasia Australia and its surrounding area has many rich mineral posits which provide an important income for the benefit of the Australian people, Of those, there are several copper mines Which are of world-wide importance. ‘The search for copper, and its mining and processing, began in Australia soon after European settlement. Many small deposits have been exhausted, others have become ‘ncconomical, and many hundreds of prospects have been evaluated and remain un-mined because of their small size or Tow grade. ‘Thefirsteconomic discoveries werein South Australia and by the 1860s the State had eamed the title “Copper Kingdom” because at that time it contained some of the largest copper mines in the world. ‘An 1880 view of Wallaroo Mines at Kadina The first major discovery wasat Kapunda in 1842 when Francis Dutton discovered green copper carbonate ore while searching for sheep. The first ore was mined by simply shovelling the blue and green copper minerals into carts. For the first five years the ‘ore was carted to Port Adelaide and then shipped to smelters at Swansea in Wales. In 1849 the first smelting furnace was in service at Kapunda and peak production was reached in 857. The total production was approximately 14500 tonnes of copper metal Following the discovery at Kapunida there were several other finds in S.A. including Burra, Kittcoola and Kanmantoo. The next major discovery was at Moonta and Kadina (the Wallaroo Mines) in 1861. These were amongst the largest copper producers in the world atthe time, producing more than 334.000 Tonnes of copper metal until they closed in 1923. Even by today’s standards the Moonta-Wallaroo Mines were large: the total length of all underground workings was more than 150 Kilometres. much of which was mined without the use of mechanised aids. One of the most recent discoveries. the Olympic Dam deposit in South Australia, is one of the largest copperuranium-gold- silver accumulations in the world. Another relatively recent discovery is Bougainville, a large low-grade copper deposit which has only recently become profitable to exploit because of improved mining technology. On the other hand, Mount Isa is, an example of a large relatively high grade deposit which has been mined for many years and around which a large town has developed in a remote region. ‘Hisoric miners conages, Burra, South Australia, Bougainville ‘The Bougainville copper mine is an example of a porphyry copper deposit Iti large, low grade and is situated in an area where oceanic crust is being subducted. The deposit was discovered in 1974 by Australian geologists who were searching forthis type of deposit because they knew that such deposits had ‘been discovered in similar geological environments. ‘The inital published reserves were about 90 million tonnes of ore containing 0.48% copper, 0.5 grams/tonne of gold, 3 ‘grams/tonne of silver and a trace of molybdenum, ‘The location of this mineral depositat Panguna on the island ‘of Bougainville in Papua New Guinea presented a number of problems to its discoverers, The area is relatively remote, the inhabitants ofthearea had no experience of miningand the very high tropical rainfall meant that developing the mine would be challenging, When operations were suspended due to political ‘unrest, the Targe open pit mine was producing about 550 000 tonnes of concentrate per year. containing 164000 tonnes of copper metal, 14 tonnes of gold and 48 tonnes of silver. ‘The orebody is in the shape of a steeply-dipping elliptical ‘ylinder and is associated with intrusions of porphyritic diorite into the andesitic volcanic rocks. Most ofthe copper isin veins and fractures or in the adjacent altered wall-rocks. The remainders disseminated in the porphyry. Chaleopyrite and a minor amount of bomnite are the main copper minerals, and gold and silver are associated with these. AUSTRALIAN v PLATE. saan ote w Ze SOUTHWEST PACIFIC SHOWING PLATE BOUNDARY. Location of Panguna porphyry copper depen relation to pla boundarySome common copper minerals Kadina, S Australia,At Mt. Isa bone: At Mount Isa. tres are being planted onthe perimeter of the mine ste and proces areas within the plant As they mature they act as windbreaks thus reducing airborne dus. Left Development mining ofthe T62 dete at Mount Iva The Lower ler Casing 310 hilegram copper anodes at the Mount ‘ka