ANALOG ELECTRONICS BALWINDER SINGH = ASHISH DIXITPublished by : LAXMI PUBLICATIONS (P) LTD. 113, Golden House, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002 Phone : 011-43 53 25 00 Fax : 011-43 53 25 28 info@laxmipublications.com www.laxmipublications.com All rights reserved with the Publisher. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any formor by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher. Price : Rs, 130.00 Only. First Edition : 2007 © Bangalore OFFICES USA 080-26 61 15 61 Boston 044-24 34 47 26 11, Leavitt Street, Hingham, 0484-239 70 04 MA 02043, USA 0361-254 36 69, 251 38 81 Hyderabad 040-24 65 23 33 eeeaececesceo 0181-222 12 72 033-22 27 37 73, 22 27 52 47 0522-220 95 78 022-24 91 54 15, 24 92 78 69 0651-230 77 64 EAE-0748-190-ANALOG ELECTRONICS C—14106/07/04 Typesetted at : Shubham Composer, N. Delhi. Printed at : Mehra Offset Press, Delhi,CONTENTS 1. HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSISTOR 1.1 Introduction 1.2. Hybrid Parameter (For Low Frequency) 1.3 Introduction : Hybrid-t Model 1.4 Frequency Response of an Amplifier 1.5. High Frequency Hybrid-n Model Summary Solved Numerical Problems Tutorial Exercise Numerical Problems 2. LARGE SIGNAL (POWER) AMPLIFIERS 2.1. Introduction 2.2 Difference between Voltage Amplifier and Power Amplifier 23 Single Ended Transistor Power Amplifier (Large Signal Amplifier) 24 Classification of Power Amplifier 2.5. Class A Direct Coupled Amplifier With Resistive Load 2.6 Transformer Coupled Class A Amplifier 2.7 Class-A Push-Pull Amplifier 28 2.9 Class-C Amplifier 2.10 Class-B Push Pull Amplifier 2.11 Complementary Symmetry Push-Pull Amplifier 2.12 Class-AB Operation and Cross-Over Distortion 2.13 Thermal Runaway 2.14 Power Consideration and Heat-Sinks Summary Solved Numerical Problems Tutorial Exercise Numerical Problems 3. MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIER AND TUNED AMPLIFIER 3.1. Introduction 3.2. Cascade Amplifier 3.3. Amplifier Coupling 3.4 Different Coupling Used in Multistage Amplifier 3.5. Effect of Coupling Capacitor on Low Frequency Response 3.6 Emitter Follower 3.Z Source Follower ) 45-86 45 46 48 50 53vi Contents 6. 3.8 39 Darlington Connection Bootstrapping: 3.10 Tuned Amplifier Summary Solved Numerical Problems Tutorial Exercise | - g Introduction. Basic Concept of Feedback ‘Types of Feedback Principle of Feedback in Amplifiers Single Loop Feedback Amplifier (Principle) Effects of Feedback Circuits Linear Analysis of a Transistor Circuit (Miller Theorem and its Dual) Summary Solzed Numerical Problems Tutorial Exercise Numerical Problems OSCILLATORS 51 5.2 53 54 55 5.6 57 Introduction. Oscillatory Circuit Conditions for Oscillations (Bark Hausen Criterion) RC Oscillators Hartley and Colpitts Oscillator Crystal Oscillator Frequency Stability of Oscillator Summary Solved Numerical Problems Tutorial Exercise Numerical Problems REGULATED POWER SUPPLIES 61 6.2 63 64 65 66 6.7 68 Introduction Rectifier Circuits Different Ratings of Diode Filters Bleeder Resistance Voltage Regulation Current Limiting Circuits Load Regulation Summary Sotved Numerical Problems Tutorial Exercise INDEX SEKERGR E EREREES sf RRRE 201-271 201 203 217 217 227 228 242 243 244 245 271 2pHearty Thanks To Maj Get KK. Ohre AVM (Reta) Director General. Amity University Campus, Luckhow & Or, Arute Khosla Or, Sukhleen Bindra Assistant Professor, Professor Dept of Electronics, & Comm. Engg Dept of Electronics Technology National Institute of Technology, Guru Nanak dev University, Amritsar Jalandharaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.PREFACE We feel immense pleasure in bringing this book Analog Electronics to you, although number ‘of books on this subject “Analog Electronics” are available in the market but they either lack in the proper subject treatment or the solved examples are difficult to understand. The purpose of writing this book is to present the subject matters in a most concise, compact and lucid manner. The book comprises of the six chapters, each chapter contains the adequate text supported by self explanatory figures, large numbers of solved examples, proper reasons basic concepts and summary at the end of the each chapter. While preparing manuscript, we constantly kept in mind the requirements of all the students, regarding the latest as well as changing trend of examination, the contents of this book are adequate, simple language and easy to understand in order to explain the topics in very simple way, analytical and mathematical approach is provided whenever is necessary. We hope the book will meet the requirement of students, for whom it has been designed. We would like to thanks all our friends likes Vijay Thakur, Paramjeet Singh (USA), Mr. Neeraj Sharma, Amit Garg (SCL, Mohali), Renu Bala, Harkamal Preet Singh, Anupamdeep Sharma, Sumit Jain, Sachin Gupta, Megha Singla, Rajeev, Tarvinder Kaur, Umesh Pandey, Pawan Yadav, Shivender Singh, Neha Mittal, Eila Gupta, Siddharath Sidhu, Anupam for their encouragement during the preparation of the book. Although every care has been taken in printing the book, yet the every factor of human error can’t be ruled out. Any errors, omissions and suggested for the improvement of this book, brought to our notice will be thankfully acknowledged and incorporated in next edition —Authorsaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.High Frequency Transistor 3 or hy 2 a hny is forward current gain with output short circuited. When input terminal is open, i.e., i, = 0, then from equation (1.1), or Jn is the reverse voltage gain with input is circuited open. From equation (1.1), iy = fy .0 + Aig . D or ip = It i, ae hy = 2 ‘hy, is the output admittance with input is open circuited. All the four hybrid parameters are given at a glance yy = = is input impedance with output shorted and have unit ohm. This parameter can h be represented by h, hy, = = is forward current gain with output shorted and have no unit. Forward current 4 gain is the ratio of output current to the input current and can be represented by lip = a is the reverse voltage ratio with input open and have no unit. Reverse voltage 2 gain the ratio of input voltage to output voltage and can be represented by h,. h yy = “2 is the output admittance with input open and have a unit chm” or mho and can 0 be represented by h. Hence, these parameters consist of constants having different units and are measured with both short and open circuited terminals. Thus, the parameters are hybrid and hence the name hybrid parameters is justified. ‘The following table summaries h-parameters and their meaning. S.No._| heparamerer Meaning } ‘Condition 1 hy Tnput impedance ‘Output short circuited 2 yy Forward current gain} Output short circuited 3. hs Reverse vollage gain | Input open 4. by Output admittance Input openaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.High Frequency Transistor 41 lie + Aire Ry k+80x1x 10k Problem 5. The transistor in the amplifier shown has following parameters : hy = 100, ZED, Bre = 0, Ige= 0.05 m mos, C is very large. The output impedance is 9Ve¢ 58K 5K c 10K: 1K: gaeeall Figure N (1.3) hig hy, Sol. Yo = hae - EE oe eR, where R, = source Resistance 100x0 Yp = 0.05 x 103 ~ > : * 2x10 +R, Yy = 0.05 x 103 1 1 a Y, 005x107 Z=20kQ Problem 6. For the emitter follower with R, = 0.5 k Qand R, = 5k Q. Calculate Ay Ry Aye ASSUME Nyy = 5, hg = 1K Q, lige = 25 micro amp/volt Sol. Lt Me 1451 14h, Ry 1+25x10°x5x10 A; = 46.222 Ans. ( The current gain A, Gi) Input resistance let hye AR, ie FLA, = hye + AR, R, = 1x 109 + 46.22 x 5x 10? = (1 + 231.11)107 32.11 x 1072 R, = 232.11kQ ii)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.70 Analog Electronics 2.14 How to avoid thermal runaway ? In this article, we are going to discuss the restrictions to be fulfilled for avoidance of thermal runaway. The required condition is that the rate of release of heat at the J, (collector-junction) must not exceed the rate at which the heat can be dissipated. Mathematically ; Pe | should be satisfied for thermal stability of the transistor, aT, In order to avoid thermal runaway : Ie > = Yee should be satisfied. 2(Re +Rc) Heat-sink ‘As we know that the increase in junction temperature causes self destruction of the collector junction. In order to avoid the phenomenon of thermal runaway (specially for the transistors handling high magnitude power signals) there should be some arrangement with the transistor which could wipe off the heat generated instantly. For this purpose, we often use a heat-sink. A heat-sink is a metallic foil either rectangular or circular that is used to dissipate heat developed at the collector junction of transistor. POWER CONSIDERATION AND HEAT-SINKS In the power amplifiers, power transistors are employed which handle large currents. Be~ cause of heavy current these transistors are heated up during operation. Heat-sinks are not only used with power transistors but they are also used with other electronic device like SCRs : trioc, TCs, etc. Heat-sink is just a sheet of metal (Generally aluminium) which improves the heat dissipation ability of power transistor and keeps its temperature within permissible limits. Since-the quantity of heat to be dissipated depends upon the surface area of the heat-sink therefore heat-sinks are designed in various shapes. Thus, by using heat-sinks, phenomenon of thermal runaway can be easily overcome. Mathematical Analysis The permissible power p dissipation of transistor is very important term of power transistor. The permissible power rating of a transistor is determined from the expression. Tce) ~ Trion Prot = 8 where, Proeai = Total power dissipated within the transistor in wats Ty ¢aax) = Maximum permissible junction temperature Tympien = Ambient temperature i.e., temperature of surrounding air in °C. © = Thermal resistance i.e., resistance of heat flow from junction to the surrounding air. Its units are °C/watt.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.78 Analog Electronics 8 = 0.08°CimW Pienaxy ~ Tan _ 90-25 8 0.08 Problem 8. We are to match a 20 speaker local to an amplifier so that the effective load resistance is 10 k&2. What should be the transformer turns ratio ? Sol. We know that, = 812.5 mW. Ans. 2 N, RJ Nz where Ri, = effective load resistance load resistance or speaker Primary turns Secondary turns Given Ri, = 10 kQ = 10x 10002 R, = 29 2 " NM) go Ny R n= {Re RL or Moai Ny Problem. 