Annotated Bibliography

Primary Sources
British Empire- 17th Century,
<http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/British_Empire_1897.jpg>
This is a secondary source that displays the extent of the British Empire during the 17th
century, mostly under Queen Elizabeth the 1st. Serving as a point of comparison to Wus
own expansive empire, this map demonstrates Elizabeths military skill alongside the
Chinese Empresss. This source helped show me how many female rulers were successful
in organizing military structures in the pre-modern ages and the overall skills of these
women despite the stereotypes against their genders and criticisms of their finesse as rulers.
"Ci Lyrics." SilkQin. Silk Qin. Web. 8 Mar. 2015. <http://www.silkqin.com/05poet/qinci.htm>.
This is a primary source, being a Ci poem taken from the Song Dynasty. It mainly
highlights the Songs usage of jintishi poetry (a poetic device created under Wus reign), as
well as the changes made to it. Ci poetry is a kind of sing-song structure, and was usually
used for musical pieces. This source helped show me the significance of Wus poetic
contributions and how they were still used despite her demonization as a female leader.
Grand Vairocana Buddha. Luoyang.
This is a primary source because it was created during the time when Empress Wu was still
alive. It is an artistic sculpture created near the time of Empress Wu's death in the Henan
Province in China. I found information about her lasting impression on Buddhism, as is
seen with the resemblance of her features in the statue. I also learned that its very unique in
that it is the only statue in all of China with even a semblance to Wu. This source helped me

by further demonstrating Wu's legacy in China, especially in regards to Buddhism and how
she strengthened its influence.
Ning, Wang. "Gold Slip of Wu Zetian." English.chnmus.net. Henan Museum. Web. 4 Nov. 2014.
<http://english.chnmus.net/fortnightselection/node_16153.htm>.

This is a primary source because the slip was written by Empress Wu herself, towards the
end of her reign. It is a slip of paper containing 96% gold. It was found at the Junji Peak of
Mount Songshan and is now an artifact in the Henan Museum. The information I found
provided me with knowledge of Wu's beliefs and her profound effect on Chinese literature
and the language, as seen by the new characters she created. This helped me by giving a
deeper insight as to how Wu influenced Chinese writing. I was also rewarded with more
information on her religious beliefs towards the end of her reign, showing that despite her
stock in Buddhism, she still held to traditional Daoist beliefs in her old age.

Guang, Sima. Zizhi Tongjian. Emperor Shenzong of Song, 1084. Print.

This source is primary, being a historical register/chronicle of the Tang Dynasty and its
rulers. It was written by the scholar Sima Guang and explains his opinions on Empress
Wu, which were quite harsh, since he was a Confucian scholar (and she was a woman).
I also learned how the positive effects of her leadership were largely ignored or omitted
because of her gender. It helped during my research because it helped present
dichotomies in what people thought of the Empress, as well as common Confucian
opinions of Wu's leadership and how she was seen after her death.

Huangze Temple. Sichuan Province. <http://www.theworldofchinese.com/2013/12/chinas-empressruthless-leader-or-benevolent-buddhist/ >

This resource is primary because it serves as a landmark to some of Wus greatest cultural
achievements. It is a photo of Huangze Temple in the Sichuan Province of China, and the
location of the Grand Vairocana Buddha statue. I found information about when the temple
was created and what purpose it served in the Buddhist religion. This helped me during my
research because it further demonstrates how Buddhists supported Wu, as this is the only
temple in all of China dedicated to her specifically, built as a way of praising her for her
contributions to the religion. I was also able to learn about its current cultural importance
as a center for Buddhist artwork and sculptures.
"Kaiyuan Temple, Quanzhou." Westchinatours.com. West China Tours. Web. 13 Nov. 2014.
<http://www.chinaculture.org/gb/en_aboutchina/2003-09/24/content_25364.htm>.
This is a primary resource, being taken in China of a temple built under Wus sponsorship.
The physical photograph came from China Culture. I found information about the
importance of the construction of the temple, as it was overseen by Wu and significantly
impacted China as a center for Buddhist learning. Even today, it serves as one of the largest
tourist destinations in regards to Buddhism. This source helped me by showing the lasting
impression Wu left on Buddhism with her support of it during her reign. It also helped me
better understand the lasting impressions her promotion of Buddhism left in China.
"Qianling Mausoleum of the Tang Dynasty." China.org.cn. China Internet Information Center. Web.
27 Oct. 2014. <http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/atam/115372.htm#>.
This is a primary source because this is the location of Wus tomb, a site that acts as a