Copper Siler The andes are then transported by rail to MIMS Townsulle copper refiner Below: Using the patomed ISA PROCESS, copper is electrolytically depested ont stainless steel starting sheets at MIM'sTownsile reineMt. Isa ‘The Mount Isa mineis one ofthe largest underground mines in the world and is one ofthe few areas where significant quantities ‘of copper, siler, lead and zine occur in close proximity ‘Together with the integrated output from the nearby Hilton, silverlead-zine mine, Mount Ist produces neal six million tonnes of copper ore and some 46 million tonnes ofsilvertead- Zine ore per year Silver-lead ore was found at Mount Isa in 1923 but due to the ‘major problems of isolation and hnigh costs ull scale mining production was not achieved until 1931. Although capper ore in {quantity was confirmed inthe 193, twas not until the wartime scarcity of copper that mining and production of that metal began and silverlead-zine production ceased In 1946 copper production ceased and the plant reverted to silveread-zinc. Parallel production of silverlead-zine and copper began in 1953. ‘Today, Mout sais the world’s largest single mine producer of both lead and silver, and among the top ten in zine and copper. Up to June 1990 Mount Isa Mines had produced 130 Kilograms of silver, 49 million tonnes of lead, 377 million tonnes of zine in concentrate, and 395 million tonnes of copper. ‘The Mount Isa orebodies are strata bound in a sedimentary formation about 1000 metres thick called the Urquhart Shale. ‘This formation consists of alternating sedimentary beds ‘composed of dolomite, quart, mica and feldspat all of which were laid down about 160 million years ago. ‘The only significant economic primary copper mineral at ‘Mount Isa is chalcopyrite, which is associated with the iron sulfide minerals pyrite and pyrrhotite as disseminations and vein fillings situated within irregularly shaped zones of breceiated and recrystallised Urquhart Shale, known locally as “Silica dolomite”. While the copper orebodies and the silverlead-zine ‘orebodies occur within the same formation, they exist as close but separate entities which are mined and treated separately ‘The earliest discovered copper ore was that of the 650 ore body. The deeperand larger 1 100ore body atthe south end of the mine was first intersected by drilling in the early 1950s. The 650 ‘orebody has been worked out and today the 1100 ore body contributes most of the company’s copper production. The adjacent, much smaller, 1900 ore body is an imponant additional source of copper ore. {Dri00 orepoay = 5b a 28 1971 Eastern Creek Volcanics we Copper Oreboay * HM Lead-zine Oreboay "Silica Dotomiter Stopes Area TYPICAL CROSS SECTION SOUTHERN MINING AREA MOUNT ISA MINE Beneath the existing mine workings and to the north of the 1100 ore body lie the 3000 and 3500 copper orebodies. Development of a decline to access these deeper but slightly higher grade orebodies isin progress. Production is planned 10 ‘begin in the mid 1996's and will gradually replace output from the 1100 ore body asits reserves diminish, Because the 3000 and. 3500 orebodies are much deeper, ground temperatures will be ‘much higher (in excess of 50 degrees celsius). A refrigeration system as been installed to provide an acceptable working ccnvironment at depths in excess of 1.3 kilometres The Mount fea Mine in nom west (Queensland ome ofthe largest underground mines in the world fas daily output of about 40.000 tonnes of ‘ore and is one of he few anes the sword when the four minerals copper, ster feud and zine ar fora in close praiaOlympic Dam Olympic Dam ‘The Olympic Dam Operations was officially opened on November Sth, 1988, ‘The Operations now consist of: * A mechanised underground mine. * Aconcentrator ‘A hydrometallurgical plant. A copper simelier (using Outukumpw flash smelting technology). * A copper refinery (MIM electrorefining process) and ‘combined precious metals plant. Olympic Dam is somewhat unique in that three out of the four products processed on site, copper cathode, gold and silver are final products. The uranium oxide (yelloweake) is shipped overseas for further processing. are acpi gro ee Opie Ba ipa 1 Capper Cathode she 2 Unaniun Oxide (020) 4. Ammonium Diranate ADO) 4.5 Haga wnt reco of hemasite duit ‘muck pice Ge black parce) and fine grained borate + ‘ich chalconyrie yellow) + bare (white) + uote blak) casemblage fom a ate-stage ve Fare masive bunt (ble) with minor chalcopyrite veining. 