9. A sinusoidal signal V, = 1.75 sin 600 t is fed to an amplifier the resulting output current is of the form ly = 15 sin 600 t 1.5 sin + 12001 + 1.2 sin 18001 + 0.5 sin 2400 t. Calculate : (a) Second, third and fourth harmonic distortions, (b) Percentage increase in power because of harmonic distortion. Sol. We know that (i Second harmonic distortion, D, = 2. = 15 = 0.10 Third harmonic distortion, Fourth harmonic distortion, (i) To calculate the percentage increase in power, first-of-all calculate total distortion factor (D). And assume that input power is P,. The distortion factor is :aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.82. Analog Electronics Problem 15. An output waveform displayed on an oscilloscope provided the following measured values. ) Vern, = 1.2 ¥, Vou. = 22 V. Vegg = 10V (0) Vetg, = 2V, Ver... = 18 V. Veeg = 10V Determine the percentage second harmonic distortion. Sol. Second harmonic distortion in terms of Vor... Vox, and Vcgg is given by the relation. 1 5 (Yor... + Ver...) Ve p, = Nee ce 00 Veto ~ VeE nn 3 (22+12)-10 3x232-10 (@ b, = 2 «100 = 2 «100 = 7.7%. Ans. 1 4 (18 +2)-10 w see 18-2 or D, vee =0 i,e., 0% or no distortion. Ans. Problem 16. In class-B push-pull operation the de power drawn is 25 W. At the ideal efficiency of power conversion what is the power delivered. Sol. Given Pitacy = 25W 11 = 78.5% = 0.785 Poa) =? P tus) ne 2a Fas Py ae) = 0.785 x25 = 19.625 W. Ans. Problem 17. Figure N (2.5) shows a push-pull class-B amplifier using complementary symmetry transistors. Given Vec = 6 volts. Peak output current amplitude is 1 amp. What is the de power drawn from each power supply ? +Vce Sol. Given Voc = 6 volts . 1, = Lamp Assume 1 = 78.5% = 0.785 in the case of class-B push-pull amplifier. = Foie Mee Vo Frias R z P, 0.785 = 2 or_ 0.785 = 2 Veo He 6x1 = (2. Ie = I, in class-B push-pull amplifier) =Vec Pye) = 6K 0.785 = 4.71 W Figure N (2.5)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.86 Analog Electronics 7. A single transistor is operating as an ideal class-B amplifier with a 1K load. A de meter in the collector circuit reads 10 mA. How much signal power is delivered to the load ? 8 The idealized push-pull class-B transistor amplifier whose characteristics are as in Figure ny P(2.4). The collector supply voltage Vcc and the effective load resistance Ri, = (&) R are fixed as the base current excitation is varied. Show that the collector dissipation P¢ s zero ‘at no signal (V,, = 0) rises as V,, increases, and pass through a maximum given by equation. 1Vv, 2V¢ Po max = SF at V, = — SS eR, ™ Yor Figure P (2.4) 9. The power transisior whose characteristics is used in the class-B push-pull circuits with R, = Oand Vo¢ = - 20 Vand Ri, = 15 Q. If the base voltage is sinusoidal with a peak value of 0.4 V, plot the output collector current.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.90 Analog Electronics +e fo es G4) where f,* = Lower cut-off er 3-dB-frequency after n-stage fi, = Cut-off or lower 3-dB frequency of each stage. ‘Thus, from equation (3.4) it is clear that as the number of cascaded stages increases the lower 3-dB frequency increases. Now, if we combine these two results we sce that a cascade of stages has a lower fu and a higher f, than a single stage, resulting in a shrinkage (decrease) in bandwidth. Example 1. A multistage amplifier consists of three stages. The voltage gains of the stages are : 80, 50, 30, find the average (overall) voltage gain in dB. Sol. We know that the overall voltage gain in dB of three stage amplifier is given by Aas = Agsi + Aas + Aans First we calculate the gains of individual stages in dB. Thus, Aaa = 20 logyo 80 Aggy = 20 logyg 50 Ags = 20 logig 30 = 29.54 dB Overall voltage gain is Aggy = 38.06 + 33.99 + 29.54 dB = 101.59 aB. Example 2. Find the overall voltage gain of the 3-stage (multistage) amplifier. If each stage has R,, = 1kQ; B= 60 and Re = 2.442. Sol. Voitage gain of single stage, 6, = BRC = 60x Voltage gain of one stage ireB = 20 logy Gy = 20 logy 144 = 20x 2.158 = 43.17 4B. Overall gain of the multistage amplifier (similar stages) G=3xG, = 343.17 = 129.4 dB. Ans. 3.3. AMPLIFIER COUPLING Earlier it was stated that almost every electronic devices contains at least one stage of amplification. Many devices contain several stages of amplification and therefore several _ amplifiers. Stages of amplification are added when a singlestage will not provide the required amount of amplification. For example, if a single stage of amplification will provide a maximum gain of 100 and desired gain is 1000, two stage amplification will be required The two stage might have gains of 10 and 100, 20 and 50 or 25 and 40. (The overall gain is the product of individual stages : 10x 100 = 20x 50 = 25x40 = 1000). Figure 3.3 shows the effect of adding stages of amplification. As stages of amplification are added, the signal increases the final output (from the speaker) is increased.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.94 Analog Electronics yo A Sn Me he. ee Ky Figure 3.8 Thevenin equivalent. Fly Ru, Current (I) = wil. wrest @) = Se (3.10) A,R, Current gain Aj, = + = —#=t B.A) I, Ruth, Input voltage Vj, = hie Ip = Agel, R, Output voltage V, = hie] = Seta --(3.12) So voltage gain, Ay, = 22 = ately Ru/(Rs + he) ER MR + he) Via Neely —hyeR ye Rp = Ren (3.13) The ~ve sign means a phase changes of 180°. As from the above equation of current and voltage gains are equal. (Aj = Ayn): (ii) High Frequency Range Analysis : In high frequency range, the reactance offered by coupling capacitor Cy is very small and it may be considered as a short-circuit. One most important factor that comes into picture at high frequencies is their capacitances. Inthe BJT, there are two depletion regions across the two P-N-junctions as shown in the Figure 3.9. + Voc Figure 3.9 B/T transistor capacitances.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.98 Analog Electronics F, is the upper cut-off frequency, so equation become 1 1 PPT (2h Gate BYP hy + Ry : 2m f, Cy -hy R 1 coat eicagals Q = sl Inf Cy he Re _ Ihe + Ri, From equation (3.26), | Aw | = oe .-3.28) -@) cea Ylrtane,y) ~~ (Z) Oy = 180° - 0, = 180° ~tan™ (Z) -.-(3.30) f At f= fy, Oy = 180° - 45° = 135° So 6,; decrease below 135°. If fis further increase. Frequency response of RC coupled amplifier : The frequency response of an amplifier is nothing but a graph, which indicates the relationship between the voltage gain as a function of frequency. Generally, the voltage gain (in decibels) is plotted along the vertical axis and frequency along the horizontal axis of the frequency response graph. Vottage gain (48) —>- 400 Hz 20 kHz Frequency (Hz) —>- Figure 3.12. Frequency response of RC coupled amplifierMultistage Amplifier and Tuned Amplifier 99 Itis evident from Figure 3.12 that voltage gain drops off (or rolls off) at low frequencies and at high frequencies, while it remains constant in the mid-frequency range. The behaviour is discussed in more detail follows : (a) At low frequencies (i.e., below 100 Hz) : We know that the capacitive reactance (X) is inversely proportional to the frequency. Thus, at low frequencies, the reactance of the capacitor C is quite large. Therefore it will allow only a small part of the signal to pass from one stage to the next stage. Besides, this the emitter bypass capacitor (Cg) cannot shunt the emitter resistor effectively, because of its large reactance at low frequencies. As a result of these two factors, the voltage gain rolls of at low frequencies. (b) At high frequencies (i.e., above 20 KHz) :In this frequency range, the reactance of Cc becomes quite small, therefore it behaves like a short-circuit. Asa result of this, the loading effect of next stage increases, which reduces the voltage gain. In addition to this, the capacitance of the emitter diode plays an important role at high frequencies. It increases the base current of the transistor due to which the current gain (B) reduces. Hence the voltage gain rolls off at high frequencies. (c) At mid-frequencies (i.e., between 100 Hz to 20 KHz) : The effect of coupling capaci- tor, in this frequency range is such that it maintains a constant voltage gain. Thus, as the frequency increases the reactance of Cr decreases, which tends to increase the gain. How- ever, at the same time, the lower capacitive reactance increases the loading effect of next stage due to which the gain reduces. ‘These two factors almost cancel each other. Thus, a constant gain is maintained through- out this frequency range. Advantages of RC coupled amplifier ® Itis the most convenient and least expensive multistage amplifier. & Ithas a wide frequency response. ® Itprovides less frequency distortion. Disadvantages of RC coupled amplifier Following are the disadvantages of RC coupled amplifier % The overall gain of the amplifier is comparatively small because of loading effect of successive stages. & Ithas a tendency to become noisy with age, especially in moist climates. = Itprovides poor resistance (or temperature) matching between the stages. Note. RC coupled amplifier has an excellent frequency response from 100 Hz to 20 kHz. This property makes it very useful in the stages of all public address systems. However, it may be noted that a coupled amplifier can not be used as a final stage of amplifier because of its poor impedance matching characteristics. Example 3. A two stage amplifier uses transistors of which the transistor parameters are hi, = 4.5 kQand hy = 330. If the load resistance, R,, = 5.5 k, find the required value of the coupling capacitor C, so that the lower cut-off frequency is SO Hz. Sol. Given : hj, = 4.549 ; Ry = 5.5kQ Ng = 330; f = 50 He100 Analog Electronics We know that lower cut-off frequency f; is given by =! _ f= 2nC (hy, + Ry. Gensel ee mf (Ie + Ri) Put the given values in above expression, then we get * a 2x 314x50(454+55)x10° 2x314x5 0.0319 x 10° F = 0.319 pF. Ans. Example 4. in two stage RC coupled amplifier the values for R, = 2&2; B = 80 and Ro = 1.5k@ Calculate the voltage gain for first stage and overall voltage gain in dB. Sol. Given Ry = 2kQ Re = 152 B= 80, ‘ nf she EHOW that there is losing effet on the firs stage frat we calculate effective lad of first stage . _RexR, _, 1500%2000 Ric = Rell = BER. > 1500 + 2000 = x = 857.15 2. 