marker to her own life. Though the picture itself is online, the tomb and information
associated with it are from China. I found information about Wu's power and her impact
on China's people. This information helped especially in regards to her legacy, as seen by
the blank epitaph on her tombstone. This source helped me by showing how much
Empress Wu meant to the Chinese people, and how her name survived despite the efforts
of neo-Confucian scholars to erase her from history, and her own self-assurance and
ambition even in death.
Que Towers. 2014. Chang'an
Unknown Tang-era tomb artist - Paludan, Ann. (1998). Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors: the
Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial China. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. ISBN
0500050902. Page 106.
<http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Prince_Yide's_tomb,_towers.jpg>
This a primary source because it is a mural painted for the Empress specifically, in her
mausoleum. The physical mural is taken from Qianling Mausoleum in the city of Changan.
I found information about the ancient Qianling Mausoleum as well as Changan. This
source allowed me to see the changes that occurred in the city under the rule of Empress
Wu Zetian.
Tang Dynasty Borders by Ruler. Web. China. <http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%94%90%E6%9C
%9D>
This is a primary source from an online Chinese archive of Tang maps. This is considered a
primary source because the map is from Wus reign as Empress. I found information about
the extent of the Tang empire under Wu's rule, and also found the movement of the Chinese
capital during her rule. This helped me during my research by showing Wu's success in

conquest, and her political ingenuity in reducing shipping costs by changing capitals.
Additionally, it showed her power and influence in her ability to move the capital not once,
but twice.
The Expansion of Russia, 1500-1800. Beck, Roger B. "The Expansion of Russia." Modern World
History: Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell, 2005. 176.
Print.
This is a primary source that highlights that landmass of Russia throughout a chunk of its
history. It helped serve as a comparison to the size of Wu Zetians territory during her reign
with Catherine the Greats territorial accomplishments. This source helped show me how
Wu held some definite similarities to other great female rulers in history and how they all
were considerably skilled in expansion of their countries.

Unknown. . Shanghai.
This is a primary source because it is a painting that was created during the time Wu was
alive. It was an artistic rendering of Empress Wu created by a painter who was against her
rule. From this source, I was able to further see the extent of Wu's influence and other
people's opinions of her, especially those in regards to her enemies. This helped me during
my research because it showed a portrayal of Wu by someone who was against her in the
form of artwork, since most artistic representations (usually Buddhist) of her are positive. It
also bettered my understanding of what Wu really looked like, especially in her later years
when her mental health began to fail her.
Wu Zetian. Luoyang.
This is a primary resource, being a portrait of Wu Zetian in the later years of her reign,
although the artist and exact date of the oil painting is unknown. I found information in the

portrait that further defined Wus position of nobility and the artists positive opinion of her,
shown through her features (pale skin and full face), which were considered very beautiful
in China, as well as the bright colors she was painted in. I also found it was a picture
painted in her later years because of the robes she was wearing- a large demon/god-like
figure was present, most likely a reference to her late conversion to Daosim before she
passed. This source helped me better visualize why Wu was considered so beautiful for her
time and a representation of her changing religious beliefs.
Zetian, Wu. Quan Tang Shi. Wu Zetian. Print.