9 Refcty-formed gypsum eral encrsting a cavity in barren Poses easier cat ace The Obympic Dam Mine can be entered frm the surface bya decline, This allows quick aces for personnel heay vehicles and equipment Discovery ‘The deposit was discovered by Westem Mining Corporation in 1975 as the result of an exploration programme which began with the development of'a model for the formation of sediment hosted copper deposits. This model proposed thatthe oxidation of basaltic rocks could release significant amounts of copper into solution and that, under favourable conditions, these solutions might pass upwards and precipitate their copper in sediments higher in the sequence. ‘The Stuart Shelf in South Australia was chosen for exploration because geological interpretation indicated that the conditions necessary for copper formation sugsested by the :nodel were present. The Olympic Dam site was selected for the first drill hole because of the presence of both gravity and aeromagnetic anomalies which suggested the presence of basalt and/or mineralisation at depth. The tetonie interpretation of thissite indicated the presence of deep crustal structures which right have allowed fluid migration, ‘The first drill hole, RDI, was completed in July, 1975. At a depth of approximately 350 metres below surface, it intersected. 38metres of 1.0% Cu within hematite-bearing granitic basement rocks underlying a younger sedimentary sequence. Several of the following drill holes intersected only low grade ‘mineralisation. However. towards the end of 1976 dill hole RD10 produced an intersection of 170 metres containing 2.1% ‘Cuand0.6kg/tU:O.,thusconfirming the economic potential of the deposit. Underground diamond drillers at Olympic Dam. 10The orebody is emtirely confined to a large body of course breccias, with lesser amounts of finely-banded and laminated rocks, The principal components of the breccias are fragments, (of granite (clasts) and a variety of hematite types. The granite clasts are believed to have come from the surrounding granitic rocks while the hematite is thought fo have been introduced possibly as an early phase of the mineralising episode. The breccia clasts occur within a matrix which is also composed of hematite and finer grained granitic material In some parts of the deposit the breccias contain other components such as clasts of volcanic rocks. The marginsof the breccia complex are irregular. However, on the basis of drilling the complex appears to have an irregular but approximately circular outline in plan and is 5-6 km in diameter. The mineralisation consists of fine- to medium-grained disseminated copper sulfides and fine-grained disseminated pitchblende. The principal copper sulfides are chalcopyrite, >ornite and chaleocit The distribution of these sulfides conforms to a complex but very consistent pattern throughout the deposit. The higher grade oe zones ate comprised of disseminated chaleocite and bornite ‘and they fend to occur higher up in the deposit, Higher grade luranium-rich areas generally contain yeinlets or blebs of pitchblende as well as the liner-grained disseminations. Low. Jumbo operator in action at the face, dling blasthole but economically significant levels of gold and silver occur with all Gopper/uranium mineralisation. Significant concentrations of rare earth elements, especially lanthanum and cerium, ate also present and some discrete zones of gold mineralisation have also been outlined, ‘The Olympic Dam ore environment is interpreted as a large hydrothermal breceia complex: the breccias having been generated by a variety of hydrothermal processes, phrealo- magmatic explosions and cataclastic events. Evidence suggests that the system vented at the surface, creating an eruption’ collapse crater (maar) in which some of the primary breccias were reworked by sedimentary processes. Much of this maar was subsequently removed by erosion. Venting breceiation, hydrothermal alteration and mineralisation occurred tepeatedly. overlapping in time and space. Below: Simplified westeas geological eros section through the Olympic Dam deposit page 65). (Talcen from Mine Geologists’ Conference Volume, the Aust LMM, 1990, protenaza = aExploring for copper Until