3500 Voltage gain of first stage, R G, = Bx Rac n= Bx a = 80x 8% Overall gain (voltage) G = G, x G, Let us calculate Gp, as there is no load effect on second stage ; ‘Voltage gain of second stage = 15 = 80x = 60 Overall voltage gain = G, x G, G = 34.28 x 60 = 2056.8 Overall voltage gain in dB = 20 logy G = 20 log 2056.8 G = 66.28. Ans.Multistage Amplifier and Tuned Amplifier 101 2, Impedance Coupling ‘The circuit shown in Figure 13(a) is a two stage impedance-coupled amplifier using NPN transistor amplifier circuits. The impedance is coupling is different from RC coupling is that collector resistance RC of first transistor has been replaced by an inductor L. The inductor turns are wound on a iron core and shielded to avoid the interference of magnetic field with the signal x igure 13(a) Two Stage Impedance-Coupled Transistor Amplilier. The equivalent circuit of two-stage impedance coupled transistor amplifier is shown in Figure 13 (6). & | I SR SR Sor‘! LMR SRS Say? Ry = L | Alll the capacitance have been considered as short circuit so voltage gain (first stage). — E Figure 13 (6) Equivalent Circuits. A= SE = XIE Ri] [Rol /Batler WO For X, >> Ry |} Rz| [Be Ay, = Ry] Ro} [Byte tage gain (second stage) = RellRe t re Advantage of Impedance Coupling (i) This type of coupling results in more efficient amplification because no signal power is wasted in inductor.102 Analog Electronics isadvantage of Impedance Coupling (i) It is heavier, costlier and larger than the RC coupling, 3. Transformer Coupling The circuit shown in Figure 3.14(@) is a two-stage transformer coupled amplifier. The circuit consists of two single stage common emitter transistor amplifiers. The Resistor Rc is replaced by the primary winding of the transformer. Note that in this circuit there is no coupling capacitor. The de isolation between the two stages is provided by the transformer itself. There is no existence of the de path between the primary and secondary windings of a transformer. However, the ac voltage across the primary winding is transformed to the secondary winding, The main advantage of the transformer coupling over RC coupling is that all the de voltage supplied by Vcc is available at the collector. There is no voltage drop across the collector resistor Rc. The de resistance of primary winding is very low. Operation : When the input is applied to the base of transistor Q,, its amplified output is appears across the primary winding of transformer T,, due to the sufficient magnetic induc- tion, it is passed to the secondary. After this the output of secondary T, is applied to the base of transistor Qy. The amplified output appears across the primary of the transformer T). i Te. ep. as Figure 3.14(a)_ Two stages using CE transistors, are coupled by a transformer. Analysis : For the analysis of transformer coupling the equivalent circuit of the above figure is shown in Figure 3.14(a). ty ks ly the), WE Shee, g Pe, — { <_——_—_ Fist siage Second stage Figure 3.14(b) Equivalent circuit of transformer coupled amplifier.Multistage Amplifier and Tuned Amplifier 103 Letk be the transformer ratio of the transformer, then LN: kee ke oN G31 Let us consider the input impedance of second stage (/,,) to the first stage, The trans- former with turn ratio k reflects a load impedance Z to the primary equal to a value é By considering this fact, let us again draw the simplified equivalent circuit diagram becomes (as shown in Figure 3.15). Figure 3.15. Equivalent circuit (simplified). kh The impedance (output) of first stage /,., and effective load transferred from second stage is o For maximum power transfer, these two should be equal, so equation is 3.32) 3.33) Kye Ay, . The current I, through the primary will be t=". (for matched conditions) Hence, T= So current gain is given by Tho Bi ha (3.34) I, Nr 2 The current gain is several times as large as the gain of RC coupled amplifier.104. Analog Electronics Example 5. A load of 20 Qis to be matched with a source that has an output impedance of 10kQ. Calculate (i) the transformer turn ratio so as to transfer maximum power to the load. (ii) the load voliage if source voltage is 8 V Sol. Load impedance, Z=209 Source impedance, Zs = 10kQ = 10,0000 Zy = KZ, where K is ratio of primary to secondary turns Ke K 0.348 V. Ans. Load voltage v= Advantages of Transformer Coupled Amplifier Following are the advantages of transformer coupled amplifier : ® No signal power is lost in the collector or base resistors, because of the iow winding resistance of the transformer. = Itprovides a higher voltage gain than the RC coupled amplifier. It provides an excellent resistance (or impedance) matching between the stages. The resistance matching is desirable for maximum power transfer. Disadvantages of Transformer Coupled Amplifier Following are the disadvantages of transformer coupled amplifier : ® The most obvious disadvantage is the increased size of the system, The transformer is very bulky as compared to a resistor or a capacitor. It is also relatively costlier. = At radio frequencies, the winding inductance and distributed capacitance produces reverse frequency distortion. ‘© Ittends to produce “hum” in the circuit. Frequency response of transformer coupled amplifier Figure 3.16 shows the frequency response for a transformer coupled transistor amplifier. From Figure 3.16, it is clear that voliage gain (in dB) drops off at low as well as at high frequencies, whereas it remains constant in mid-frequency range. Another noticeable feature is that at one particular frequency (f,) the voltage gain increases and then rolls off continuously. Resonant se igh feequercy Rol off Vostage gain (8) —s— Frequency (He) —>-Multistage Amplifier and Tuned Amplifier 105 Now. we will discuss this typical behaviour - as we know that output voltage of a transformer coupled amplifier is equal to the product of the collector current and the reactance of the primary winding of coupling transformer. At low frequencies, the reactance of primary winding (X, = 2n/L) begins to decreases and hence the voltage gain reduces. At high frequencies, the effect of leakage inductance and distributed capacitance becomes significant and hence the voltage gain reduces, The peak gain results due to resonance (or turning) effect of inductance and distributed capacitance, which forms a resonant circuit. The frequency at which the peak, occurs is called resonant frequency (fy). It has been found thar the flat part of frequency response curve of transformer coupled amplifiers is small as compared to that of RC coupled amplifier. As a result of this, these amplifier, cannot be used over a wide range of frequencies. Besides, this if they are used, they produce frequency distortion, which means that all the frequency components in a complete input signal are not equatly amplified. 4. Direct Coupled Amplifier ‘The amplifier used for amplification of very slowly varying signal makes use of direct coupling. ‘The range lies below 10 Hz. In this case it is to be noted that the capacitors, inductors and transformers cannot be used as a coupling nenwork at very low frequencies because the electrical size of these devices, at low frequencies becomes very large Figure 3.17 shows a two stage direct coupled amplifier. It is to be noted that the output of the first stage is directly connected to base of the next transistor. Moreover, there are no input or output coupling capacitors. R,. Rj. Rc and Ry, form biasing network. Input signal Figure 3.17 Twostage direct coupled amplifier. The signal to be amplified is applied directly to the input of the first stage. Due to the transistor action, it appears as the amplified form across the collector resistor or transistor Qi. This voltage then drives the base of second transistor Q, and the amplified output is obtained across the collecior resistor of transistor Qo. Frequency response of direct coupled amplifier : Figure 3.18 shows the frequency response of direct coupled amplifier. It is evident from figure that the gain is uniform up to acertain frequency denoted by f;. Beyond this frequency, gain rolls off at high frequencies due to increased emitter diode capacitance and stray wiring capacitance106 Analog Electronics ©) Voltage gain (68) —> [<—Fiat response—>i Frequency —> High frequency roll off Figure 3.18 Frequency response of direct coupled amplifier. Advantages of Direct Coupled Amplifier Following are the advantages of direct coupled amplifier : © The circuit arrangement is very simple because it uses a minimum number of resistors. = The circuit cost is low because of the absence of coupling devices. = Itcan amplify very low frequency signals down to zero frequency. Disadvantages of Direct Coupled Amplifier Following are the disadvantages of direct coupled amplifier : © It cannot amplify high frequency signals. » Ithas a poor temperature stability because of this Q-point shifis. In a multistage direct coupled amplifier, the Q-point is amplified in succeeding stages. Thus, a small de shitt in the first stage can cause the final stage to be either saturated or cut-off, All integrated circuit amplifiers are direct coupled because of the difficulty of fabricating large integrated capacitors. It leads to special problems in their design. Comparison of different types of couplings S.No.| Type of couplings! RC Transformer Impedance Direct Particular coupling coupling coupling coupling 1. | Size and weight — | Small Large and bulky | Larger and Very small heavier than RC coupling 2 | Cost Small Cosilier Costlier than | Very small RC coupling 3. | Frequency response | Excellent in the | Poor Good Best audio frequency range 4. | Impedance matching | Not good Excellent Not good Good Unsuitable 5. | Uses For voltage | For power For For amplification amplification | amplification | frequencies of extremely beyond audio | low frequency range signalsaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.108 Analog Electronics Main Characteristics of Emitter Follower (i) Ithasa voltage gain value close to unity (i.e. (ii) It has high input impedance (~ 10 ~ 30 kQ) (iii) It has low output impedance (=5 ~ 20 ) (iv) There is no phase shift between output and input in either voltage or current. () It increases the power level of the signal. Expression for current gain, input resistance, voltage gain and output resistance of emitter follower : () Current gain : be lth, es 3.35) 1+h.R, 1h, Rp G22) (if) Input resistance = Aig + Me Ay Ry Sig + Ay Ry ++:(3.36) (2 Re =D (iii) Voltage gain Ys A= ee 1:8. ay, (3.37) (iv) Output resistance 1th where Yp = Mtge - (1+ Ag) 3.38) Wet RS) 3.7_ SOURCE FOLLOWER As emitter follower does in BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor) source follower in FET (Field Effect Transistor). Source follower is also called a common drain amplifier. The output voltage of a source follower (or common drain) amplifier is approximately equal to and in phase with the input voltage. Because of this fact, the source follows the input signal. The circuit arrangement for source follower are shown in Figure 3.21. ron SEP Yoo Figure 3.21 Common drainor source follower configuration.