This source is primary, created by Empress Wu herself. It is a collection of 46 of her

original poems published into one collection. I found information pertaining to how Wu
influenced creativity and expression in Chinese literature and how she helped women play a
larger role in the creation of such works. This helped me see the impact of Wu's leadership
on the arts and how many of the styles she created during her reign are still part of modern
Chinese literary works.
"Zhang Xuan." Britannica.com. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 27 Oct. 2014.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/105573/Zhang-Xuan>.
. By Zhang Xuan. Shanghai.
This is a primary source, and although I found information about the painter online, the
actual painting of Empress Wu is one of the most famous in history. I found information
about Wu's stature and power in society and the public's general opinion about her at the
time as well. This source helped me better understand how Confucian scholars tried to wipe

Wu from memory after her death. It also allowed me to see why she was so respected and
revered, shown by the manner in which she was painted.
Secondary Sources
" Meanings in English." Easivo. Easivo. Web. 8 Mar. 2015.
<http://www.easivo.com/chinese/character/>.
This is a secondary source from Easivo, and it describes the Chinese character chen,
meaning statesmen. The political implications of this character is important, once again
displaying Wus considerations for politics. This source helped me by showing Wus ideas
on the Chinese administration and its meaning to her.
"Chinese Words with Pinyin 'yu'" Easivo. Easivo. Web. 8 Mar. 2015.
<http://www.easivo.com/chinese/pinyin/yu>.
This is a secondary source describing the definition and physical appearance of the Chinese
character yue. Yue means moon in Chinese, and considering the importance of the
moon in famous Chinese poems as a symbol, as well as the Moon Festival, or Mid-Autumn
Festival, its creation is essential to imagery in Mandarin. This source helped elucidate to me
the massive role of this particular character in the Chinese language and how it has
remained culturally important up to the modern age.
Dash, Mike. "The Demonization of Empress Wu." Smithsonian.com. Smithsonian, 10 Aug. 2012.
Web. 26 Oct. 2014. <http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-demonization-of-empress-wu20743091/?no-ist>.
This is an online secondary source, being an article published by the Smithsonian under
Smithsonian.com. In this source, I found a lot of information pertaining to Wus rise to

power. I also found some additional information about her early life, though not in as great
detail as New World Encyclopedia. This source helped me during my research by helping
me understand how Wus actions affected her rise to power, and the court intrigue that often
ensued. Additionally, this source showed me how Empress Wus ambition helped her
achieve her position, however ruthless in her methods.
"Empress Wu." Biography in Context. Gale, 2002. Web. 13 Nov. 2014.
<http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/bic1/ReferenceDetailsPage/ReferenceDetailsWindow?
failOverType=&query=&prodId=BIC1&windowstate=normal&contentModules=&displayquery=&mode=view&displayGroupName=Reference&limiter=&u=las89135&currPage=&disable
Highlighting=false&displayGroups=&sortBy=&source=&search_within_results=&p=BIC1&actio
n=e&catId=&activityType=&scanId=&documentId=GALE|K1646700005>.
This is a secondary article about Wu Zetian from Gale publishers. I found information
about what Wu did for the arts (mostly literature) in China, and I also learned about how
heavily she promoted Buddhism during her reign. This helped me by bettering my
understanding of how largely Buddhism helped Wu gain her position and what she did in
turn for the religion.
"Empress Wu Zetian." Ancient Worlds. Ancient Worlds LLC, 2 Oct. 2004. Web. 8 Mar. 2015.
<http://www.ancientworlds.net/aw/Article/418928>.
This is a secondary source that focuses on highlighting how Wu adopted many of her
policies from Taizong. Prior to finding this website, I was unaware as to just how much
Taizong helped shape Wus political views, as well as the role he played in ushering in the
golden age of China. This source helped me by furthering my understanding of who
influenced Wu before she came into power and what she accomplished with the help of her

supporters in the court.