about the 1960s,explorers found mostcopperorebodies by Visual recognition of their outcrops on the surface. Secondary ‘copper minerals formed by weatheringareoften brightDlue and, areen. In well-explored regions, most of the outcropping ‘orebodies have probably been found, so that we nowneed to use ‘more sophisticated techniques to search for hidden deposits These techniques involve geology, geochemistry, geoph: and ultimately driling. Amdel scientist analysing he copper content of ore, Understanding of geological processes is asic to all exploration. Part of this understanding involves the development of models forthe formation of ore bodies. These are usually based on the geology of deposits already discovered and are used to give the exploration team ideas about what to Took for. Much of the initial exploration work involves the selection ofareasin which to look forthe deposits ofa particular wype. The discovery ofthe Olympic Dam ore depositisan example ofthe successful application of this type of exploration, All the available data from previous exploration is usually researched before field work begins. so that work is not unnecessarily duplicated, Geological mapping may be required in poorly known areas, but maps published hy Government seological survey divisions are usually available and can be of reat assistance in sclection of areas of interest, The interpretation of images from aerial photography and satellites reveals gcological featuresthat canalsobe used torefine areas of inverest The first actual fieldwork in many cases is @ reconnaissance suney 10 see if the geological interpretation is valid. If so geochemical surveys may follow: Ficld crews sample stream sediment, soil or rock, dependi con the surface terrain and of the area, Geologists will design the survey to detect unusual concentrations of copper that might be associated with an ore deposit, Follow-up surveys will attempt to trace the source of any unusually high copper concentration. Dailing isthe only wey 10 confi the presence of mineralisation whic is below the surface. Because of ptemial onsironmental danas, driers ‘must be care wine sting she dil. Rehabilitation of dr tes soften necessary asthe end of the programme Geophysics can be used at both the reconnaissance and the follow-up stages. Regional gravity and airborne magnetic survey maps are useful reconnaissance tools, especially in areas ‘of poor outcrop. Airborne clecirical methods may give a more direct indication of mineralisation in some places, ‘Atthe follow-up stage.a wide range of geophysical techniques can be employed. These all have the aim of pinpointi potential orebody by identifying areas with anomalously density, magnetisation or electrical properties, Alter all of the geological, geochemical and geophysical data have been collected they are studied to select targets for drilling, Since drilling isthe mostexpensive phase of exploration, targets are carefully selected and are usually ranked in onder from most {0 least prospective. non aoe Ee cen piety C gsninalie din ta) pee ne Above: Drill samples provide information about rocks below the surface. Here ovo kinds ‘of samples are shown: on the lef she small piles of rack ehips each ; represent two metres of rack. The right shows rock coe bvained by damond deing Lefic Aerial reconnaio- samce somerines wing Aelcoprers, enables geologists to cover wide area ina shont 12The mining environment Care of the environment is a majorissue for Western Mining Corporation in all stages of exploration, development and Processing of mineral deposits. A thorough environment clearance is required before any development oceuts to ensure that impact on the natural flora, fauna and landforms as well as, Aboriginal sites is negated oF minimised, At Olympic Dam all aspects of the environment are stringently monitored and mining and processing operations are designed or modified to preventimpacts. Small areas which are disturbed for the construction of drill pads or access tracks are quickly rehabilitated. Knowledge gained from the revegetation of these sites will be used to ensure a successful abilitation of the remainder of the disturbed areas at the completion of mining and processing. Regular sampling ofthe local plant and animal communities has revealed that the impact of Olympic Dam Operations is negligible. In fact removing domestic stack from the mine lease and controlling feral animals, such as rabbits, has benefited the natural environment. Information gained on the distribution and ecology of the local flora and fauna, including the discovery ‘of many species not previously known to occur in the region, is, also a positive spin-off from environment monitoring. 