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.110 Analog Electronics Current gain of second stage : < (1+ 4) Te Re {RL = Re she =-U +h} 1+h or (te) [Le Me Re < 0.1] or (1+ hy) Now, Bie + Al, Bre Rr, {we can neglect /,, since the current gain of C-C is very high} or, R= (1 +h) Re fh, Z1A, = 1+ hg so, A, = or A, = 1+ hg) I+ ye Re (1+ Ay) Current gain of Darlington pair : AV= A, xA or litte! © Ty Re + hye Re My (14%) THI Re hg or AL ++(3.39) {neglecting h,. Ry < 0.1} Equation (3.39) represents the current gain of a Darlington pair. For the standard values of hybrid parameter. A, for this configuration is found 427, and for the single stage common collector configuration it is about 50. It means Darlington pair has more current gain compared to the single stage emitter follower. Derivation for Input Impedance of Darlington Pair Input impedance, Ry = hie + Ay # Ry Mee = (1+ hg) : T+ hy hy Ry or R=Multistage Amplifier and Tuned Amplifier 111 (4 hg} .R, (1 Mtge bye -Re) or Ry hie + (+n) Re Tt lige hy. Ry +(3.40) From equation (3.40), it is clear that input impedance of Darlington pair is very high. Derivation for Voltage Gain From figure since the transistor is CC so input voltage must be equal to output voltage. ie, Ty Ii, = 1 + Aig) Me, Uy or Fig, = (1+ hig) hh, Now, _(t + hig) hig (1+ ge hy Re) - (1+ he), “ig hehe Re Ry So, overall voltage gain, A, = A, x A,, Ng, (14 lige =}}-4t ee or Ay ( < i Fey Ay 1-2 [2 + ge he Rel GAL) R, Derivation for Output Impedance Output admittance is given by relation.112. Analog Electronics Me = $i. Bi (1+ hg) r = o on he ER -G.41(a)) where Rom Ro, = ches But, R.=R = Yo (Rp) Now, on putting the value of Rg in equation (3.41(a)), we have 1 +h, Ye : h, “ R, + + 1 ee) eR * 1+ hy, 1 +h or Yo, = {1 +he) x © Bg, tHe, +t 1+ ty 2 1 +h, ae ee a 1 Digs + (14 Aye) + Rs = (tte) 7 or Yo. #35 + Ry {oo Aig = 1+ Mtg) Mig} 2(L+h,)+R, +0. Ro, = zl thal Rs G42) (14h) We conclude from equation (3.42) that the Darlington emitter follower has a higher input resistance and a voltage gain less closer to unity than a single stage emitter follower. The output impedance of the Darlington circuit may be greater or smaller than that of a single transistor emitter follower, depending upon the value of Rg relative to f,, . If Rs = 0, then Ro for the Darlington combination is twice Ro for a single stage emitter follower.Multistage Amplifier and Tuned Amplifier 113 +Vee 2 Ry 8 ye. «| Pe Yo R Fi Cy Tf re 3.24 Advantages of Darlington Pair Following are the advantage of Darlington Pair : @ It provides very high value of current gain (8) approximately 400. ® The circuit arrangement is very simple as very few components are used. # It posses excellent impedance transformation capability i.e., it can transform a high impedance source to low impedance load. Hence, it is used in a high gain operational amplifier which depends on very high input impedance for its operation as an integrator or summing amplifier. Disadvantages of Darlington Pair The major disadvantage of Darlington transistor pair is that the leakage current of first transistor is amplified by the second. Hence, the overall leakage current may be high and hence a Darlington connection of three or more transistor is usually impractical. 3.9 BOOTSTRAPPING We have just discussed the analysis of different parameters for Darlington pair connection, and seen that input impedance of Darlington pair was very high. However, biasing problem, results in decrement in the input impedance of Darlington connection. This difficulty can be ‘overcome by using a bootstrapping circuit. ‘Thus, in reference to the Darlington pair Bootstrapping is nothing but an improvement of input impedance in the Darlington pair. The circuit which provides this facility is called Bootstrapping circuit. Figure 3.24 shows the typical biasing network of resistors R,, Ry and Rg. The input resistance R’ of this stage (procedure will be discussed latter) isR; | | R’, where R’ = R, | | Ry. ie. R=R,|[R’114 Analog Electronics - or R=R, |] Ri || Ry 3.43) From equation (3.43), it is clear that since Biasing resistors are in order of kQ, therefore the resultant input impedance decreases, or in other words we can say biasing create a problem that reduces the input impedance. We get resultant input impedance of the order of kQ. To overcome the decrease in the input resistance due to the biasing network, the input circuit of Figure 3.25 is modified by the addition of C’ between the emitter and the junction of R, and R,. The capacitance C’ is chosen large enough to act as a short-circuit at the lowest frequency under consideration. The bottom of R, is effectively connected to the output (the emitter), whereas the top of R, is at the input (the base). Since the input voltage is V, and output to voltage is Vp = A, V, by using A.C. equivalent model of Figure 3.15 and applying Miller theorem (which will be discussed in detail). The biasing arrangement Rj, Ry and Rj represents an effective input resistance of : 3.44) Rg R Figure 3.25 since, for the emitter follower, A, approaches unity, Rey becomes extremely large. For example, with A, = 0.995 and R; = 100k, we find Rag = 20 MQ. The above effect, when ‘A, > + 1, is called Bootstrapping. The term arises from the fact that, find one end of the resistor R, changes in voltage, the other end of Rz moves through the same potential difference ; it is as if R, were “pulling itself up by its bootstraps” . The input resistance of the Ne CC amplifier is R; = i.e., increased input resistance of the common collector (CC) configuration.Multistage Amplifier and Tuned Amplifier 115 3.10 TUNED AMPLIFIER Why we need a tuned amplifier : As we know that audio amplifier which operate between (20 Hz to 20 kHz) and radio frequency amplifiers which operate between (a few kHz to hundred of MHz). We can operate audio amplifiers at radio frequencies. But there are some drawbacks in it. They are : ® They become less efficient at audio frequencies. @ Their gain is dependent of signal frequency over a large bandwidth because of resistive load. These amplifiers are not capable of selecting a particular frequency while rejecting all other frequencies. Sometimes, we need to select a particular frequencies and their amplifica- tion for a special application, When radio frequency signals from different broadcasting stations reach the receiving antenna, a weak signal is induced in it. To extract the original audio signal from the receiver, it is necessary to amplify it. This is achieved by tuned amplifier. So tuned amplifier can be defined as “The amplifiers which amplify a narrow band of frequencies signal are called tuned amplifiers” . Such amplifiers are widely used in radio and TV circuits where radio frequency signals are to be handle. So we need to employs a tuned circuit in a tuned amplifier (as shown in Figure 3.26). ‘The tuned circuit is capable of selecting a particular or relatively narrow band of frequencies with the phenomenon called resonance, The centre of the frequency band is the resonant frequency of the tuned circuit. Figure 3.26 Tuned circuit. So before the discussion of tuned amplifiers let us discuss tuned (resonant) circuits and their analysis in more detail. Tuned (Resonant) Circuits : There are two types of tuned (resonant) circuits : (i) Series tuned circuits (ji) Parallel tuned circuits Both types of circuits consists of resistance, an inductance L and capacitance C with two elements connected in parallel or in series to form parallel tuned circuits and series tuned circuits respectively.116 Analog Electronics Analysis of series tuned circuits Consider a series RLC circuit shown in Figure 3.27. Figure 3.27 RLC Series Circuit The total impedance for series RLC circuits is 1 Zs =R+j(X_-X) =R +j| oL- — 16-80 «Rat ) Ms Zs ‘The circuit is said to be resonance if the current is in phase with applied voltage of if X,, = X¢ (for series). The frequency at which the resonance occurs is called the resonant fre- quency. 1 At the resonance x, = X¢ i. ot At resonant frequency, the voltage across capacitance and inductance are equal in magni- tude, but they are 180° out of phase with cach other. They cancel cach other, and so the zero voltage appears across the LC combination. If we solve the above equation, we get XL = Xe ase oC or ong = + 2mf,C L 2 i> aie 1 he 2nJ LC In RLC series circuit, the resonance effect can be obtained by varing the frequency and kept L and C constant.Multistage Amplifier and Tuned Amplifier 117 Resonance curves : The resonance curve shows the variation of impedance and current with frequency in Figure 3.28. Z impedance ‘Current 1, Figure 3.28 Resonance Curve. At resonant frequency, the capacitive reactance is equal to inductive reactance, and impedance is minimum. The maximum current flows through the circuit. At the zero frequency, the capacitor acts as an open circuit and block current. The complete sources voltage appears across the capacitor. If we start to increase the frequency, the Xc decreases and X, increases, causing total reactance (X¢ - X,) to decreases. Due to decrease in impedance the current increases, Vp also increases, and both Vc and V, increases. Ifthe frequency reaches its resonant frequency valuef,, the impedance is equal to R, hence the current reaches its maximum value, and V, is at its maximum value. If the frequency is increased above resonance, X, increases continuously and X¢ decreases continuously. It causes the total reactance X, - X¢ 0 increases. As a result there is increase impedance and a decrease in current if the current decreases, Vp decreases and Vand V, also decreases. As the frequency becomes very high, the current reaches to zero, both V, and Ve also reaches zero, V; approaches Vs. Bandwidth of RLC (Tuned Series Circuits) The bandwidth of the system is defined as the range of frequencies for which the current or output voltage is equal to 70.7% of its value at resonant frequency. Band width Figure 3.29 | Bandwidth of Tunned Series Circuit.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Multistage Amplifier and Tuned Amplifier 119 Parallel tuned circuit In a parallel resonance or tuned circuit consist of an inductor (coil) and capacitor are connected in parallel across an ac source as shown in Figure 3.30. The parallel resonant circuit is generally known as tank circuit. Because the circuit stores energy in the magnetic field of the coil and in the electric field of the capacitor. c f. 1 F R, a Figure3.30 Parallel Tunned Circuit. The circuit is said to be resonant condition, if the susceptance part of admittance is zero. The total admittance (Y) of circuits is given 1 RL +)X, Simplified form of above equation is a Lx BaP d= oh +t - gta Ri+X? Xo Ri+X? Xe Ri+x? The susceptance part is zero to satisfy the condition of resonance : Y= 1 xX Xo Ri+k? _ ob From the above equation, L Ri+@L =120 Analog Electronics 2 Usually, the resistance of inductor is very small so we can neglect the value x. we get 1 Res Me = S sonant £” ste Resonance Curve : The impedance of a parallel tuned (resonant) circuit is maximum of f, and decreases at lower and higher frequencies as shown in figure 3.31. Xe Xe X.