Empress Wu Zetian. Digital image. SINA English. 2 Oct. 2014. Web.
This is a secondary source, taken from the movie set of one of the numerous cinematic
features about Wu Zetians life. Not only does it demonstrate what the modern perception
of Wus beauty is and how it has changed significantly from the ancient age, but also her
lasting cultural legacy in China. By showing how many modern artistic representations of
Wu have been created since her death, this source helped demonstrate the importance she
still carries today.
"Empress Wu Zetian." Newworldencylopedia.org. New World Encyclopedia, 16 Dec. 2008. Web.
26 Oct. 2014. <http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Empress_Wu_Zetian>.
This is an online secondary source, coming from the New World Encyclopedia publishers. I
mostly found information in regards to Wus early life. I also found information about her
rise to power and what she did to Gaozongs concubines that were higher ranked than her.
This article gave me quite a bit of information in regards to Wus early life, which assisted
me a lot because its a vague topic in the coverage of her history. It also showed me her
political ambitions in detail, which some other sources I looked at were lacking in.
"Empress Wu Zetian (Wu Zhao)." Learn360.com. Facts on File. Web. 13 Nov. 2014.
<http://www.learn360.com/ShowPdf.aspx?pt=1&ID=966466>.
This source is a secondary writing from Facts on File on Wu Zetian. I found information
about a timeline of important events in Wus life, especially what she did for peasants in
China. This source helped me by giving me a clearer understanding of what actions
triggered her being able to usurp power to the throne. I was also better able to see the

results of her methods in achieving the throne and how it effected the court.
"Encyclopedia of World History." Ebooks.infobaselearning.com. Infobase EBooks. Web. 12 Nov.
2014. <http://ebooks.infobaselearning.com/View.aspx?
ISBN=9781438127187&PGSelectedAbsolute=1077&WithAllWord=Wu Zetian
Tang&SearchType=All>.
This is an online secondary source from Infobase eBooks. I found more information on
Wus personal life and her ascent to the throne. I also learned about the numerous titles she
held before becoming empress, many of which were hard to achieve in themselves. This
helped me during my research by giving me a more detailed analysis of her life in the court.
It also helped me better understand the complexity of her arrangements in becoming
empress.
" Meanings in English." Easivo. Easivo. Web. 8 Mar. 2015.
<http://www.easivo.com/chinese/character/>.
This is a secondary source, and it means country in English. The creation of this character
by Wu is important because it demonstrates her concern for China and perhaps a subtle
sense of nationalism. If anything, the revamp of this character by Wu shows how she
wanted to demonstrate her political intentions and what China meant to her. This source
helped me by providing our research with the definition and appearance of the character
guo.
Jiang, Yinying. "Leadership and Legacy of Wu Zetian." E-mail interview. 17 Nov. 2014.
This is a secondary source. I conducted an email interview with Yinying, a Chinese
associate of my fathers who lived in China for a number of years and saw firsthand much

of the legacy left behind by Wu Zetian. I found information about just how much Empress
Wus contributions to the arts during her reign had a lasting effect on modern Chinese
culture. I also learned about how her actions in leadership inspired feminism all over the
world. This interview helped me by providing a modern perspective of the effects of Wus
rule in China, and how her actions affected more than just native Chinese people.
" Meanings in English." Easivo. Easivo. Web. 8 Mar. 2015.
<http://www.easivo.com/chinese/character/>.
This is a secondary source from Easivo, which is an online Chinese dictionary. It provided
numerous definitions on the meaning of the character ri and a basic representation of
what it looks like. I also learned that ri means sun in Chinese, meaning it has played a
significant role in Chinese poetry over time. I was helped by this source by its slew of
information on one simple Chinese character.
Song, Xianlin. "Re-gendering Chinese History: Zhao Mei's Emperor Wu Zetian." Ebscohost.com.
Springer Science Business Media, 19 Sept. 2010. Web. 14 Nov. 2014.
<http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=f9e1501d-13a5-47be-b79a1d0beed9137e@sessionmgr4001&vid=1&hid=4214>.
This is an online secondary source. It is an essay about Wu Zetian published under Springer
Science and Business Media. I found extensive information about how Wus rule in history
affected later feminist movements and how historians view her. I also learned how her
actions as a female ruler place her in a class all her own, rather than being grouped with
other accomplished females. This source helped me by providing in-depth information on
how Wus gender still affects how shes viewed by historians. It also helped me by showing
just how great Wus influence on later generations, even non-Chinese ones, were.