1 The Narkeon Kestrel (Faleo conchroides) is one of ver 150 bint species regularly monitored by Olympic Dam Operations Swurt’s Desert Pea (Clianthus formesus) South Australia floral emblem whichis abundant in good seasons: 3A rehabilitated access tack 4 Monioring the success ofrehabiliaion ata dil pad. 5. The Goulds Goanna (Varanus gouldi) i the emblem of Olympic Dam Marketing 6 Ashy-haired Siainsona fSwainsona tephrotricha) flowering in rofeson on gibber las afer rinRETURN AIR TO STOPE TOP STOPE OUTLINE > ORILLING PATTERN AIR INTAKE ~ EXTRACTION Level “NBeACCESS AND AIR INTAKE MAIN LEVEL HAULAGE CROSSCUT COPPER MINING — OPEN STOPING A Wegner STI load-haul-ump unit at Olympic Darn, Onepass trek loading sation. 14Mining Copper in the Earth's crust occurs as copper minerals locked together with other minerals in a rock. In rare cases the ‘concentration of copper in the rock is high enough to be mined ata profit Such cases are called ore deposits. In almost ll ofthe copper orebodies around the world the copper is chemically combined with other elements forming ore minerals, These ‘minerals are mixed together with other minerals inthe orebody, These other minerals are called gangue minerals. To obtain a saleable copper proshict the ore must be mined «and concentrated. The copper must be liberated irom the other intetlocking minerals then separated ftom all other contaminants. Most copper ores are mined by either underground oF open nining. Somecopperisrecovered by directleachingfrom the rock, using acidic, alkaline. or biological reagents in solution. The choive between underground or open pit methods is an economic one, which depends on the size. grade. and structure of the orebody, and on the depth of barren overburden. Today, ‘open pit mining of copper predominates worldwide because most porphyry deposits are mined in this way Underground mining methods are more often used on high- grade stratiform orebodies, such as those of the African ‘Copperbelt, Mount Isa and Olympic Dam, and on many small, high grade, voleanogenic deposits. At both Olympic Dam and Mount Isa the mining of the copper orehodies is done by the method of open stoping. The word stope is a term used t0 describe an area where production ore is broken. Whai then is open stoping? Imagine a ‘mass of copper ore 40 metres wide by 50 metres long and up 0 300 metres high. which, in itself, represents only a fraction of the total orebody of which itis part... something like a single block in a structure made from building blocks. The object is 10 remove that single block of copper ore and, ultimately. all the blocks. Working from below the block, a system of drawpoints is excavated under the area to be stoped. slice ofore the heightof the stope is then excavated. This means that there is now an ‘open area along one side of the stope into which the ore can be progressively blasted. The broken ore falls(o the bottom of the stope andisextracted at the drawpoints by diesel powered frontend-loaders. The loaders transport the ore to passes leading down to ore trains. which discharge to primary and secondary crushers, Crushed ‘copper ore is hoisted to the surface in skips. A spiral twmel called deetne may be develope to give vehicles rapid ‘acess 0 underground ative The underground crusher station at Renivon Goldfields Consolidated’s Prince Lyell Mine, Tasmania ‘The miningofthe stopesis soarranged that regional pillarsof ore are left at intervals between the individual stopes in order to ‘maintain mine stability, At Mount Isa, when the initial, or primary, stopes are worked out, they are filled with a mixture of surface quarried siltstone and a slurry fill which comprises tailings from the flotation process, granulated copper smelter slag and a small percentage of cement. This mixture sets into a hard, rock-like formation, thus allowing ultimate recovery of all pillars between the initial stopes. Jnr mines without a delng all equipment must be taken underground in pleces and reassembled in underground workshops which avo carey out ‘maintenance of mining vehicles and equipment. 