< Xp 1 t Figure3.31 Resonance Curve Sharpness of resonance ‘The resonance curve, of a resonant circuit, is required to be a sharp as possible in order to provide a high selectivity. The sharp resonance curve means that the impedance falls off rapidly as the frequency is varied above and below the resonant circeit frequency. Math- matically, the sharpness of a resonance curve is defined as the ratio of the bandwidth of the circuit to its resonant frequency i.e. sharpness of resonance Bandwidth = _ BW_f,-f_ 1 Resonant frequency fy fy Qo where Qo is called the quality factor or simply Q-factor of the circuit at resonance. Sharpness Mathematically _ Xi @y Lb _2fy Lb %= R R where L = Value of circuit inductance R = Value of circuit resistance or coil resistance. ‘Small R Impedance, ———> Freeney Figure 3.32 Effect of coil resistance {R) on the sharpness of resonant curves.Multistage Amplifier and Tuned Amplifier 121 Thus, we conclude that a higher value of quality factor provides a higher frequency selectivity, but a smalter bandwidth, whereas a lower value of quality factor provides a poor selectivity but a larger bandwidth. Example 7. A tank circuit (parallel) has an inductor of 15 wH and capacitor of 1000 pF and the resistance of inductor is 5092. Calculate (a) Resonant frequency ; (b) Impedance at resonance ii (©) Q-factor and (d) Band width (BW) Sol. Given : =15x10°H C = 1000 pF = 10x 10? F 1 1 {a) pe Stee fe fi Inf LC amy 5x10" 6 x 1000 x 10"? = 1299.5 kHz L 15x 10-§ © ge pe re ® CR ~ TOO xIO Fx ~ Oe 3 6 wo Qa ULL _ 20x 12995 x10? x15 x10° R 50 = 2.452. f _ 12995x10° Bw = 2c = ERO XN) = 519 kHz. Ans. @ 0 35 a2 AM Single Tuned Voltage Amplifier Figure 3.33 shows the circuit of single tuned voltage amplifier using BJT for low fre- quency applications. For microwave range we should go for FET or vacuum tubes like pentodes etc. Figure 3.33 (a) is called capacitively coupled tuned amplifier because the output is taken through a coupling capacitor Ce. Similarly, the circuit shown in Figure 3.33(b) is called inductively coupled tuned amplifier because the output is taken across an inductor. qrvee ae oF ale Cy Ca if if 1 f 1 fe ve “; R, fi 5) 2 dig. (2) Capactively coupled (0) inductively coupled Figure 3.33 Single tuned voltage amplifier.122. Analog Electronics Both these circuits consist of transistor amplifier and tuned circuit is load. The values of capacitance (C) and inductance (L) of the tuned circuit are selected in such a way that the resonant frequency of the circuit is equal to the frequency to be selected and amplified. ‘The resistors Ry, Ry and Re are called biasing resistors. They provide necessary biasing voltage from Vc to the transistor. The resonant frequency of the circuit of the amplifier is made equal to the frequency of the input signal to be amplified. Frequency (Hz) ——>= Figure 3.34 Bw Curve for Single Tuned Voltage Amp. The voltage gain. = Ay = B R, L Lato L Bae Ay =—oB R, and bandwidth, BW = a= Double Tuned Voltage Amplifier Figure 3.35 shows the circuit of a double tuned voltage amplifier. It consists of a transistor amplifier with two tuned circuits. gree no 3) eo t Figure 3.35 Doubletuned voltage amplifier.Multistage Amplifier and Tuned Amplifier 123 One of the tuned circuits (L,, C,) is shown as the collector load and other (L, C) as the output. The resistors R,, R, and Rx are used to set-up Q-point for the transistor operation. The signal to be amplified is applied at the input terminal through the coupling capacitor Ce. The resonant frequency of the L; C, is made equal to that of the signal by adjusting L, or Cy. Under these conditions, the tuned circuit offers a very high impedance to the input signal. As a result of this, large output appears across the tuned circuit L, C,, The output from this tuned circuit is inductively coupled to the Lz C2 tuned circuit. ‘The frequency response of double tuned circuit depends upon its degree of coupling. The degree of coupling gives an idea of the amount of energy transferred between two tuned circuits 1, aes Frequency Frequency Frequency {a) Tight coupling {(b) Critical coupling (©) Loose coupling Figure 3.36 Frequency response of double tuned circuit with different degrees of coupling. Stagger-tuned Voltage Amplifier It has been observed that if two or more tuned circuits, which are synchronously tuned are cascaded, the overall bandwidth decreases. However, if the different tuned circuits, which are cascaded, are tuned to slightly different frequencies, it is possible to obtain an increased bandwidth with a flat passband with steep sides. This technique is used in stagger-tuning. +Voo Fig. 3.37 Staggered tuned voltage amplifier circuit. Atvery low frequencies, X become very small and X, is very large so total impedance is inductive in nature. As frequency (f) increases impedance (z) also increases. After that X= Xy the impedance is max at this point. So current is very less at this point which satisfying the resonance. As the frequency further increases the capacitive reactance dominate and impedance starts decreasing.124 Analog Electronics 2 3 10. nL 2. i. 16. 7 SUMMARY There are different types of coupling namely Resistance Capacitor Coupling, impedance coupling, transformer coupling and direct coupling. Cascaded arrangement is one in which output of one stage is coupled with the input of the next stage A transistor in which a number of amplifier stages are in succession is called a multistage amplifier. R-C coupled amplifier has a wide range of frequency response. R-C coupled amplifier provides less frequency distortion. Transformer coupling is the best coupling because there is no power is lost in the collector hase resistors, because of the low winding resistance of the transformer. The main functions of a coupling device is to transfer only ac output of one stage to the input of the next stage and to block dc components and isolate the de conditions of one stage from the other stage Direct coupled amplifier usually used to amplify very low frequency signal Transfer coupled amplifier usualiy used to amplify very high frequency signal. Overall gain of a multistage amplifier is equal to the product of gains of individual stages. ie, A=A,KA,XA)X..A, Decibel is the common logarithm (log to the base 10) of power gain is known as bel power gain i.e. A= logy 2a bet Number of bets = logy Pat In @B, power gain = 10 logyy fo aB Vy, voltage gain = 20 logy —% dB current gain = 20 logie T a. Gain of multistage amplifier in 4B is equal to the sum of decibel gains of the individual stages. A (dB) = A, dB + A, dB + Ay dB +... A, dB. Frequency response, the curve drawn between voltage gain and signal frequency of an amplifier is known as its frequency response. Bandwidth may be defined as the range of frequency over which the gain of an amplifier is equal or greater than 70.7% of its maximum gain is known as band width. Higher or upper - 3B frequency of n-stage amplifier is given as Sat = ha f2"=1 where Su = initial frequency fut = frequency after n-stages = number of stagesvB. 20. Multistage Amplifier and Tuned Amplifier 125 Lower - 3B frequency of n-stage amplifier is given as fi fe . 2 where Ju = lower initial frequency (foo = lower initial frequency after n-stages n = number of stages. There is a shrinkage (decrease) of a bandwidth by using a cascaded amplifier. ‘A common collector configuration is also called emitter follower because its voltage gain is close to unity. In other words we can say that emitter follows the input signal. Common drain amplifier is called source follower. Emitter follower (C-C configuration) has very high input resistance and low output resistance. Darlington pair is nothing but a cascade connections of two common collector transistor, which passes very high input impedance and very high current gain. The major disadvantage of darlington transistor pair is that the leakage of current of first transistor is amplified by the second. Hence, the overall leakage current may be high a Darlington connection of three or more transistor is usually impractical. The final stage of an audio or multi-stage amplifier is power amplifier. The range of audio frequency is lies between 20 Hz w 20 kHz. Smail signal transistor tured amplifiers amplify small signals at radio frequencies. Power involved is small. They are operated under class-A. condition so that distortion is negligibly small. Large signal transistor tuned amplifiers are meant for amplifying large signals at radio frequencies, Power involved is large. Heuce, they are operated under class AB, B or C conditions providing large collector circuit efficiency. Staggered tuned amplifier uses a number of single tuned stages in cascade. The successive tuned circuits are tuned to slightly different frequencies. ‘An LC circuit is called a tuned circuit. At resonant frequency, inductive reactance and capacitive reactance become equal. For series resonance ; 1 2nJLc circuit impedance circuit current Quality factor BW = Q For parallel resonance circuit, if a Reg cli I FRVic L *2eVic126 Analog Electronics ziiy he cR wee a 36. High selectivity of the tuned amplifiers depend on the sharpness of the frequency response curve. 37, For cascaded stages : Sit =a V2 =I SOLVED NUMERICAL PROBLEMS Problem 1. A multistage amplifier consists of three stages. The voltage gains of the stages are 30, 60 and 90. Calculate the overall voltage gain in dB. Sol, We know that overall voltage gain in dB of the three-stage amplifier is given as Ag= Aus, + Aa, + Aus, But, we are given the voltage gains of the individual stages as ratios, so, we should first find the gains of the individual stages in decibels. Thus, Aga, = 20 logy 30 = 29.54 dB Aan, = 20 logio 60 = 35.56 dB Aap, ~ 20 logig 90 = 39.08 dB Ag, = 29.54 + 35.56 + 39.8 = 103.16 dB. Ans. Alternatively, the overall voltage gain is A= A, XAQX AS = 30x 60x90 = 162000 Therefore, the overall voltage gain in dB will be, Agy = 20 logyg 162000 or Agg = 104.19 dB. Ans. Problem 2. An RC-coupled amplifier has a voltage gain af 100 in the frequency range of 40 Hz to 25 kHz. On either side of these frequencies, the gain fall so that it is reduced by 34B at 80 Hz. Calculate gain in dB at cut-off frequencies and also construct a plot of ‘frequency response curve. Sol. The gain in dB is :Multistage Amplifier and Tuned Amplifier 127 25x10" 40x10 Frequency (Hz) —>- Figure N(3.1) Aggy = 20 logig A = 20 logy 100 = 40dB This is midband gain the gain at cut-off frequencies is 3 dB less than the midband gain i.e., (Agg) at cut-off frequencies = 40 ~ 3 = 37 dB The plot of frequency response curve is given in Figure N(3.1) Problem 3. The parameters of the transistor in the circuit shown are : Ng = 50 ; hi, = LIKQ, lige = Ng = 9. Calculate (a) Midband gain ; (b) The value of Cy necessary to give a lower 3 4B frequency of 20 Hz. (c) The value of Cy necessary 10 ensure less than 10% tilt for 1 kHz square wave input signal. 