"The Chinese Word Zhao - - Zho(to Shine on in Chinese)." Han Trainer Pro. Han
Trainer Dictionary. Web. 8 Mar. 2015. <http://dictionary.hantrainerpro.com/chineseenglish/translation-zhao_shine.htm>.
This is a secondary source which describes the Mandarin character zhao. In addition to
the definition, it also provided the physical appearance of the character. This source also
helped show me the variety of characters that Wu created and how they are still used in
modern Chinese culture.
Tomb of China's Woman Prime Minister. People's Republic of China, 2013. Film.
This source is a secondary account, being a short documentary of the discovery a tomb. I
found information about the effect of Wus leadership on her allies and what happened to
them after her death. I learned that many of them saw the same kind of tarnish her name
received if they worked directly under her and supported her. This source helped me better
understand court life during her reign. It also helped me see how strongly opposed some
officials were to Wu, with so much dislike they would go as far as to try and erase the
people who helped her in history too.
"Wu Chao." Biography in Context. Gale, 8 Aug. 2000. Web. 13 Nov. 2014.
<http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/bic1/ReferenceDetailsPage/ReferenceDetailsWindow?
failOverType=&query=&prodId=BIC1&windowstate=normal&contentModules=&displayquery=&mode=view&displayGroupName=Reference&limiter=&u=las89135&currPage=&disable
Highlighting=false&displayGroups=&sortBy=&source=&search_within_results=&p=BIC1&actio
n=e&catId=&activityType=&scanId=&documentId=GALE|K1631007627>.
This source is an online secondary source from Gale publishers. I found information about

Wus politics, such as how she modified the civil service system during her rule. I also
found information about the later years of her reign, and when she began going senile. This
helped me by elucidating the profound changes Wu made with her decisions and also her
wisdom in ruling.
FitzGerald, Charles. "Wuhou (empress of Tang Dynasty)." Britannica.com. Encyclopedia
Britannica, 19 Aug. 2014. Web. 27 Oct. 2014.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/649822/Wuhou>.
This is an online secondary source. It is an article published by Encyclopedia Britannica. I found
information about Wus reign and how she ruled. I also found some information directly dealing
with her conquest of Korea, as well as her military expertise. This source helped me by giving me
insight into how Wu treated her court versus the actual Chinese people. It also showed me the
positive effects of her policies in China, helping to stabilize it during a time when the future of the
dynasty was uncertain.
"Wu Zetian." Biography in Context. Gale. Web. 27 Oct. 2014.
<http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/bic1/ReferenceDetailsPage/ReferenceDetailsWindow?
failOverType=&query=&prodId=BIC1&windowstate=normal&contentModules=&displayquery=&mode=view&displayGroupName=Reference&limiter=&u=las89135&currPage=&disable
Highlighting=false&displayGroups=&sortBy=&source=&search_within_results=&p=BIC1&actio
n=e&catId=&activityType=&scanId=&documentId=GALE|K1650004447>.
This is a secondary source. It is an online article published by Gale. This source provided
me with information about Wus reign and what she did over the course of her rule. I also
found more information about her political philosophies. This source helped me by showing
the effective changes Wu made to China during her reign. It also helped reveal the amount

of power she wielded in her time as empress.

"Wu Zetian." China Daily, 2003. Web. 04 Mar. 2015.
<http://www1.chinaculture.org/gb/en_aboutchina/2003-09/24/content_22879.htm>.
This is a secondary source, coming from China Daily. It gives a detailed timeline of Wu
Zetians time in court, and describes her political policies in-depth. Her life previous to
coming to the royal palace are mentioned, and the character of her husband, Gaozong, is
also discussed. The majority of the information focuses on her military exploits as well as
the steps she took to improve agricultural productivity in China. This source helped me by
showing what Wus greatest achievements were as a leader and why she was so respected
by the peasantry.
Wu Zetian. <http://www.dotting.me/en/images/photos/215/p1duo6e6.jpg>
This is a secondary source, being an artists interpretation of Wu from the modern age. This
picture demonstrates how Wus image has changed considerably from being stigmatised to
being respected. The bright colors signify positivity, and the position of the Empresss arms
are outstretched in glory, symbolizing her power. This source helped me during research
and the building of our physical exhibit board because it provided the perfect centerpiece to
help argue Wus great accomplishments during her lifetime.