15Mineral processing Mineral processingembraces the remaining physical extraction Processes, liberation and concentration, Because of the hish cost of transporting ore, these processes usually ake place close to the mine. Liberation Because the copper minerals are usually present as fine grains through the rock, they must first be separated (liberated) by breaking the ore and gangue mineral particles free from one another. Thisisachieved by reducing the sizeof the ore through ‘two stages. Typically ore from the mine is transferred by conveyor to the crusher building where itis crushed to less than 10mm in size. Another conveyor then transports the fine ore to tod and ball mills where itis ground to a fine powder. Main convevor belt leading from crusher to loading stain about 480m ‘underground at Olympic Dam Concentration ‘Once the copperand gangue minerals have been liberated from each other, they must be physically separated, For copper sulfide ores the usual technique is froth flotation. The final product from the grinding section is pumped to the first stage of Notation — rougher flotation. The concentrate product of this stage is then pumped to two further stages — cleaning and recleaning to produce a final concentrate which contains anything from about 27 to 55 per cent copper. ‘The gangue minerals fall to the bottom of the flotation cells, and are disposed of as tailings. often being returned to the mine in the case of underground mining. ‘The flotation process atthe Mount Isa copper concentrator the mineral lings oir bubbles imioduced atthe bottom ofthe flotation cells The ‘opper concentrate then floats away and is recovered. aa The rude of copperin the conceniae depends largely on te mineralogy ofthe ore and the degre of recovery. A concentrate consisting of pure ‘haleopyrte (CuFeS) would comain nearly 35% Cx A pure chalcocte (C5) concentrate would contain nearly 30% Cu With oxide copper otes, copper is chemically leached trom the ore (hydrometallurgy). by-passing some of the physical separation processes. A combination of lolation and leaching. ‘may be used for mixed sulfide-oxide ores, Extraction Metallur Extraction metallurgy is the name given to the chemical extraction processes and comprises smelting and refining. Tt begins with the copper concentrate and finishes with at least ‘999% pure copper metal At Mount Isa the st phases: |. Roasting of the concentrate to remove some of the sulfur. 2, Smelting of the roaster product in a reverberatory furnace to produce a copper matte and an iron/silica slag, 3, Oxidation of the matte in aconverterto remove thelastof the sulfur. 1. Roasting is carried out in a Fluo Solids roaster which replaced hearth roasters in 1973. The main unit of the new roasting plant isa refractory-lined reactor vessel into which heated air is blown through a number of tuyeres near the ‘bottom of the vessel. The copper concentrate in the form of a slurry at 75-80 per cent solids, is fed into the reactor, and. ignition takes place, eliminating most of the sulfur. Caicine, which is mostly copper oxide, iscollected from thegasstream exhausted from near the top of the vessel ling of copper occurs in three The intense heat of a reverberator furnace melts the copper conceniate producing copper mane and waste slag 162. The caleine is charged into the coal-fired furnace through bun Feeders. As the charge melts at a temperature of more than 1000°C. the copper matte and the slag separate. Matte is tapped through a copper tapping block and slagis skimmed oll atthe other end of the furnace. Malte copper mate ts wransfered by cast set ladles to the conventers where silica is added causing a iron slg to forms. Afr this slg is removed from the mate, urher convener tearment produces Blister copper. 