50K 2K Sy ox 2K: t y, ‘50K { 50K L ak T & Figure N(3.2) Sol. (a) Midband gain Ag = lee me + Re OX? 9196 +2 () Low cutoff frequency 1 fi ” Fay (h, +Re)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Multistage Amplifier and Tuned Amplifier 129 _ 0159 “se 0159 (150 x 1075) . (100 x 10" = 1.3 x 10° Hz. = 1.3 MHz, Ans. Problem 6. A parallel resonant circuit consists of a capacitor of 100 pF and an inductor of 100 ui. The inductor has a resistance of 522. Find the value of frequency at which the circuit will resonate and the circuit impedance at resonance. Sol. Given, C = 100 pF = 100x107 F L = 100nH = 100x10°H R=52 We know that the resonant frequency g-—- 0519 ° AnJLC (100 x 10-4) x (100 x 10°") = 1.59 MHz Circuit impedance at resonance ‘We also know that the circuit impedance at resonance, i OO oR _ __100xi0 (100 x 10°?) x5 =2x109 200 kA. Problem 7. 4 tuned circuit has resonant frequency of 1600 kHz and a band width of 10 kHz, What is the value of its Q-factor ? Sol. Given, Jf, = 1600 kHz Let Q, be the quality factor ‘We know that the band width (BW), = ek 19 = 1600 Q130 Analog Electronics Problem 8. A tuned amplifier has its maximum gain at a frequency of 2 MHz and has a band width of 50 kHz. Calculate the Q-factor. Sol. fy = 2MHz = 2x 10° Hz BW = 50 kHz = $0x 10° Hz Let Q, be the quality factor. We know that the band width (BW,) 08 50x 10? = = 241 Q Q = 40. ‘TUTORIAL EXERCISE 1, What do you mean by a multistage amplifier ? Explain it briefly. 2. State the various method of cascading transitor amplifier. 3. With the help of a suitable circuit diagram, explain the working of a RC coupled amplifier. Derive the expression for voltage gain of the amplifier. 4. Draw the circuits diagram of a RC coupled amplifier using PNP transistor. 5. Explain with suitable circuit diagram, the operation of transformer coupled transistorized amplifier, 6. Explain the essential difference between the RC coupled and direct coupled amplifier. 7. Draw the circuit diagram of a darlington emiter follower and derive the expressions for its voltage gain and input resistance. 8. Draw the circuit diagram of a direct coupled amplifier. Explain its working. Discuss its applications ? 9. What is the necessity of impedance matching in amplifier ? 10. Draw a circuit diagram for a transformer coupled amplifier and explain its working. 11. How will you obtain impedance matching with transformer coupling ? 12. Ina multi-stage amplifier, the input impedance of a amplifier stage should be very high and output impedance must be very low. Justify this statement ? 13. Explain why 3-dB frequencies for current gain is not the same as for voltage gain. 14. Define bandwidth, selectivity and quality factor. 15, What are wide band amplifiers ? Why they are preferred over general audio amplifier ? 16, What is a tuned circuit ? What is its function with reference to a tuned amplifier ? 17. What are various tunning circuits ? 18. Explain how a large gain can be achieved by simply increasing the number of transistors in the distributed amplifier. 19. What is the advantage of stagger tunning ? 20. What is a tank circuit ? 21, Differentiate between single tuned and double tuned amplifiers. 22, What are the advantages of double tuned over single tuned amplifiers ?Multistage Amplifier and Tuned Amplifier 131 NUMERICAL PROBLEMS . A transistor multistage amplifier contains two stages. The voltage gain of the first stage is 50- 4B and that of the second stage is 100. Calculate the overall gain of the multistage amplifier in B. [Ans, 90 ¢B] The overall voltage gain of a two stage RC coupled amplifier is 80 dB. If the voltage gain of the second stage is 150, calculate the voltage gain of the first stage in dB. [Ams. 36.47 4B] . The voltage gain of a multistage amplifier is 65-dB. If the input voltage to the first stage is 5 mV. Calculate the output voltage of the multi-stage amplifier. [Ans. 8.89 v} An amplifier has an input signal is 20 V peak to peak and an input impedance of 400 K. It gives an output of 10 V peak to peak across a load resistance of 5 2. Calculate the power gain inaB. [Ans. 43 dB) . The output power of an amplifier is 100 mV. When the signal frequency is 5 kHz. When the frequency is increased to 25 kHz the output falls to 50 mV. Calculate the dB change in power. A single stage CE amplifier is measured to have a voltage gain band width f, of 5 MHz with R. = 500 $2, Assume hye = 100, &q = 100 MA/V, ryy = 100 2, Cc = 1 pF and f; = 40 MHz. (@ Find the value of the source resistance that will give the required bandwidth (®) With the value of Rs found in part (a) find the midband voltage gain. . A parallel Rye circuit is resonant at 2.7 KHz. The circuit has L = 0.15 H, C = parallel resistance of 30.000 ohms. (a) What is the circuit impedance at resonance ? () What is the value of the circuit Q ? (©) What is the bandwidth ? (@) What is the circuit impedance at f;, the upper band limit ? A circuit is resonam at 455 kHz and has a 12 kFiz bandwidth. The inductive reactance is 1255 ‘ohms, What is the parallel impedance of the circuit at resonance ? ). A CE amplifier with g,, = 5000 1 mhos C, = 50 PF is to be shunt compensated. The value of ‘Ay, is to be 18. Find the values of R and L needed to shunt-compensate the circuit to as high a frequency as possible what is that frequency ? .232 WF and aUnit Feedback in Amplifier ‘AL the end of unit we will able to learn about the # Introduction to feedback Basic concept behind feedback ‘Types of feedback Classification of negative feedback Effects of the feedback circuits Analysis of different feedback circuits 4.1 INTRODUCTION The important characteristics of an amplifier are its voltage gain, bandwidth, input and output impedances. The parameters are more or less constant for an amplifier. The value of . these parameters are required to change. The designer's does not control the value of these . parameters. This problem can be solved with number of ways. For example, if the gain could be reduced by voltage divider circuit in the input or in the ouptut circuit of an amplifier, the input impedance of an amplifier could be increased if required by connecting a series resistance in the circuit. But these methods results in the loss of useful signals. A new technique is introduced called as feedback in the amplifiers. ‘The feedback is a process of injecting some energy (i.¢., the form of voltage or current) from the cutput and then return it back to the input when the fraction or a part of output is, feedback to the input, the process is known as Feedback. When amplifier circuit uses the feedback, then it is called feedback amplifier. 4.2__ BASIC CONCEPT OF FEEDBACK ‘As Figure 4.1 (a) shows a block diagram of a basis amplifier. Here, V, is the input signal and V, is the output signal. If A is the voltage gain of the amplifier, the output Vis related to the input V, by,Feedback in Amplifier 133 Aawte vi In this amplifier, the input does not know what is happening at the output. If due to some reason, the output changes the net input remains unaffected. Such a system is called open-loop or non-feedback system. However, Figure 4.1 (b) shows a block diagram of feedback amplifier network. This feedback network is called a B network or a feedback network. A fraction BV, of output voltage is going back to the input. This changes the net input voltage to the amplifier. The input knows at every instant what the output is. Such a system is called a closed-loop or feedback system. 19 < 9+ ‘Amplifier “ ieee {a) Block diagram of basic amplifier. (b) Feedback introduced in the amplifier. Figure 4.1 ‘The voltage gain of the feedback amplifier is then 4.1) The more general structure of the feedback amplifier is given below in Figure 4.1 (0). Here this is a signal flow diagram, and the quantities x represent either voltage or currency signal. % x [>L_» ‘Source zr 2} Load A % — 8 Figure 4.1(¢) General structure of the feedback amplifier. Xo = AX; WD ‘These are general equation of a feedback amplifier 37 = Br 4 = hy %y134 Analog Electronics =22=_A i Ante mC) But from Figure 4.1 (6) (i.e., on applying KVL), we get V,=Vit¥% 4.2) where V, = feedback voltage, The output voltage (V,) and feedback voltage (V/) are related with feedback network (B) as Vy, med 8 v, or V, = BV, --(4.2(@)) For the basic amplifier, the input is V; and the output V,. Hence its voltage gain A (called internal gain) is given as y, Azo wa(4.3) 7 (4.3) We shall now derive the expression of the gain A, in term of A (internal gain) and B (feedback network) Now, ante v. or Ay = a wa(4.4) TO VAY, or Ay = -y—*— (from equations (4.3) and (4.4)) Tea pv, A A, =— (4.5) 1 T+AR a) Thus, it is clear from the equation (4.5) that the gain of amplifier decreases when we apply negative feedback. However, gain of an amplifier when we apply positive feedback is given by the relation. (4.6) ‘Thus, positive feedback increases the gain, Thus, finally A - rs — for Negative feedback and A= ~ for Positive feedbackaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.136 Analog Electronics Example 2. An amplifier with negative feedback has a voltage gain of 1000. It is found that without feedback, an input signal of 50 mV is required 10 produce a given output whereas, with feedback the input signal must be 0.5 V for the same output. Calculate the value of A and B. Sol. Given : Gain without feedback, Gain with feedback, Ay = 1000 V; = 50 mV = 0.05V V, = 0.5 N, =e yey V,= VX Ay = 0.5 V x 1000 = 500 V V, _ 500V Az Xe = OV _ i000 ¥, ~ oosv | A OM. T+AB 1+ 10000xp 10000 1000 = 2 _ 00 1+ 10000 B 1000 + 1076 = 10000 = 10000-1000 _ 9, 10" B = 0.09%, 4.3 TYPES OF FEEDBACK ‘As we have discussed a feedback amplifier is consist of two parts namely amplifier circuits and feedback circuit. Depending upon whether the feedback signal increase or decreases the input signal there are two types of feedback in amplifier. (a) Positive Feedback. If the feedback signal (voltage or current) is applied in such a way that it is in phase with the input signal and thus increases it, Then it is called positive feedback. It is also known as regenerative feedback or direct feedback. Advantages : (i) It increases the gain of the amplifier (ii) If positive feedback is sufficiently large it leads to oscillations. So it used in oscillators.Feedback in Amplifier 137 Disadvantages : Itincreases the distortion and instability. (b) Negative feedback. If the feedback signal (i.e. voltages or current) is applied in such a way that it is out of phase with the input signal and thus decrease it. Then it is called negative feedback. It is also known as degenerative feedback. Advantages : (i) Itstabilize the gain of the amplifier. (ii) It reduces the distortion and noise. (iii) It reduces the output impedance. (iv) Itincrease the input impedance. (¥) It increase the range of uniform amplification or bandwidth. Disadvantages : It reduces the gain of amplifier. But due to the large number of advantages of negative feedback is frequently employed in the amplifiers. So lets discuss the negative feedback in more detail. 4.3.1 Classification of Negative Feedback Negative feedback Negative voltage feedback Negative current feedback Voltage series Voltage shunt Current series Current shunt Figure 4.2 Classification of -ve feedback ‘There are two types of negative feedback circuits i.e., (i) Negative voltage feedback. The voltage is fedback to the input of amplifier is proportional to the output voltage irrespective to the load. It is further classified into two categories i.e., (a) Voltage series feedback (0) Voltage shunt feedback (ii) Negative current feedback. The voltage is fedback to the input of the amplifier is proportional to the output current, irrespective to the load. It is further classified into two catagories : (a) Current-series feedback (6) Current-shunt feedback Let us discuss and analyze the effect of these four types of Negative feedback on the input and output impedance.138 Analog Electronics Figure 4.4 General representation of feedback circuit with resistors. BV,=—Ri—.v, (By applying potential divider rule) R+R, -_®& = §-3e (a) Voltage series feedback : In the voltage series feedback circuit there is amplification of voltage into a voltage (i.e., voltage —2*_» voltage) and a fraction of output voltage is fedback in series with the input voltage through the feedback network. The Basic circuit or a block diagram representation of voltage series feedback is shown in Figure 4.5. Figure4.5. Voltage series feedback circuit. Derivation for input impedance with feedback From the circuit shown input impedance with feedback is given as : V,+V, Zyn ee (= V+ Vpaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.144. Analog Electronics Table 4.2 Type/Parameter [Voltage series | Voltage shunt |Current series |Current shunt Gain without feedback (A) As & A= ke Feedback ratio (B) B= xe i te Gain with feedback (A) yn le. h 4.4 PRINCIPLE OF FEEDBACK IN AMPLIFIERS Before proceeding with the concept of feedback, it is very necessary to study the classifica- tion of amplifiers. Generally amplifiers can be broadly classified in four categories, as given below : () Voltage amplifier (ii) Current amplifier (iii) Transconductance amplifier (iv) Transresistance amplifier This classification is based on the magnitudes of the input and output impedances of an amplifier relative to source and load impedance respectively. (0 Voltage amplifier : The general representation of voltage amplifier is shown in Figure 4.13(q). If the amplifier input resistance R, is large compared with the source resistance R, then V, = V,. If the external load source resistance R, is large compared with the output resistance R,, of the amplifier will provide a output voltage proportional to input voltage and the proportionality factor is independent of the magnitudes of the source and load resistance. Such a circuit is called a voltage amplifier. ck sak Re +a YY ne Ge Re OAV * -L 4 E Figure 4.13(a) Voltage amplifier. Figure 4.13(b) Current amplifier. (i) Current amplifier : The general representation of current amplifier is shown in Figure 4.13(6). If the amplifier R; is small compared with the source resistance R, and output resistance R,, is very large compared with the load resistance then I, = A; I,. LAI.Feedback in Amplifier 145 ‘This amplifier will provide a current proportional to the signal current and the proportional- ity factor is independent of the magnitudes of the source and load resistance, such a circuit is called current amplifier. (iii) Transconductance amplifier : The general representation of transconductance amplifier is shown in Figure 4.14. The ideal transconductance amplifier supplies an output current which is proportional to the signal voltage. independent of the magnitudes of source resistance and load resistance. To achieve this source resistance should be small compared to the input resistance and output resistance of amplifier should be large compared to the load resistance. R>R, RR, 4 Fay, D $RIRZ ORM a Te Figure 4.14 Transconductance amplifier. Figure 4.15 Transresistance amplifier. (iv) Transresistance amplifier : General representation of transresistance amplifier is shown in Figure 4.15. For a practical transresistance amplifier we must have R, > > Ry and R, >> R,; when both input and output resistance of a amplifier are lower as compared to source and load resistance respectively. Since ifR, < < R,.1,=I, and ifR, > > R,. V,=Ry 1,=R,,I,. This type of amplifier is called transresistance amplifier. Now, Table 4.3 shows the ideal requirement of amplifier characteristics like input and output resistance. Table 4.3 ‘Amplifier Type Parameter Voltage | Current | Transconductance | Transresisiance R, my 0 oo 0 0 - « Transfer ve=AV, | Wet | L=Ge¥, characteristics 4.5 SINGLE LOOP FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER (PRINCIPLE) Now for better understanding we will draw a schematic representation of a single loop feedback amplifier. The transfer gain A may be A,, A;, Gq, Ry as the case may be.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.148 Analog Electronics 46 EFFECTS OF FEEDBACK CIRCUITS 46.1 ‘AS we have already seen that feedback circuits effects the many parameters of the amplifier. ‘These effects may be in positive or negative side for various parameters like Bandwidth, gain, stability, distortion, frequency respnose etc Now, we are going to discuss the éffects of negative feedback on these parameters one by one. Effect of Negative Feedback on Stability ‘The gain of an amplifier may change due to change in power supply voltage or change in parameter of active device. This adversely affects the performance of the amplifier. The gain of amplifier with negative feedback is : No AG (From equation 4.5) If we assume that AB > > 1, then the above equation may be written as : All Ae het TAB B ‘Thus, the gain A, of the feedback amplifier is made independent of the internal gain. It depends only on B, which in turn depends upon passive elements such as resistors, inductors or capacitors. ‘Since the values of passive elements remain constant, and hence the gain is stabilized. The only condition for the stabilization is that AB > > 1. However, if this condition is not fully met some improvement occurs in the stability of the gain. Suppose a certain change in the internal gain of the amplifier takes place. We can find the corresponding percentage change in the overall gain of the feedback amplifier. This can be done by differentiating equation (4.5) with respect to A. day _ (1+ AB).1-AxB aA (1+ AB) va aA (1+ AB) aA dA, = ——— 7 +Apy aay dA (1+AB) A, A (1+)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.150 Analog Electronics 4.6.4 achieved with the help of negative voltage series feedback. To derive the input impedance of a negative feedback. consider a voltage series feedback circuit as shown below in Figure 4.21. Let Zis the input impedance of the amplifier circuit after feedback. 4 Y= BV, — Figure 4.21 Block diagram of a negative feedback amplifier. \V, Now, Zy= 2 ow yo or (V,=Ve4Vp or or Nii v, or * 2y= GA +H : ; Vv, oe , +1, 721 = input impedance of the amplifier , or Ly = Z, (1 + AB) Thus, we see that the input impedance is increased by a factor of (1 + AB) Effect of Negative Feedback on Amplifier Output Impedance Just as a high input impedance is advantegeous to an amplifier in the similar fashion a low ‘output impedance is also advantegeous. Because an amplifier having low output impedance is capable of delivering power (voltage or current) to the load without much loss. Such a desirable characteristic is achieved by employing negative voltage series feedback. To derive the expression of output impedance of an amplifier after the feedback, first of all we will draw the block diagram of voltage series amplifier as shown in Figure 4.22.46.5 Feedback in Amplifier 151 Note that the output impedance of any circuit is determined by deactivating all the independent sources i.e., replaced by their internal resistance (i.¢., voltage source as short circuited and current source is open circuited). Since here V, (source voltage) is independent source so replaced by the short circuit, we get Figure 4.22 V, + ABV, =I, Z, V, (1 + AB) =I, Z or ++-(4.8) Z, Zig ee at 14 AB ‘Thus, we see that output impedance is reduced by a factor (1 + AB). Effect of Negative Feedback on Bandwidth and Frequency Response We have seen that the overall gain of an amplifier decreases when a negative feedback is applied, ie., where A is the gain of basic amplifier A AV" TL AB ‘We know that when negative feedback is employed, the lower cut of frequency decreases by this factor (1 + AB) and the upper cut of frequency increases by the same factor (1 + AB). Hence there is improvement in the bandwidth i.e., difference betweemthe upper and lower cut-off frequency increases (BW = F, - F)).Feedback in Amplifier 153 where A, = Voltage gain = “2 fi However, the effect of feedback on impedance in the output side is as shown in Figure 4.24. However, Dual Miller’s theorem is also applicable when there is a current feedback. According to the Dual Miller’s theorem for the circuit as shown in Figure 4.25 and Figure 4.26. The impedance Z, in input side as well as in output side is connected in series given by the relation. ‘) . (: z General circuit with current feedback. (1-3) Z4-a) a 1 2 2 +" Figure 4.25 1—__—_7 Figure 4.26 Isolated circuit i.e., often applying Dual Miller’s theorem.154 Analog Electronics Zy=Z-A) 7 1 m8 Where A, is the current gain (« A -4) j Example of Miller and its dual theorem : To understand the above theorem and its dual more clearly consider the transistor (CE) configuration where there is a voltage feedback. To calculate the parameters like A,, Z,, Z, etc., we should first apply the Miller’s theorem because there is a voltage series feedback. Now we applying the Miller’s theorem the above circuit can be replaced as shown in Figure 4.27. Figure 4.28 Circuit after applying Miller's theorem or the amplifier without feedback.Feedback in Amplifier 155 Now, the circuit shown in Figure 4.29 employs a current feedback. In this circuit we should apply a dual Miller’s theorem. Figure 4.30 Example of dual Miller’s theorem or circuit without feedback. SUMMARY 1. A feedback amplifier may be defined as the amplifier in which a fraction of output energy voltage or current) is feedback to their input. 