3. Converting is the process which burns off the remaining sulfur and removes iron slag, Matte from the reverberatory furnace is poured by ladle into one of three converter vessels along with silica Mux. The process in the converter is exothermic as the sulfur burns off. ron in the matte is fluxed to produce a slag, From the converters. copper goes to anode. casting furnaces where naphtha poling further reduces impurities. At Mount fea, molten copper is east into shapes called anodes which ‘are railed to the Townsville refinery for purification. Smelting and refining of copper is also carried out at Port Kembla, This copper smelter is one of four in Australia and treats concentrates from Cobar and Woostlawn in NSW. ad “Teutonic Bore in W.A. as well as scrap copper and metal from other sources. The smelting process is not exactly the same as thal at Mount Isa, Instead of using & reverberatory furnace. a blast fumacc is used to remove iron. Although the blast furnace is less energy elficient itis more versatile The tank house at Copper Refineries Py. Lu. where electrolytic fining of copper takes place using the patented ISA PROCESS. ISASMELT A new smelting process, ISASMELT is being developed and applied at ‘Mount Isa for both lea and copper smeting. In this process, developed Jointly by Moun Isa Mines Lid. and the CSR. ameitng occurs within an encloved reactor faciatingeffient and clean removal of. liberated gases: Airborne dust around the working environment is reduced as the feed for the smeling furnace cam be kept ois. This ‘much more efcient proces significantly reduces operating costs A 180.000 connes per year copper ISASMELT facility is curren being yy Stainless see! saring shes being loaded into an electrolytic cell where ‘he wll be suspended adjacen othe similarly suspended anodes. = oem = fl Refining The final stage inthe production of eopperforcommerical useis electrolytic refining. In the process, copper from the smelter is ‘made into anodes which are suspended in cells of electrolyte adjacent to cathoules. The copper trom the anode is dissolved by ‘means of an electric current and then deposited on the cathode Copper from Mount Isa is refined in Townsville by Copper Refineries Pry. Ltd. In 1979 Copper Refineries Pty. Ltd. implemented the ISA PROCESS for the electrolytic reining of copper. The process featuresthe use of permanent stainless steel cathode plates and associated copper cathode stripping machinery. The use of stainless steel cathode plates is another Australian developed technology. It replaces the older method of using thin copper starting” sheets as cathodesin the refining process. It is a major advanee in copper electrolytic refining practice and has attracted worldwide interest. It is currently being used or installed under licence agreements in the US. Canada, Mexico, Austria, Germany and at Olympic Dam in South Australia, v7Copper rod ready for export Australian Mine Production of Copper (1) 1989 ‘Queensland 778.000 New South Wales 24.000 Tasmania 23.000 South Australia 446 000 Wiestern Australia 7.000 Northern Teraitory 10.000 To 285 000 ‘Source: BMI and company annual reports, Principal Mine Producers of Copper (0) 1989 Mount ia 172.000 ‘Mount Lyell 17.000 Rosebery and Qué Ri 8000 Woodlawn 8000 CSA (Cobar) 15000 Olympic Dam 38000 Broken Hil Fis 3000 Tennant Crock 10000 Nickel Mines (wa) 2.000 Source: BM and company annual resorts Map courtesy of the Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics | Mountisa mineancsmelten;2 Selwyn by-product Cufrom Aumiingh 3 Townsvile (refinery 4 CSA. (Cobar 5 Chosnay, Gladstone 6 Benambra.7 Port Kembla(smeter& refinery); 8 Woodlawn; Broken Hllarea by-product Gu tom Zn Pb-Ro mining): 10 Rosebery, Que iver, Heyer (by-product CUtromZn-Pb-Agmining): 11 Mount ye; 12. Burra (copper oxide); 18 Mount Gunson; 14 Olympic Dam (Roxby Downs) Operations: 18 Kwinana (by-product Gu trom Ni retiring) 16 Golden Grove; 17 Horseshoe Lights y-product Cu trom Au mirng}: 18 Mons Cupri 19 Tennant Greek (mine and closed smote}, 20 Belcoornc; 21 Cada; 22 Parkes; 28 Niy,24 Thalanga: 25 Kambalda (y- product (Cu from Ni riring) Copper in the Australian economy In 1987/88 Australia produced copper worth $580.3 million of ‘which $413 million waseamed in export revenue. Employeesin copper mining and processing received approximately $100 million in wages and salaries. More than 3000 people are directly involved in the copper mining industry helping Australia to be the seventh Largest producer of mined copper in the Wester world. The principal producers of capper in 1989 are liste in the table. Tn 1988 refined copper production atthe Olympic Dam mine began and together with Mount Isa, these two areas contain 92% of Australia’s demonstrated economic resources In recent years the tonnages of copper ores and concentrates Which are exported