2. There are two types of feedback namely positive feedback and negative feedback. 3. When a feedback energy is in phase with the input signal and thus aids to it, Positive or regenerative or direct feedback. 4. When a feedback energy is not in phase with the input signal i.¢., the input and output differ by 180° such type of feedback is known as negative, degenerative or reverse feedback. 5. On the basis of energy feedback there are two types of feedback circuit i.e., voltage feedback and current feedback circuit. 6. Gain of amplifier without feedback. is known as156 Analog Electronics 10. i os 18. 16. a 1. a. = % Vin Gain of amplifier with feedback. A Ay = ——— Where f is called feedback ratio or fraction. 1° T+AB : Negative feedback is more advantageous than disadvantage. ‘Negative voltage feedback decreases distortion and increases bandwidth therefore it is used in public address system, transistor radio receivers etc. Negative feedback provides perfect impedance matching therefore generally used at the output stage. Feedback circuits may be classified into four categories namely voltage-series feedback, voltage shunt, current-series, current-shunt feedback. In voltage series feedback input impedance increases while output impedance decreases with feedback. In voltage-shunt feedback both input and output impedances with feedback increases. In current-scries feedback both input and output decreases with feedback. In current-shunt feedback input impedance decreases while output impedance increases with feedback. Miller's and Dual Miller theorem is used to isolate the input and output. Negative feedback is employed to make the amplifier gain less sensitive to components varlations, to control input and output impedances, to extend bandwidth ; to reduce non-linear distortion and to enhance signal to-noise-ratio, ‘The key feedback parameters are the loop gain (AB). Since A and B are in general frequency dependent, the poles of the feedback amplifier are obtained by solving the characteristic equation 1 + A (s) B (s) = 0. For the feedback amplifier to be stable, its poles must all be in the left half of the S-plane. To make a given amplifier stable for a given feedback factor B, the open-loop frequency response is suitably modified by a process known as frequency compensation. SOLVED NUMERICAL PROBLEMS Problem 1. Calculate the gain of a negative-feedback amplifier with an internal gain A = 125 and feedback factor B = + Sol. Given that A = 125 1 Brig We know that gain of negative feedback is given by A Mee +AB _ 125 = 9.259. Ans. 5,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.158 Analog Electronics Therefore, the overall gain of the feedback amplifier will be reduced by 2% Problem 4. An amplifier has gain A = 60 dB and output impedance Z,, = 12.6k2 Itis required to modify its output impedance to 500 (2 by applying negative feedback determine. (i) The value of feedback factor (ii) The percentage change in overall gain for 20% change in the gain of the basic amplifier. Sol. Given gain in dB = 60. We know that gain in dB = 20 logig (2) = 20 logy (A) 1 60 = 20 togio (A) So, A = 10 = 1000 Z, = 12.6 kQ Zo = 500.2 We know that, Day = et . of” T+ AB 500 = —12600_ 1+ 10008 5 + 50008 = 126 121 Bo B = 0.0242 A, Now, dA, __1 dA 1 <1 = SA = ___*____ ~ 0.083%. Ans. A, 1+AB A 1+1000x0.0242 Problem 5. An amplifier without feedback gives a fundamental output of 36 V with 7% second harmonic distortion when the input is 0.028 V. (a) If 1.2% of the output is feedback into the input in a negative voltage series feedback circuit, what is the output voltage ? (b) If the fundamental output is maintained at 36 V but the second-harmonic distortion is reduced to 1 percent, what is the input voltage. Sol. Given that V, = 36 V V, = 0.028 VFeedback in Amplifier 159 (a) Gain with the feedback is given by, Also V, = AyV, = 78.2 x 0.028 = 2.19 V. Ans, (6) Ifthe output is maintained constant at 36 V then the distortion generated by the device is unchanged. The reduction of the total distortion is caused by feedback. Problem 6. An amplifier with open loop voltage gain of 1000 + 10% is available. However we desire to build an amplifier whose gain does not vary by more than 0.1%. Find the required feedback ratio B and the corresponding closed loop voltage gain. Sol. Given, we know that _ 10 OAs 1+ AB = 100 Given, A= 1000 p = 10=! _ g099 1000 So, closed loop gain A= —X~ = 12° 10, Ans.160 Analog Electronics Problem 7. An amplifier has open loop voltage gain of 1000 and delivers 10 watts output with 10% second harmonic distortion when the input is 10 mV. If 40 aB of negative feedback is applied, what will be the distortion ? How much input voltage should be applied to 10 watts output power ? Sol. The term 40 dB of feedback means 20 logy) (1 + AB) = 40 dB. 40 1 1+ AB) = = or lose ( B) = 35 or 1+ AB = (10 or 100 oO Ape A 1 % T+AB 100 = 10{Givea A = 1000,and 1 + AB = 100 from equation (i)} New value of second harmonic distortion D, 10 Dy 25 = = 01K 4" T+AB 100 Now value of input required = 10 mV x 100 = 1 V {-- V, = V, (1 + AB)}. Ans. Problem 8. An amplifier has an input of 10 mV and a gain of 200 without feedback. The distortion produced at the output of the amplifier is 10%. Itis desired to reduce the distonion to 1% by using negative feedback. Calculate the gain, input voltage and output voltage with feedback. Sol. Given : D= 10% =0.1 Dy= 1% = 0.01 A= 200 V, = 10 mV We know that, baa ay 1 0.01 = ———__ 1+ 200.6 B = 0.045 or 4.5% A 200 a = 4. =" ___ = 20 Gain with feedback, N> Taap 7 Teopss Ka Now output voltage, Vy = Ay V, = 20 10 mV = 0.2V Now input voltage, Vin = 0.01 V + (- 0.045 x 0.2) = 0.001 V. Ans.Feedback in Amplifier 161 Problem 9. An amplifier has an input impedance of 1 k2and output impedance of 10kQ and a voltage of 10,000. If a negative feedback of fi = 0.02 is applied to it, determine the input and output impedance of the amplifier with feedback. Sol. Given A= 10,000 B= 0.02 Z=1kQ Z, = 102 Zyp=? Ly=? Consider a voltage series feedback case in which feedback input impedance increases, while output impedance decreases and given by the relation. Zy = 7; (1 + AB) or Ly 1kQ (1 + 10000 x 0.02) = 1 kQ (201) = 201 kQ. Ans. and age oo T+ AB 10kQ 10 2Zy = —————— _ = =~ = 0.4975 kQ. Ans. = ¢~ (1+10000x0.02) 201 Problem 10. An RC coupled amplifier has a mid-frequency gain of 400 and a frequency response from 200 Hz to 40 kHz. Determine the gain and frequency response when negative Jeedback with feedback ratio of 0.01 is introduced in the amplifier circuit. Sol. Given = A= 400, B = 0.01 We know that gain with feedback, A Ape 7 T4BA = 400 Lower cut-off frequency with feedback fig = A 1+ AB cai AONE eG HY 1 +400x 0.01 ‘Upper cut-off frequency with feedback fy =f (1 + AB) = 40 KHz (1 + 400 x 0.01) = 40x 5 = 200 kHz. Ans.162 Analog Electronics amplifier without feedback is 4000, find : (i) Feedback fraction or feedback ratio. (ii) Overall volage gain with feedback. (iii) Output voltage if input voltage is 2 mV. Vip= 2mV ©) Problem 11. A negative feedback amplifier is shown in Figure N.(4.1) if the gain of the op-amplifier "= 9K es a Sol. Given Figure N (4.1) A = 4000 R, = 1kQ R, = 9kQ (i Feedback fraction, = —B1_— = 1_ = 01, Ans, 1+R, 149 ‘ 5 i __A (i Overalvoluge gain with feedback Ay = = 4000, 4000 1+4000x01 1+ 400 = 9.975. Ans. (ili) We know that, Ay Ye (here V, = 2 mV) v= Ap V, = 9.975 x 2mV = 19.95 mV. Ans. Problem 12. An amplifier has a gain of 54.8 dB without feedback. Find the change in gain ws of the output voltage is feedback at the input. Determine the percentage reduction in harmonic distortion in the output due to feedback. Sol. Given : A in dB = 54.8 We know that gain in dB = 20 logy (A)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.164 Analog Electronics From equations (A) and (B) eliminating current I, 1 (n+2) > : jal R+—|-L — ( aa) 1 jot joc joc G +5) ee joc joc) joc 2+ 2Rj@C + Rj@C - R’u7C? -1 jac or GY =LR) jo@CR * 1+3j@CR - Ror? or 3+- i joCR 1 + 1 3+ j| Rac - = (@ Circuit of phase-shift FET oscillator using the feedback network is shown in Figure N (4.3). +Vpo or Ans, Me Vo Ry Cc oR pat cir Rp R Figure N (4.3) (iii) We know that B= aks the frequency at which 8 is purely real. In other word imaginary part must be zero.Feedback in Amplifier 165 % When in the expression < imaginary part equal to zero, then VE becomes equal 5 = ie, B= A 3 1 Also ABE Problem 14, Determine the stability of an amplifier, given ihe loop gain function. Ty = Am Determine the stability of the amplifier for B = 0.20.and B = 0.02. Sol. The loop gain can be written in terms of its magnitude and phase, as ry = Bom) (6) | The frequency f; at which the phase becomes - 180 degree is ~3 tan! ( 1.73 x 10° Ha The magnitude of the loop gain at this frequency, for B = 0.20, is then = - 180°, we get, 2 [7 (hu)[ = L2G = 2s For B = 0.02, the magnitude is (0.020) (100) [7 izo)| = 22220) ~ 0,25 Note: The loop gain magnitude at the frequency at which the phase is — 180 degree is 2.5 when B = 0.20 and 0.25 when f 0.02. The system is therefore unstable for 8 = 0.20 and stable for 8 = 0.02, since at B = 0.20 gain is 2.5 which is greater than 1. Hence, the system is unstable for B = 0.20. Problem 15. Determine the required feedback transfer function fi which gives a phase margin of 45 degrees.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have 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either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.CU g Deu CuI en ec ene ee UT eae valuable contribution in the field of Analog Electronics which meets the expectations of the faculty and CU Un eeu ean Llp Features of the Book eee cee * _ Syllabusis strictly based on the revised syllabus of University. * Analytical & mathematical approach is provided whenever necessary. eR CUR Rc Mn ea at Cem UCR al Cone Oger ete Tae tec ttn a * More figures forbetter understanding of the concepts. Pee ST RST erate Ea ole E as dae eA eke ue ken een Varley obtained his B.Tech (Electronics and Instrumentation Engg.) from National Institute of Beers Jalandhar and M.Tech (Microelectronics) from University Centre for Inst. & Microelectronics (UCIM), DUA eee Um ea Ree ee accu es eim en tei ree aCe UCR ee an eee sac aoRte ec a sy Fe aie RU eee ee oar ces Ee Me Eero ete cel ford lees Se TUE eRe ietee CMe Mune h melee one ite) Ca tele deed ael eel e Ces Testing. Se cn a aon SM MOM oe RU Us mete eae Ace WAR SA Eel lee eae aaa ome ae Ma sae Ce tan ecole ee cu ee ue ken ieee CM CE acetal oe a RU Ute a ules Una ec eee eT ial 4 De RU OAC Reka Te | tl LAXMI PUBLICATIONS (P) LTD