has decreased. ‘The majority of the export of these materials goes to Japan and U.K.markets, Importantly, however the tonnagesof refined copper exported has increased. The mostimportant markets for relined copper are U.K. and Japan followed by the Federal Republic of Germany, and France. This change towards increasingtheamountof refined materalexportedcomparedto ‘ore and concentrates is important because it employs more Australians and brings a greater expor income for each dollar spent in production, This reflects the change in the Australian ‘mining industry towards the export of more refined and manufactured mine products which has oecurted during the past 10 years ‘The main consumers of copper are the more industrial economies. About 50% of the copper produced is used in electrical “applications, 20% in general and industrial engineering, 15% in building and construction, 11% in the transport industry and the remainder in other applications. Long term forecasts ofthe demand for copper are based on the fact that as an economy matures the quantity of copper consumed decreases. Forecasts of industrial production growth overthe period tothe year 2000 indicate that growth will average 25 to 30% below the 1951 to 1975 annual rates. The average growth rate of copper consumption is forecast at 26% per annum to the end of the century: CoPPER 18Using the figure of 73 million tonnes as the average annual refined copper consumption for the western world from 1978 to 181, the forecast of copper demand in 1995 is 10.7 million tonnes. The incremental consumption is 34 million tonnes. If mine production isto satisfy 85% of this increment, new maine production required to 1995 is 29 million tonnes per annum (assuming no closure of existing operations). These significant increases in copper demand, plus any loss of production resulting from closures, must be metby new supply sources and, where feasible by expansion of existing operations. The long lead time involved between the discovery of significant deposits and large-scale commercial production means that the deposits likely to be developed to satisty this ineremental demand will generally be among those currenily known. The projects likely to be developed first are those which are viable on the current cost structure of the industry. Western World Mine Production ‘of Copper ('000 t) 1990 Aostala 316 ala aed ” Genoa 728 Bagum 200 j Se 1609. Bret iol | “ Stina 80 Canada tet trdonosa es China 3 | Mores 253 fee 7 - Mongota 135 Gemany are Pope Now Guinéa 170 india 18 = ” Peru 317 Italy ava 2 3 Pipes tee depen 158 fH |g Poland 385 Mexico tos 2° we Portugal 17 Poland 2a F | | t ‘South Afica 478 South Afica e7 Sat | ni Use 1877 Sanka on || / uscr 950. Spain ‘ie | dn! 2ave 258 Sweden Ww “ Zenbia sie fawan bo oer wot Ue hw i" ar ir USA 257 | World Total 9151 1140 a. Lda ‘Tables courtesy of World Metal Yugostavia 113, oooh - Sisis 51 dearook Ofer 13s ne ‘Rota TORT. © ~conrenrmces- Copper cathodes wating shipment jrom Tovnsvlle, Queensland ‘Western World Consumption of Refined Copper (000 1) 1990, Back cover: Copper matte streams from the ISASMELT demonstration plant at Mount Ia's copper smelter. Developed by Mount Isa Mines Limiied and the CSIRO, the energy efficent and environmentally beneficial ISASMELT process is ax the forefront of international smelting techmology This brochure is available free of charge (while stocks last) from: Melbourne Victorian Chamber of Mines Inc. 61h Floor, 422 Collins Street, VIC. 8000 Canberra ‘Australian Mining Industry Council 216 Northbourne Avenue, Canberra, A.C-T, 2600, Sydney NSW. Chamber of Mines & Extractive industries Level 9, Underwood House, 27 Pitt Street, Sydney, N.S.W, 2000 Adelaide ‘South Australian Chamber of Mines & Energy Inc. ‘Annexe Wing, Australian Mineral Foundation {63a Conyngham Street, Glenside 5065, Brisbano Queensiand Chamber of Mines Limited 7th Floor, GSR House, 60 Edward Street, QLD. 4000 Darwin Northern Territory Chamber of Mines Inc. Suites 6 & 7, Ratfles Plaza, Buffalo Court, Darwin, N.T, 0800 Hobart ‘Tasmanian Chamber of Mines Ltd. 92 Davey Street, TAS. 7000, Perth Chamber of Mines and Energy of Western Australia Inc. 7th Floor, 12 St. Georges Terrace, W.A. 6000 19j yh My Hy \ os een P eee sen See eet ed actiies Neer een SS een a Niner eevee ete en ees Prev ee een on torenn ty oA ee eee One